Mycology is the study of fungi.

Fungi are eukaryotic achlorophyllous, unicellular or multicellular organisms which reproduce

sexually and asexually.

Characteristics

- They are eukaryotic, they possess membrane bound nuclei

- Most of them are filamentous ie they are composed of microscopic filaments called
hyphae and which form a network called mycelia.
- Some are unicellular eg yeast.
- The protoplasm is surrounded by a rigid wall composed primarily of chitin and glucan.
some species have walls made of cellulose
- They reproduce sexually and asexually.
- All fungi are achlorophyllous ie lacking chlorophyll and are incapable of
photosynthesis.
- They possess a characteristic range of storage compounds eg trehaloses, glucose,
sugar, alcohol and lipids.
- Some fungi are free-living while other are parasitic or mutualistic.
- All fungi are chemoheterotrophic, they utilize pre-existing food sources or carbon in
their environment or energy from chemical reactions to synthesize organic
compounds necessary for their growth.
- They have diploid nuclei
- Their hyphal compartment are often multinucleate.

MYCOLOGICAL TERMS

A. Thallus: The body of the fungus is called a thallus (undifferentiated types of thalli)
i. Eukaryotic thallus: it is differentiated into the vegetative part which absorbs nutrients
and a reproductive part which forms the reproductive structure eg Pythium
aphanidermatum
ii. Holocarpic thallus: it does not show any differentiation into vegetative and
reproductive form.
After a phase of vegetative growth it gets converted into one or more vegetative
structure eg yeast
B. Hyphae: it is a tubular transparent structure, usually branched filament composed of an outer
cell wall and a cavity called lumen
Which is lined or filled with protoplasm including cytoplasm.
They are divided into cells or compartments by cross-walls called septa. Therefore hyphae
with cross-walls are called septate hyphae those without are aseptate
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C. Mycellium (Mycelia): A hyphal mass or network of hyphae constituting the body of the
fungus. The mycelium of the parasitic fungus grows on the surface of the host and spread in-
between the cells, this type of mycelium is called intercellular mycelium.
The mycelium of the parasitic fungus which grows on the surface of the host and penetrates into
the tissue of the host is called intra-cellular mycelium.
If the mycelium is intercellular, food is absorbed through the host cell-wall or cell membrane.
If the mycelium penetrates into the cells, the hyphal walls come into direct contact with the host
protoplasm.

Types of Mycelium

i. Monokaryotic mycelium: A mycelium that contains a single nucleus, that usually forms
part of the halophase in the lifecycle of the fungi
ii. Dikaryotic Mycelium: This kind contains a pair of nuclei which denotes a diplophase in
the lifecycle of a fungi.
iii. Homokaryotic mycelium: It contains genetically identical nuclei
iv. Heterokaryotic mycelium: It contains nuclei of different genetic constituents
v. Multinucleate mycelium: morethan two nuclei

NB:

Fungal cells are typically eukaryotic and have distinguishing characteristics than that of bacteria and
algae, the chief component of the cell wall appears to be various forms of carbohydrates or their
mixtures upto 80 – 90% such as cellulose, pectose, callose

Cellulose is the main component of the cell wall of lower fungi. While in the higher fungi
chitin dominates.

The chief storage organs/products are glycogen and lipid.

The living protoplast of fungal cell is enclosed in the cell membrane called the plasma
membrane or plasmalemma.

The cytoplasm contains organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi body/ apparatus, ribosome,
vacuoles, microtubules

Fungi Speciallized Structures.

1. Rhizoid: the word rhizoid comes from a greek word called ‘rhiza’ meaning root and ‘oieldes’
meaning like.
thus it is a short root-like filamentous outgrowth of the thallus.
Generally formed at the base of small unicellular thalli. They serve as anchoring or
attachment structures, they anchor the thallus to the substratum.
They are common in lower fungi like chytridiomycetes, oomycetes and zygomycetes.
Some species of fungi produce rhizomycelium this is an extensive rhizoidal (missing content)
that usually do not contain nuclei but through which a nuclei can migrate
2. Appressorium: it comes from a greek word ‘apprimere’ meaning to press against, therefore it
is a simple or lobed structure of a hyphae or gem tube.
and a pressing organ from which a minute infection pair usually grow and enters into the
epidermal cell of the host.
It help the germ tube or hyphae to attach to the surface of the host or substrate.
These appressoria are formed from the germ tube of the following fungi
- powdery mildew
- Rust fungi
and other saprophytic and parasitic fungi.

In addition to anchorage, the appresorium helps the penetrating hyphae or hyphal

branches to pierce the host cuticle.
These are some of the mechanism for causing disease.
The appressoria can also function as resting structures and the resting structures of a fungi are
called chlamydospores

3. Haustoria: from greek word ‘haustora’ meaning linker. They are special hyphal structures or
outgrowth of a somatic hyphae sent into the cell to absorb nutrient.
The haustoria may be knot-like or balloon-like in shape, elongated or branched like a miniature
root system.
The hyphae of downey mildew
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4. Hyphopodia: can be defined as a small appendage of one or two cell in length on an external
hypha which function as absorbing structure.
Sometimes it produces the haustorium

Fungal Tissues
During certain stages of the lifecycle of most fungi the mycelium becomes organized into loose or
compactly woven tissues.
This organized fungal tissues are called plecten chyma
The word comes from the greek words Plekein – to weave and enchyma – infusion

These are the two types

i. Prosenchyma
ii. Pseudoparenchyma

When the tissue is loosely woven and the hyphae lie parallel to each other it is called
prosenchyma.

The pseudoparenchyma consist of closely packed more or less isodiametric or oval cells
resembling the parenchyma cells of fibrous plants.

Examples of fungal tissues include

i. Sclerotium (Sclerotia): it is a resting body formed by aggregation of somatic hyphae

into dense, rounded, flattened, elongated or horn-shaped dark masses.
They are dip walled resting structures which contain food reserve. Sclerotia are hard
structures resistant to unfavourable physical and chemical conditions.
They may remain dormant for long period of time eg Sclerotium rofsii, Rhizoctonia
sudanii
ii. Stroma (Stromata): it is a compact somatic structure or hyphal aggregation similar to a
mattress or a cushion on which fructifications are formed.
They may be of various shapes and sizes eg acerulli, Sporodochia.

A symbiotic relationship usually exists between higher plant root and fungal mycelia such a relationship
is called mychorriza, many plants in nature have mychorrizal associations.

Mychorriza (Content Missing Insert)

increase the surface area of root system for better absorption of nutrients from soil especially
when the soil is deficient in phosphorous.
The nature of association between higher plant root and fungal mycelia is believed to be symbiotic
(mutualistic)
The association is either parasitic, weakly parasitic (missing content)

There are 3 types of mychorriza fungi association in plant root.

- The ectomychorriza also known as the ectotrophic or sheathing

- Endomychorriza or endotrophic
- The ectendotrophic mychorriza

Fungi reproduction

Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually , Each of these phases result in the formation of
spores
some spores can be carried by air over long distances because they are dry and very small this
gives the fungi a wide distribution and making them quite ubiquitous.
Fungi spores are slimy and stick to the body of arthropods and other animal. Other fungi
disperse their spores into air.

Asexual Reproduction
 The most common form of reproduction in a fungi is through asexual reproduction
which result in the production of spores, which are produced in sporangia or hyphae
cells (conidiogenous cells).
 Conidia is a non-motile asexual spore of a fungi. Very present in the class
deuteromycota(fungi imperfecti). The sexual phase of this fungi has not yet been
discovered
 The spores produced by conidiogenous cells occur singly or in chains and are called
conidia (singular conidium)
 The sporangium is a sac-like structure whose contents are converted into one or many
or more spores.
Some fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation method.

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction has 3 distinct phases

- Plasmogamy
- Karyogamy
- Meiosis

Plasmogamy and karyogamy are termed fertilization. Plasmogamy is the fusion of protoplast
while karyogamy is the fusion of nuclei. In some taxa, karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy
this leads to a situation where 2 nuclei each from different hyphae or mating strains, coexist in
the same hyphae forming a dikaryon.

A dikaryon is formed when karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy.

Karyogamy may be delayed for several months or years. Eventually karyogamy occurs forming a
diploid nucleus which undergoes meiosis, reestablishing the normal haploid condition in the
fungi population.

Sexual reproduction in the fungi, results in the formation of specialized spores such as; the
ascospores, zygospores and the basidiospores.
The zygote is the only diploid stage in the lifecycle of the fungi.
Meiosis follows the formation of a zygote, the gametes are isogamous.

The gamete producing structures is the gamentangium (gamentangia plural) which may be
positive or negative to indicate the different mating strains

Classification of fungi
True fungi are classified into 4 major groups

- The zygomycota (zygospores)

- The ascomycota (Ascospores)
- The basidiomycota (basidiospores)
- The deuteromycota (fungi imperfecti)

ZYGOMYCOTA

The zygomycota belong to the group of fungi collectively known as the aflagellatae (fungi that
do not bear flagella)

Major characteristics zygomycota

- They are moulds found on sugary substrate or media which are rich in sugary substance
both on the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
- The outstanding characteristic that sets zygomycota from other fungi is the single
sexually reproduced spore called the zygospore, which is formed following the fusion of
gametangia
- Another distinguishing feature is the production of non motile spores which may be
produced by single or multiple spored sporangia.
- A good number of zygomycota are fungi and animal pathogen a good number of them
are associated with spoilage of food in storage eg Rhizopus stolonifer
- Some species are life threatening, they cause opportunistic infections
- Some cause infection in domesticated animals, the zygomycetes live on decaying
plant and animal matter in the soil.
- Some are parasites of plant, insect and small soil animals, Some form symbiotic
associations with plants .
- Some cause severe infection in humans.
- The zygomycota hyphae are microscopic with rigid cell wall and grow within the
substrate, for which reason they are commonly unnoticed. Because they are rigid, they
cannot engulf solid food particles like the protozoa. Rather they excrete extracellular
enzyme into the substrate for extracellular digestion and ingest the liquid form.
Therefore they are called saprophytes.
- As saprophytes they help breakdown dead organic matter, thus sanitizing the
environment.
- Some species are used in the fermentation and production of human staple foods.
- They are mostly filamentous
- However some are unicellular, their hyphae do not produce septa therefore are called
coenocytic. The zygomycetes are mostly coenocytic hyphae

The principal orders of the zygomycetes are:

i. Mucorales
ii. Zoopagales
iii. Enthomorphthorales

mucorales
for the most part are saprophytic organisms. Their spores are readily available in the air and therefore
contaminate open or exposed surfaces. The spores may germinate and give rise to mycelia on suitable
substrate.
The mucorales play a significant role in the decomposition of organic waste.
However they cause extensive damage through spoilage of food. Some species may cause destructive
rots or living plant structures.
Rhizopus cause soft rot of vegetables and fruits after harvest especially, yam sweet potatoes etc

they can also cause lung and ear infections uncommonly in humans.
Many species of the mucorales form a cottony mycelium which is coenocytic when young but as they
age they develop cross-walls.

The genus Rhizopus which include the bread mould serves as a typical example of this order.
The mycelium of Rhizopus grows rapidly with a coenocytic, cottony and profusely branched.

Reproduction

Asexual reproduction
is by means of haploid spores produced in specialized sporangium, borne on hyphae.
The mycelia which is coenocytic grow through the substrate absorbing nutrient. The mycelium is formed
from a collection of hyphae referred to as stolons which form rhizoids whenever their tips come in
contact with the substrate
from each of this point of contact arises an erect branch called the sporangiophore
At the apex of the sporangiophore is produced the sporangium. This sporangium swells with an inflow of
the number of nuclei.
The protoplasm within is cleaved and the cell wall formed around each of the asexually produced nuclei
to form spores.
As the sporangium wall matures it becomes black giving the mould a characteristic dark
The sporangium wall breaks liberating the spores, the spores germinate and give rise to a new individual
thus completing the lifecycle.

Sexual Reproduction

The rhizopius stolonifer sexual reproduction requires the presence of two physiologically
distinct mycelia, designated as + and – strain.
When the two strains are close, they produce gametangia which becomes separated from the rest of the
hyphae by the formaion of septa.
The wall between the two touching gametangia dissolve and the two multi-nuclei protoplast come
together. This is known as plasmogamy

When two strains of hyphae are required for plasmogamy to take place, organisms are said to
be heterothallic.

Whereas self-fertile species are called homothallic, following plasmogamy, the positive and the
negative nuclear pair and a thick walled zygosporangium forms.
Inside the zygosporangium the + and – nuclei fuse to form a diploid nuclei which develop into a single
multi-nucleic zygospore.
At the time of germination the zygosporangium cracks open, and the sporangiosphore emerges from the
zygospore, meiosis occurs at the time of germination so that the spores produced are haploid
within the new sporangium. When these spores germinate, the cycle begins again.

Families of The Mucorales

1. Mucoraceae
- Rhizopus
 Well developed collumella at the apex of the sporangiosphore
 Stolons and rhizoids occur at point where the stolons touches the substrate
 The sprangiosphore arise at the junction with the rhizophore
- Absidia
- Circinella
- Syzygites
- Phycomyces
2. Pilobolaceae
3. Pitocephalodaceae
4. Thaminidaceae
5. Cunninghamellaceae
The mucor is the largest genus in the mucorale and the species, they have rapidly growing mycelium and
all are saprophytes and are very very common in the soil. We have the homo and heterothallic specie.
They have no stolons or rhizoids, the sporangiosphores may arise anywhere and may be branched or
unbranched.
The mucoraceae produce massive spores which turns black on maturation, this gives them
the name black mould

The zoopagales
comprise of the order zygomycota , which are mostly commensal, in the gut of insect,
amphibians and reptiles.
A good number are parasites of aquatic organisms

Enthomophthorales
They are five genera under this order

- Enthomophthora
- Massospora
- Completoria
- Ancylistes
- Conidiobolus
- basidiobolus

Enthomophthora
the species in this genus are parasites of insect and their infections are always fatal, they are
also used in the control of insects during epidemics. This is the most important genus in this order,
because they attack a wide range of insects.
Once infection is accomplished, the insect rarely survives the attack.
The mycelium of enthomopthora develops throughout the insect body, conidiosphores grow out to the
outside of the surface of the insect after death.
The conidium has a small beak that is forcefully discharged.

Basidiobolus
this genus is coprophilus on the dung of amphibians and reptiles, the mycelium is rapid in
development
The mycelium is rapid in development and the aseptate hyphae may form hyphal bodies.
Conidiosphores arise from the cells of the mycelium and there is a forceful discharge of the conidium
upon discharge of conidia, conidia lands on vegetation where they are consumed or ingested by beetles.
Later frogs and snakes consume the beetles.
The conidia gives rise to internally formed spores which functions as sporangia.
The wall of the sporangium breaks down releasing sporangiosphores in the dung. The genus is readily
distinguished by the presence of 2 small projections on the mycelium

ASCOMYCOTA
Ascomycota are known as the sac fungi because they bear sexual spores and these sexual spores are
called ascospores and they are found in sac-like structures called ascus.
Ascus is a Greek word meaning wine skin. Most species of the ascomycota grow as filamentous
microscopic structures called hyphae which interconnect to form the mycelium which when visible to
the naked eye is called mould.
botanically it is called a Thallus. The sexually reproducing spores are called ascospores which are
produced in the ascus.
These are occasionally produced in visible fruiting structures which are called ascocarps

The ascocarps could be cup-shaped, club-shaped potato-like, spongy-like, seed-like. They may
appear solitary or clustered. The non-reproductive or vegetative mycelium of the ascomycota is
inconspicuous because it grows embedded in the substrate, such as soil, inside living host.

Most vegetative hypha cells of the ascomycota are uninucleated but multi-nucleated when actively
grown.

METABOLISM

- The ascomycota are heterotrophic organisms.

- They require organic compounds as energy sources which include dead matter, food stuff, and
as symbionts in or on other living organisms.
- They secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown organic matter into small molecules which
are then taken up into the cell.
- Many species of ascomycota colonize plants or other fungi or mutualistic symbionts and
derive all their metabolic energy inform of nutrients from the tissues of their host
- They can digest almost every organic substance. Eg cellulose or lignin in plants.
Structural proteins of animals, keratin of hair and nails, wall paint and kerosene
- They form symbiotic association with algae.
- They form mychorriza associations with roots of plants
- Some are carnivorous and feed on amoeba, roundworm and other arthropods.

DISTRIBUTION

- The ascomycota are ubiquitous all over the world. Spores and hyphal fragments are dispersed
through the atmospshere.
- Spore fragments are dispersed through the atmosphere, fresh water and aquatic environment
such as oceans, beaches and tidal zones

REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction

 This is the dominant form of reproduction and is responsible for the rapid spread of the
ascomycota.
 It occurs through vegetative production of spores (conidiospores). The conidiospores commonly
contain one nucleus and is responsible and are product of mitotic division and thus are
sometimes called mitospores.

Types of Asexual Spores

Different types of asexual spores can be identified by colour, shape and how they are released as
individual spores

- Single cell Spores: called Amerospores

- A spore divided into two by a septum is called Didymospore
- If the septa are transverse like the rings of a ladder it is called a phragmospore
- If the septa has net-like structure it is called a Dictyospore
- If the spore have hands that radiate from the central body, they are called
Staurospores
- Spores that wind up like a spiral in a spring are called Helicospores
- Very long worm-like spores with a length to diameter ratio of morethan 15 in 1 are
called Scolescospores.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is by the formation of the ascus.

The ascus is the main taxonomic feature in the ascomycota.
This is a tube-like vessel, a meiosporangium which contains sexual spores produced by meiosis
called ascospores.
Most ascomycota are haploid and the diploid phase is short-lived.

Formation of sexual spores

The sexual reproduction starts with the mating of two hyphal structures
There are two types of mating, homothallic and heterothallic
Homothallic mating is between the same fungal clone
Heterothallic mating with two hyphae that must originate from fungal clones that differ
genetically
The gametangia are vegetative cells formed from the hyphae
A trichogyne emerges from one of the gametangium and is called the ascogonium and merges
with another gametangium called the antheridium of the other fungal isomete
The nuclei in the antheridium then migrate into the ascogonium and plasmogamy occurs
The nuclei from the two hyphae form pairs, the pairs divide, fusion of the paired nuclei leads to
mixing of the genetic material.
Recombination followed by meiosis.
(Plasmogamy is the fertilization of the ascogonium and results in the formation of a
dinucleate hyphae which contains two nucleus.)
These hyphae are called ascogenous or fertile hyphae. The two type of hyphae may grow into a
fruiting body called the ascocarp which contains millions of fertile hyphae.
The ascocarp contains a fruiting layer known as the hymenium.
Karyogamy takes place resulting in the formation of a zygote, which grows into the ascus (an
elongated tube- shaped structure).
Meiosis takes place giving rise to 4 haploid nuclei which is followed by mitotic division resulting
in the formation of 8 nuclei in each ascus.
The nuclei along with the cytoplasm become enclosed within membranes and a cellwall giving
rise to ascopores that are aligned inside the ascus like peas. When the ascus ripens the
ascospores are dispersed by wind, some are forcibly ejected and they reach 30cm away from
the parent
The ascospores on reaching a suitable substrate it germinates and the lifecycle continues.

IMPORTANCE OF THE ASCOMYCOTA

i. Source of medically important compounds, principally antibiotics.

ii. They are used in bread making
iii. They are used in brewing
iv. They are plant pathogens
v. They are used in cheese making

ECOLOGY

i. They are important decomposers, they breakdown organic matter of both plant and
animal tissues, in doing so they help detritivores to obtain their nutrients and are
important in nutrient cycles between the biotic and abiotic systems.
ii. Fruiting bodies of ascomycota are used as food for many animals, insects, snails,
mammals
Deuteromycota
They are fungi whose, sexual reproductive features are yet to be discovered and therefore do not form a
basis for their classification. They are known to reproduce asexually, they are called fungi imperfecti
because they are thought of as being second class or imperfect members among sexually reproducing
members,

The deuteromycota are classified based on their asexual spores,

Economic importance

- Many of them cause disease in plants eg anthracnose disease caused by the fungi
conidiogenium gleosporoides
- Food production Some species of aspergillus are used in the fermentation of soyamilk
- Some are used in the production of alcoholic beverages.
- In cloth manufacturing, cellulose producing enzymes are used by plant manufacturers (fungi
Trichoderma ) also used by farmers for bio control of other fungus
- Penicillium produces penicillin effective in combating of bacterial infections
- (“Content Consider Revising”) Aflatoxins produced by certain strains of aspergillus are potent
organic agents of liver cancer. This fungi grows in store food