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Fungi

T
he word “Fungi” (singular Fungus) is derived from Latin word FUNGOUR
meaning to flourish, previously used with reference to Mushroom. The fungi are
achlorophyllous and heterotrophic thallophytes. They constitute a large and
diverse group of plant kingdom. Fungi are spore-bearing eukaryotes. Their resemblance
with algae in many respects and therefore, included in the group thallophyta because their
plant body consists of a thallus made up of hyphae which together constitute mycelium.
In usage meaning of the word has been expanded and includes thallus like, no-green
plants such as molds, yeasts and other similar organisms closely related to mushrooms.
Thus, the fungi are a large group of simple thalli like plants, lacking chlorophyll.

At present, about 5100 genera and more than 1,50,000 species of fungi are known, but this
number is constantly increasing because of the new researches throughout the world. The
study of fungi is known as Mycology (mykes = mushroom, logos= study), and the scientist
concerned with fungi is called Mycologist. It deals with the life- histories, their
relationships and evolutionary techniques of fungi along with the studies of their
taxonomy and classification. P. A. Micheli is known as father of mycology whereas E. J.
Butler is referred to as father of Indian mycology.

General characteristics of Fungi

1. Fungi are cosmopolitan in distribution i.e., they can grow in any place where life is
possible.

2. They are heterotrophic in nature due to the absence of chlorophyll. On the basis of their
mode of nutrition, they may be parasite, saprophyte or symbionts.

3. The plant body may be unicellular (Synchytrium, Saccharomyces) or filamentous (Mucor,

Aspergillus). The filament is known as hypha (plural, hyphae) and its entangled mass is
known as mycelium.

4. The hypha may be aseptate i.e., coenocytic (without septa and containing many nuclei)
or septate. The septate mycelium in its cell may contain only one (monokaryotic), two
(dikaryotic) or more nuclei.

5. The septa between the cell may have different types of pores: micropore (Geotrichum),
simple pore (most of the Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes) or dolipore (Basidiomycetes,
except rusts and smuts).

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6. The cells are surrounded by distinct cell wall (except slime molds), composed of fungal
cellulose i.e., chitin; but in some lower fungi (members of Oomycetes), the cell wall is
composed of cellulose or glucan.

7. The cells generally contain colourless proto-plasm due to absence of chlorophyll,

contai-ning nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vesicle,
microbodies, etc.

8. The cells are haploid, dikaryotic or diploid. The diploid phase is ephemeral (short-lived).

9. In lower fungi like Mastigomycetes, the reproductive cells (zoospores and gametes) may
be uni - or biflagellate, having whiplash and/or tinsel type of flagella. But in higher fungi
like Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes, motile cells never
form at any stage.

10. In response to functional need, the fungal mycelia are modified into different types
such as: Plectenchyma, Stroma, Rhizomorph, Sclerotium, Hyphal trap, Appresorium,
Haustorium, etc.

11. The unicellular fungi, where entire plant body becomes converted into reproductive
unit, are known as holocarpic fungi (e.g., Synchytrium). However, in many others, only a
part of the mycelial plant body is con-verted into reproductive unit, thus they are called
eucarpic fungi (e.g., Pythium, Phytophthora).

12. They reproduce by three means: Vegetative, asexual and sexual.

(a) Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation (Mucor, Penicillium, Fusarium),

budding (Saccharomyces, Ustilago) and fission (Saccharomyces).

(b) Asexual reproduction takes place by different types of spores. These are zoospores
(Synchytrium), conidia (Pythium, Aspergillus), oidia (Rhizopus), chlamydospore (Fusarium),
etc. The spores may be unicellular (Aspergillus) or multicellular (Alternaria).

(c) With the Exception of Deuteromycetes, Sexual Reproduction takes Place by the
following Five Processes:

Gametic copulation (Synchytrium), Gametangial contact (Pythium, Phytophthora),

Gametangial copulation (Rhizopus, Mucor), Spermatization (Puccinia, Podospora) and
Somatogamy (Polyporus, Agaricus).

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Habitat of Fungi:

The fungi are most diversified in their habitat. They are found in almost all possible types
of habitats in the earth, where organic material either living or dead is present. Thus, they
are universal or cosmopolitan in distribution. Most of the fungi are terrestrial, occurs in
soil, rich in dead and decaying organic materials. The terrestrial fungi thrive best in humus
soil. Some other species are aquatic found in the water and are called the aquatic fungi.

Most of the Phycomycetes are categorized under aquatic habitats. The aquatic fungi are
considered primitive ones. They live on decaying organic matter and living organisms
found in fresh water and produced motile flagellated reproductive cells. These swims to
new localities. The terrestrial fungi are considered as more advanced than aquatic ones.
They produced non- motile reproductive cells which passively dispersed by wind, water
or by animals etc. However, many fungi grow on foodstuffs such as fruits, vegetables,
jams, pickles, bread etc. Some fungi are found upon algae and other aquatic plants in
epiphytic state. Some fungi are found in drinking water and hence cause many harmful
and severe diseases to human beings. Mostly they prefer to grow in dim and darkness.

Habit Of Fungi (Somatic or Vegetative Phase)

The plant body or vegetative phase of fungi is represented by thallus. It may be unicellular
or multicellular filamentous.

Unicellular Thallus:

In lower fungi especially in unicellular structure more or less spherical in shape. It

performs both the phases of life within a single cell. After maturation or completion of
vegetative phase it performs the sexual phase, such fungi are known as holocarpic fungi,
but both the phases of life cycle do not occur together in same thallus (Synchytrium). In this
case mycelium is completely absent.

Contrary to this, in Plasmodiophora, a naked multinucleate, amoeboid mass of protoplast

represents the vegetative phase and is termed plasmodium. The protoplast of diploid
plasmodium divides to form resting spores, these spores further form vegetative phase.
Similarly, Yeasts also have a unicellular thallus but sometimes cells remain attached in
chains forming a pseudomycelium and thus related to filamentous forms.

Filamentous Thallus:

The plant body of most of the fungi is branched and filamentous hyphae or filamentous
thallus which forms a net like structure known as mycelium except some unicellular fungi.

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The mycelium originates through germination of spores. Germination of spores takes

place after getting suitable substratum where conditions for life are favourable. When the
spore after germination produces only a short, tubular structure of limited growth it forms
to a net like interwoven cottony mass of fine branched filaments. The long, fine structures
or filaments are called as hyphae.

After some time at the stage of maturity, some of these hyphae extend into the air and bear
reproductive bodies while the remaining ones continue the normal growth. Such fungi are
categorized under eucarpic fungi. The hyphae form the vegetative body or thallus of the
fungi known as mycelium or we can say that mycelium is the structural unit of fungi and
the medium upon which the mycelium grows is known as substratum. Mycelium is the
most significant part of fungus it procures food, and act similarly as a plant cell and
perform all the activities of lifecycles i.e., respiration, absorption, digestion, excretion and
growth except photosynthesis (due to lack of chlorophyll). The embedded hyphae are
usually colorless and constituting the mycelium branch and spread it in all possible
directions within and over the substratum and forms a loose and ramify network. While
in some cases the aerial hyphae become colored. Generally, they may be with blue, black,
brown, yellow red- and orange-colored tints. Hyphae grow in length at the tips and termed
as apical hyphae.

Kinds of mycelia:

Aseptate/nonseptate mycelium:

The mycelium in the vegetative phase lacks internal partitions of any kind. Thus,
mycelium contains numerous nuclei, lying in a common mass of cytoplasm, without cross
wall in the hyphae, E.g., Oomycetes and Zygomycetes. Such a condition is known as
coenocytic. However, septa may be laid down at the time of formation of reproductive
organs to delimit them from the rest of the vegetative hyphae, therefore called
Pseudosepta. E.g., Allomyces.

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Septate mycelium:

The mycelium develops internal cross walls called septa which

divide the hyphae into segments. The septa appear at regular
intervals behind the hyphal tip. Hyphal segments may contain one,
two or more nuclei. E.g., Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and
Deuteromycetes. In a septate mycelium the septa between the cells
are transverse. Longitudinal septa are rare. Usually, each septum
bears a pore for the communication of the cytoplasmic organelles
and even the nuclei from one cell to another cell. Thus, it clears that
the septa are not the complete and it is evident that the distinction
between aseptate (coenocytic) and septate hyphae is not so intense
as it was thought before.

There are two types of septa:

Primary septa:

Primary septa are formed in association with mitotic or meiotic nuclear division, and they
separate the daughter nuclei. These types of septa are found in Ascomycetes,
Basidiomycetes and their asexual states.

Adventitious septa:

Adventitious septa are formed in the absence of mitosis or meiosis and occur especially in
association with change in the local concentration of cytoplasm. These are found in lower
groups of fungi as Mastigomycetes and Zygomycetes.

Septal Pore: Usually, each septum bears a small pore in its centre for the protoplasmic
continuity from cell to cell. The septa in the septate fungi are a simple pore in the middle
of the cross wall of mycelium. It occurs in all the septate fungi except, the Basidiomycetes.
In some cases, may be slightly swollen where pore formation takes place. While in
Basidiomycetes it is more complex due to further elaboration and named as ‘dolipore’
(Latin - doliun means a large jar).

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Different Forms of Mycelium

In some fungi, the whole mycelium or parts thereof aggregate in different ways or undergo
various modifications which are used to perform various somatic and reproductive
functions. These includes the following forms:

a. Plectenchyma (fungal tissue): A false tissue formed by aggregation

of hyphae is known as Plectenchyma. It is two types:

i. Prosenchyma or Prosoplectenchyma: In these fungal tissue

hyphae are loosely interwoven lying more or less parallel to
each other. The hyphae composing it do not lose their identity.
ii. Pseudoparenchyma or paraplectenchyma: In these fungal
tissue hyphae are compactly interwoven looking like a
parenchyma in cross-section. The walls of the hyphae in the
mass get fused & they lose their identity.

b. Sclerotia (Pl. Sclerotia): These are hard dormant bodies consisting

of compact hyphae protected by external thickened hyphae. Each
Sclerotium germinates into a mycelium, on return of favourable
condition, e.g., Penicillium.

c. Rhizomorphs: They are root-like compactly interwoven hyphae

with distinct growing tip. They help in absorption and perennation
(to tide over the unfavourable periods), e.g., Armillaria mellea.

d. Rhizoids: A rhizoid is a short, root like filamentous branch of the

thallus, generally formed in tufts at the base of the thallus. These also
function as anchoring and absorbing, e.g., Rhizophydium, Rhizopus.

e. Appressoria (Sing. appressorium): It is a terminal simple or lobed

swollen mucilaginous structure of infecting hyphae which adheres to

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the surface of the host or other substratum and helps in the

penetration of the infection hyphae. These are formed by some
parasitic fungi such as powdery mildews and rust.

f. Haustoria (Sing. haustorium): A haustorium is an organ that is developed from a hypha

usually performing the function of absorption. They are characteristic of obligate parasites.
They vary in shape and may be knob like or button shaped, elongated, finger-like or
branched. They secrete some specific enzymes which hydrolyse the protein and
carbohydrates of the host plant.

g. Hyphal traps (Snares): The predacious fungi develop sticky hyphae or network of hyphal
loops known as hyphal traps or Snares. They help in capturing nematodes.

h. Stromata: These are compact somatic structures much like mattresses. Fructifications are
generally formed on or in them.

Nutrition

The fungi are plants of varied habits. They lack chlorophyll and like animals are unable to
manufacture their own food. They obtain food readymade from an external source. So, all
fungi are heterotrophs. However, fungi cannot ingest solid food, but absorb it directly
through cell membranes either living as saprophytes (saprobes) or parasites.

1. Saprophytic fungi: These fungi obtain their nutrition from dead and
decaying organic matter. This type of mode of nutrition is known as
saprophytic and the fungi are called as saprophytes. Some saprophytes i.e.,
Mucor mucedo can obtain their nutrition only from dead organic materials, and
do not have the capacity to infect living plants or animals. They are known as
pure or obligate saprophytes, while contrary to this those saprophytic fungi
i.e., Fusarium, Pythium have the capacity to infect living organisms and so
known as facultative parasites.

(a) Obligate Saprophytes: These fungi which obtain their nutrition from other non-living
plants or animals. They can grow only upon suitable non-living tissue. They can survive on
dead and artificial media.

(b) Facultative parasites: The members actually thrive best if they grow on dead organic
matters but they have potentiality of infecting the living plants and animals. e.g., Fusarium,
Pythium, etc.

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2. Parasitic fungi: The parasitic fungi absorb their food material from
the living tissues of the hosts on which they parasitize. Those members
which can only grow or live on living host and obtain their food
material from them are known as parasites. Such parasitic fungi are
quite harmful to their hosts and cause many serious diseases. Many
diseases of the important crops are caused by parasitic fungi. The rusts,
smuts, bunts, mildews and many other plant diseases are important
examples of fungal diseases of crops. Their mode of life is parasitic and
the relation of host and parasite is called the parasitism.

Depending upon the occurrence of parasitic fungi on host.

a. Ectoparasite: occur on the external surface of host. E.g., vine molds

b. Endoparasite: occur on the internal surface of the host. E.g., Ustilago, rusts.

Parasites which cause diseases are called pathogens. Some parasites can survive and
grow only in living cells and are called biotrophs or Obligate Parasites. Others can infect
their host and bring about its death and then live saprotrophically on the remains, they are
called necrotrophs or facultative parasites.

I. Obligate parasites: They can grow only upon suitable living host tissues. E.g.,
downy mildews & powdery mildews.
II. Facultative parasites: Normally they are saprophytes but may now and then become
parasites. E.g., Fusarium. They live as saprophytes in soil. But when a suitable host
plant is sown in such a soil, they attack them and start living as parasites.
III. Facultative saprophytes: These members are actually parasites but in the absence of
living host, they can also thrive or live on dead organic matters in nature. They are
termed facultative saprophytes, e.g., smut, like: Ustilago, Sphacelotheca.

3. Symbiotic fungi: Some fungi grow on other organisms and both are
benefitted mutually, such association is known as symbiosis, Mycorrhiza
and Lichens are common. The thallus of Lichen consists of a fungus
symbiotically living with an alga. e.g., Lichen, mycorrhiza.

Structure of fungal cell: Usually all the fungal cell consists of a strong, rigid cell wall

except the slime molds. A typical fungal cell possesses following structures:

Cell wall: The composition of cell wall is not similar in all the fungi. The cell wall determines
the characteristic shape of a cell. It protects the cell from osmotic lysis and also acts as a

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binding site for some enzymes. Cell wall is absent in slime molds. It varies among different
group of fungi or even between the different species belongs to same group. The cell wall
of fungi in general consists of chemically different substance from normal cellulose called
fungus cellulose or a chitin. It is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, but in some lower fungi
(members of Oomycetes), the cell wall is composed of cellulose. Non- fibrillar components
are also associated with the microfibrillar components.

Protoplast: Within the cell wall cell contain protoplast, the living material. A typical fungal
cell is differentiated into all other usual cell parts as in other living cells i.e., cell membrane
or plasma membrane, cell organelles- mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic
reticulum, vacuolated cytoplasm and one or more nuclei. Chloroplast is totally absent in
fungal cell.

Cell or plasma membrane: It is a living membrane, extremely thin, delicate and closely
lining with the protoplast. The plasma membrane pressed against the hyphae wall except
the invaginational regions. The plasma membrane performs special functions and is the
surface layer of the protoplast and is differentially permeable by nature.

Cytoplasm: The plasma membrane encloses the colorless material, cytoplasm with sap
filled vacuoles. In young hyphae and hyphal tips, the cytoplasm looks rather homogenous
comparatively to mature hyphae. In the cytoplasm other organelles and inclusions are
emerged. The organelles are living structures and each have a specific role and function.
The organelles included mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus
and many vacuoles, all these are living organelles. In between cell wall and plasma
membrane, some specific membranous structure, the lysosomes are common. Pigments,
secretory glands and stored food in the form of glycogen and oil drops are present in the
form of inclusions.

Endoplasmic reticulum: The presence of ribosomes in fungal cytoplasm is invested after

the discovery of electron microscope. Endoplasmic reticulum of fungal cell is composed of

membranes or micro-tubular structures usually surround with small granules.

Comparatively to green plants it is more regular and looser in fungi, but in some fungi, it is
highly vesicular.

Mitochondria: The small usually spherical bodies, the mitochondria also present in the
cytoplasm. It is in- folded and form cristae which are in the form of irregular tubules or in
the parallel flat plate like structures. Like green plants, the fungal mitochondria also
function as the “power house” of the cell.

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Golgi apparatus: In fungal cell, there is exceptional certainty of the presence of golgi
apparatus (dictyosomes) like structures except the members of Oomycetes.

Vacuoles: Presence of vacuoles in fungal cell is a prominent feature. They appear in the old
cells but in young hyphae or cell and in hyphal tips lack vacuoles. They enlarge with age
and show tendency to coalesces and ultimately reduce the cytoplasm to thin living layer
immediately within the cell wall.

Inclusions: Various types of inclusions are also present in the cytoplasm including stored
food materials in the form of carbohydrates, lipids granules, glycogen granules, oil droplets,
volutin and some proteinaceous material. The fungi lack chlorophyll and starch while
carotenoids are present either throughout the cytoplasm or concentrated in the form of
small lipid granules. Beside this, it also contains some other kinds of enzymes and organic
acids.

Nucleus: Each individual cell contains one, two or more nuclei in the somatic cell
depending upon the condition or species. The shape and size of nuclei is also varied from
globose to spherical, ranging from 1-3 u in diameter and cannot be visible without special
techniques. A single nucleus consists three clear cut portions

i) The outermost definite nuclear membrane

ii) Inside this body contains chromatin strands and
iii) The central body with a clear area around it.

Fungal Flagella: Presence of flagella is the characteristic feature of lower fungi, the
Phycomycetes as they have motile cells in their life cycle except in case of Zygomycetes.
However, higher fungi, i.e., Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes, lack the
motile cells in their life cycle. In the lower fungi, the zoospores and gametes, represents the
motile cells are bearing one or two whip like threads of protoplasmic material, the flagella.
These flagella are thin hair like emergenses of the cell cytoplasm and related to locomotion.

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Kinds of Flagella: In fungi three types of flagella are reported among the Whiplash type
and tinsel types are common while the whiplash one is again sub divided into two sub
categories.

(i) Whiplash Flagellum:

It resembles morphologically like a “Whiplash” and has a smooth surface and narrows
towards the tip to form a distinct end piece. It is supposed that the end piece is a thin
auxesome of varying length. On the basis of the structure of end part this flagellum is again
categorized into further divisions such as-

a) Whiplash with an end piece and

b) Whiplash flagellum with a blunt tip.

The whiplash flagellum is also known by the names if acrometic or peitchgeisal flagellum.

(ii) Tinsel flagellum: It does not have the structure like whiplash flagellum ending with a
blunt end but bears small, lateral hairs like appendages known as flimmer hair or
mastigoneme. From anxoneme arises the flimmer hairs on the tinsel flagellum are also
named as flimmer or flimmergeisel or pantonematic flagellum.

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Reproduction of Fungi

Fungi reproduce naturally by a variety of means as vegetative, asexual and sexual ones.
Vegetative Reproduction: In vegetative reproduction budding, fission, sclerotia,
rhizomorph are the common methods. In vegetative reproduction the union of mature sex
cells or sex organs does not involve. The common method of vegetative reproduction is:

i. Fragmentations- when the hyphae break up into small fragments either

accidentally or drying or dehydration. Each fragment develops into a new
individual in favorable conditions.

ii. Fission- Fission of somatic cells yields two similar daughter cells. In
fission of the cell constricts in the centre and divides into two cells.

iii. Budding- Budding of somatic cells or spores takes place and each bud
is an outgrowth of the parent cell developing into a new individual,
common example is Saccharomyces (Yeast cell).

iv. Sclerotia- The sclerotia are resistant and perennating bodies. They
survive for many years. Structurally each sclerotium is cushion- like
structure of compact mycelium. They give rise new myceli on favorable
conditions.

v. Rhizomorphs- The rhizomorphs are the modified mycelium. They are

resistant to unfavorable conditions and give rise new mycelia on favourable
conditions.

2-Asexual Reproduction-

The asexual reproduction takes place by means of different kinds of spores, any spores
formed are thus mitospores, and not the zygotes or meiospores. Each spore may develop
into a new individual. The main function of asexual spores is disseminating the species.
These are produced in large number. In fungi there are many kinds of asexual spores. Each
spore may develop into a new individual. The spores are of diverse type and borne upon
special structures, it is called sporophores. When the fungus producing more than one types
of the spores it’s called it is pleomorphic / polymorphic.

i. Zoospores: Zoospores are naked spores which after swarming,

encyst, secrete a cell wall and germinate by a germ tube into a
thallus. They are motile and may be uni/biflagellate, uninucleate,
vacuolate. Usually, kidney shaped or reniform. The flagella are

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inserted posteriorly or laterally on them. E.g., Albugo, Pythium,

Phytophthora and many other lower fungi.

ii. Aplanospores- The non- motile spore while zoospores are motile and
their motility being due to the presence of flagella (Mucor, Rhizopus,
Pilobolus).

iii. Sporangiophores- These are single celled spores and formed within sacs
known as sporangia (singular sporangium) and formed at the end of the
special hyphae.

iv. Conidiophore or Conidia (singular conidium) are small, single celled

spores formed at the tip or side of the hyphae.

v. Chlamydospores- These are thick walled, single spores and formed

from cells of the vegetative hyphae. These spores are highly resistant to
adverse conditions (Ustilago).

vi. Oidia or (oidium singular) are also single celled spores and formed
by disjointing hyphal cell and are also known as arthrospores (Collybia,
Coprinus).

vii. Blastospore- These spores are formed by budding.

3-Sexual Reproduction-

A large number of fungi reproduces sexually. However, the members of higher fungi
Deuteromycetes or “Fungi Imperfecti” lack sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is
carried out by fusion of compatible nuclei of two parent cell. The process of sexual
reproduction begins with the joining of two cells and fusion of their protoplast this process
is known as plasmogamy. In the second step, fusion of two nuclei from the two fusing
gametes takes place and a diploid zygotic nucleus is formed. This phase is known as
Karyogamy (Karyon= nucleus, gamy= union). After karyogamy reduction division or
meiosis takes place which again reduces the number of chromosomes to haploid number
and thus haploid stage is reestablished.

The sex organelles of fungi, if they are present, are called gametangia (singular
gametangium). They may form sex cells or gametes and may contain instead one or more
gamete nuclei. If the male and female gametangia are morphologically different then the

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male gametangium is called antheridium and the female gametangium is called the
oogonium. The various methods of sexual reproduction by which the compatible nuclei are
brought together by the following methods-

(i) Planogametic Fusion- This involves the fusion of two necked motile gametes or
planogametes. It is of tree types depending upon the nature and structure of the fusing
gametes)

a) Isogamy- When the fusing gametes are morphologically similar but physiologically different.
They are formed on different hyphae e.g., Synchytrium.

b) Anisogamy- When the fusing gametes are morphologically as well as physiologically

dissimilar. The male gamete is smaller and more active than the female gamete (e.g.,
Allomyces).

c) Oogamy- When the female gamete or ovum or egg is non- motile and male gamete or
anthrozoid is motile. They are formed in specialized gametangia known as oogonium and
antheridium respectively.

(ii) Gametangial Contact- Here the two gametangia come into close contact but do not fuse.
The wall nucleus migrates through a pore or fertilization tube into the female gametangia
(e. g. Albugo, Aspergillus, Phytophthora etc.)

(iii) Gametangial Fusion- This process involves fusion of the entire content of two
compatible gametangia. The two compatible gametangia come in close contact, at the point

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of contact their walls dissolve and their contents mix. The two gametangia ultimately fuse
resulting in karyogamy (e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus).

(iv) Spermatization- In highly advanced forms of fungi e.g., Puccinia, sex organs are
completely absent and the sexual process is accomplished by minute spore like spermatia
(the male gamete) and specialized receptive hyphae, Carpogyne (the female gamete). The
spermatia are carried to the receptive hyphae by air, water or insects and the content of the
spermatium enter the receptive hyphae through a pore.

(v) Somatogamy- In higher fungi the sex organs are at all completely absent but fusion of
two vegetative hyphae or somatic hyphae takes over the sexual function and fuse together
(e. g. Morchella, Agaricus, Peziza).

Life cycle of Fungi

In fungi there are five basic types of life cycles are reported as follows-

(i) Asexual through vegetative hyphae.

(ii) Haploid life cycle

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(iii) Diplontic life cycle

(iv) Haplo-diplobiontic life cycle

(v) Haplo-dikaryotic life cycle.

i) Asexual through vegetative hyphae: In fungi asexual reproduction takes place by means
of fragmentation, budding, conidia, may be endogenous or exogenous depending on
conditions, zoospores, Chlamydospores, aplanospores etc.

In this type of life cycle the haploid mycelium generally produces haploid reproductive
bodies without any gametic union and after maturation these haploid spores germinates
and again produces haploid mycelia. About 20% fungi propagated only by asexual means.
Asexual reproduction takes place during favorable conditions. Thus, asexual life cycle is
haploid dominated.

ii) Haploid life cycle: Haploid life cycle is found in fungi

especially in Saccharomyces octosporus. Here the haploid
phase is very elaborate and the diploid phase is very short,
confined to the zygote cell only. The haploid somatic cells
function as potential gametangia. Two somatic gametangia
meet in pairs and form a proturbance towards the other and
the cell wall dissolves at the meeting point and form a
common passage called conjugation tube. The nuclei of
both gametangia move into this conjugation tube fuse and
form zygote. This zygote functions as ascus which after first
meiosis and second mitotic division forms 8 haploid
ascospores. These ascospores after liberation behaves like
somatic cell. Thus, the haploid phase is larger

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comparatively to diploid phase. This type of life cycle is

known as haplontic life- cycle.

iii)Diplontic life cycle: This type life cycle is commonly reported

in another yeast cell Saccharomyces ludwigii. This life cycle is just
reverse to haplontic where diploid somatic stage is long and
haploid phase is short represented by ascospores. These
ascospores behave as gametangia and pairs by fusion and form
zygote cell. It forms small tube.
The germ tube became multicellular and functions as a diploid sprout mycelium. The new
diploid yeast cell forms buds detached after maturation from the parent mycelium and
functions as sprout cell. Thus, after the commencement of favorable conditions these cells
function as asci. The diploid of each ascus after meiosis produces haploid ascospores.

iv) Haplo-diplobiontic life cycle: In this type of life cycle both

haploid and diploid phases are of equally long. This type of life
cycle is reported in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this case total
ascospores formed. Out of the four, two groups of mating type,
each with 2 ascus. Normally two different mating types’
haploid cells multiply by budding. In certain environmental
conditions two somatic cells of opposite mating types behave
as gametangia and formed diploid zygote by budding and
formed numerous diploid cells. During adverse conditions i.e.,
scarcity of food, the diploid cells function as ascus. In each ascus
4 ascospores formed by reduction division. These ascospores
after liberation form many haploid somatic cells by budding.

v) Haplo-dikaryotic life cycle: The general life- cycle pattern of the Basidiomycetes has
resemblance with that of Ascomycetes. The basidiospores forms germ tube on germination
gives rise to the haplophasic somatic body represented by primary mycelium. The primary
mycelium often produces Oidia and completed asexual life cycle.

The oidia may behave as spores and give rise to primary mycelia or by Spermatization
with compatible primary mycelia take part in the formation of dikaryotic secondary
mycelium. This may also be formed by somatogamy between two compatible primary
mycelia. The dikaryotic apical cell of the hyphae of the secondary mycelium develop into
basidium. It may so happen that resting spores may be formed from the dikaryotic hyphal

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cells. Each resting spore on germination gives rise to a basidium. Karyogamy takes place
in the basidium producing diplophasic condition which is followed immediately by
meiosis and ultimately haploid basidiospores are produced. The basidiospores germinate
to produce haplophasic somatic body thus the life cycle is completed.

The life cycle comprises of three phases of haplophase, dikaryophase and diplophase of
which dikaryotic phase is very much prolonged and is nutritionally independent of
haplophase. The haplophase is also well represented just as in almost all fungi the
diplophase is very short and followed by meiosis.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

Fungi play a significant role in our daily life. They are our greater friends as well as foes.
Some are highly useful to mankind while others are highly injurious and are responsible
for many diseases in plants, animals and human beings.

(A) Useful Fungi: Fungi are useful to us in many ways.

1-Fungi as Food: Fungi play important role in human food production. Several mushrooms
and morels e.g., Agaricus bisporus, Amantia vaginata, Boletus edulis, Clavatia
gigantean,Morchella, Pleurotus, Volvaria, Volvariella volvacea, are used as food. Agaricus
compestris is cultivated in manyreas of north and south India and Morchella esculenta is
grown in Punjab and Kashmir. Mushrooms are preferred for food because of their fairly
large protein contents (21-30%). They are also rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals and
amino acids.

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Fungi (S.R) 19

Yeast is an important source of vitamin B and D, and rich in protein. Similarly, a popular
food, ‘sufu’ is produced from species of Mucor and Antimucor. ‘Incaparina’ foods developed
by the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama consists of corn (26%), cotton
seed flour (38%), Sorghum (26%), Yeast (3%) and minerals and vitamins. Northern
Utilization Research and Development Division of USDA has developed protein cake by
combining wheat, barley, oat, rice and soybean flour cooked and fermented with the help
of Rhizopus oligosporus. This cake is rich in niacin and riboflavin. Single cell protein (SCP)
obtained from yeast, species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Neurospora and Candida is
a complete substitute for conventional protein foods.

2-Fungi as medicines: Several fungi are used in the production of medicines.

Ergot: is prepared from the sclerotia of Cleviceps purpurea. It contains some alkaloids which
are used to induce uterine contraction for abortion, in the treatment of menstrual disorders
and to check haemorrhages.

Ephedrine: Synthesized from benzaldehyde by the action of yeast and it used in the
treatment of asthma and nasal troubles.

Steroids: Steroids are complex organic compounds, effective against rheumatoid arthritis,
allergic, dermatologic, and other diseases. Their extraction from biological system is highly
expensive. A wide variety of fungi have the capacity of synthesizing many steroids. e.g.,
cortisone is prepared by the fermentation of plant glycosides by Rhizopus nigricans and
Aspergillus niger.

Vitamins: Vitamins are accessory micronutrients, which are required by living organisms
for their proper growth. Several yeasts are good source of vitamin B complex. Ergosterol a
precursor of vitamin D, is synthesized from some molds and yeasts. Eremothemium ashbyii
is a rich source of vitamin B12, whereas vitamin A is extracted from Rhodotorula gracilis.

Antibiotics: Alexander Fleming in 1944 for the first time extracted the wonder drug
penicillin from Penicillium notatum. Since then, several fungi are active against human
pathogens e.g., spread of Candida albicans is prevented by the extract of Trichoderma
sponaceum. Many edible mushrooms like Agaricus bisporus and Lentinus edodes have the
ability to lower blood cholesterol.

3- Fungi in production of organic acids

(i) Citric Acid- Produced by fermenting sucrose and molasses by Aspergillus niger and A.
wentii.

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Fungi (S.R) 20

(ii) Itaconic acid- Produced by fermentation of sugars by Aspergillus itaconicum and A.

terreus.

(iii) Gluconic Acid- Produced by fermenting sugars by Aspergillus niger and

Penicilliumpurpurogenum.

(iv) Kojic acid- Produced by fermentation of sugar by Aspergillus oryzae.

(v) Gallic acid- It is synthesized by the hydrolysis of gallotannin present in gall nuts by
Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus gallomyces.

(vi) Fumaric acid: obtained by fermentation of sugars by Rhizopus stolonifer.

Besides this several species of Mucor and Rhizopus are used in the production of lactic, oxalic
and succinic acid.

4- Fungi in Industry

(i) In brewery: Alcoholic fermentation with the help of fungi is the basis of brewing
industries. Wine is produced by fermenting rice with Aspergillus oryzae, Saccharmyces
cerevisiae is used in production of beer.

(ii) In baking Industry: Fermentation of carbohydrates by Saccharomyces cerevisiae produces

ethyl alcohol and CO2. Carbon dioxide liberated in this process is used in the preparation
of breads and cakes.

(iii) In cheese Industry: Some species of Penicillium e.g., P. candidum, P. roequeforti, P.

camembertile are used for manufacture of cheese. They impart specific flavours to cheese.

5- Fungi in Enzyme Production

(i) Invertase: Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used for extraction of the enzyme invertase.

(ii) Zymase: The enzyme zymase obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae by fermentation of
carbohydrates.

(iii) Amylase: Aspergillus niger and A. oryzae are used in the production of the enzyme
amylase.

(iv) Cellulase: Trichoderma reesli is used in the production of the enzyme Cellulase.

6- Fungi in agriculture: Fungi play an important role in agriculture in various ways-

(i) As scavengers: The ratio of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is maintained by

decomposition of plants and animal’s debris by fungi and bacteria. Decomposition is

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mainly carried by saprophytic fungi. The enzymes secreted by these fungi decompose
complex organic substance into their inorganic components and this increase soil fertility.

(ii) In biological Control: Fungi play an important role in biological control of diseases. For
instance, Trichoderma lignorum suppresses the growth of root fungus. Pythium and the
growth of Rhizoctonia solani can be checked by Penicillium vermiculatum and Rhizoctonia
oryzae. Several fungi are also utilized in controlling soil borne organisms like amoeba and
nematodes. For instance, Nematophthora gyrophila is capable to control effectively Heterodua
avenae, a cereal cyst nematode.

(iii) As mycorrhiza: A symbiotic relationship between fungal hyphae and roots of higher
plants is known as mycorrhiza. Several fungi like Rhizectonia, Phoma Trichoderma, Boletus,
Phallus, Scleroderma and Amantia form mycorrhizal relationship with higher plants. The
fungal partner of mycorrhiza obtains food from the roots of higher plants and in return it
supplies mineral elements to the other partner.

(iv) In Soil aggregation and soil fertility: Some fungi such as species of Absidia,
Aspergillus,Cladosporium, Chaetomium, Mucor, Penicillum and Rhizopus have soil binding
properties. The mucilaginous substances secreted by them are helpful in soil aggregation.
In forest ecosystem the natural mushroom flora greatly helps in biodegradation of woody
wastes. The ultimate end product in the form of humus is quite useful for the growth of
other plants.

(v) As Growth hormones: Gibberellin produced by Gibberella fujikuroi, is an important plant

hormone. It is used to accelerate growth of many crops. The hormone trisporic acid is
obtained from Mucor mucedo and Choanephora trispora.

(vi) As insecticides: Many insect pests can be controlled by the use of fungi
Aschersoniaaleyroidis, Empusa sepulchralis, Fusarium oxysporum and Metarhiziun anisopliae.

(vii) Fungi as Test organisms: Several fungi are used as important research tools for the
study of various fundamental biological processes. Neurospora has become an ideal
material for genetical studies. Neuropsopra crassa is used as a test organism to detect the
presence and quality of vitamins B in a given sample. Aspergillus niger is used for the
detected of trace elements like zinc, nickel and copper. Several fungi such as species of
Aspergillus, Absidia, Penicillium, Torulopsis, Endomyces, Rhodotorula are capable of
synthesizing fats and fatty substances.

(viii) Fungi as Dyes: Several fungi which possess coloured spores and mycelium are
utilized as dyes. A red pigment obtained from Monascus purpureus is used for colouring rice

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Fungi (S.R) 22

and Cercosporina kikuchii produces a reddish-violet novel pigment, neocercosporin. A

similar maroon pigment is obtained from Aspergillus fumigatus. A brown pigment
atromentin is obtained from Paxillus atromentosus and a yellow pigment citrinin from
Penicillium citrinum.

(B) Harmful Fungi

1- Fungi as Pathogens: Most of the parasitic fungi cause disease in plants. The common
fungal diseases of plants are Rusts, smuts, blights, mildews, roots and wilts. They are
responsible for destroying crops worth billions of rupees. Disastrous Irish Potato famine of
1845-49 caused by Phytophthora infestans was responsible for taking lives of approximately
one million people.

Similarly, tobacco yield was reduced by over 60% in North Africa and Middle East in 1962
due to the infection of Peronospora tobacina. In England over five million elm trees were
destroyed during 1967-77 because of infection of Ceratocystis ulmi.

Besides plant diseases several fungal species lives parasitically on/in animals and they cause
various diseases. Actinomycosis and blackleg disease in animals are also caused by fungi.
Members of Entomophorales are parasites on insects and other animals. Similarly members
of Saprolegniales e.g., Saprolegnia are parasitic on the fish.

Several fungi infect human beings causing diseases of skin, respiratory tract, lungs, viscera,
nasal sinuses, eye, liver and kidney. Wind-borne spores of several fungi like Alternaria,
Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Helminthosporium, Monilia, Phoma, Trichoderma are allergic and
cause distressing symptoms.

2- Spoilage of Food stuffs: A large number of food articles, if not properly stored are spoiled
by fungi like Mucor, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and yeast. Dairy products are spoiled
by the species of Mucor, Oidium, Torula, Penicillium and Cladosporium. Several species of
Alternaria, Aspergillus and Rhizopus cause past harvest diseases in fruits and vegetables, thus
shortening their storage life.

3- Deterioration of Articles: Most important paper documents, valuable leather articles,

textiles, plastic objects, photographic films, electronic goods, rubber, painted surfaces etc.
are destroyed by fungi. Aspergillus niger, Stachybotrys atra and species of Alternaria and
Cephalosporium are some common fungi with spoil paper. Moulds are responsible for the
damage of Cellulose fibers. The fungi mainly responsible for deterioration of painted
surfaces are Pullularia pullulans, Phoma glomerata and species of Alternaria and Cladosporium.

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Fungi (S.R) 23

Jute articles are destroyed by Chaetomium globosum, Momnoniella echinata and Stachybotrys
atra. Rubber products are spoiled by the species of Aspergillus and Penicillum.

4- Destruction of Timbers: Several fungi like Polyporus sp., Serpula lacrymans,

Penicilliumdivarianum, Fusarium negundi, Lentinus lapidens are responsible for the destruction
of valuable timbers. Armillaria mellea causes wood rot diseases in several trees. Wood
degradation by fungi is usually of two types- White rots and brown rots. Some fungi grow
in sap wood and stain it. Chlorosplenium aeruginosum and Penicillium divaricatum impart
characteristic green and yellow stain to hard wood and Lasiosphaeria pezizula imparts
grayish alive stain to heat and sapwood.

5- Hallucinogenic Fungi: Some fungi such as Amanita phalloides, A.verna and Boletus
santanus are highly poisonous and if ingested they may prove fatal. Several mushrooms as
Amanita muscaria, Psilocybe maxicana and Panaeolus sp. secrete hallucinogenic substances
may destroy brain cells and perception power of human beings.

6- Mycotoxins: Many fungi produce mycotoxins which are responsible for food poisoning
and other distressing symptoms. They may be-

(i) Food toxins: The toxin production can occur in most plant products but cereals and oil
seed crops are mostly contaminated. Mainly four groups of toxins are mainly associated
with human diseases.

(a) Aflatoxins: Produced by Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. parasiticus and

Penicilliumislandicum.

(b) Ochratoxin: Mainly produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium viridicatum when
they infest stored maize, pea nuts, beans and mixed animal feeds.

(c) Zearalenone: A phenolic resorcyclic acid Lactone is produced by several species of

Fusarium growing on maize.

(d) Trichothecenes: are produced by several species of Cephalosporium, Fusarium,

Myrothcium and Trichoderma.

(ii) Ergot Toxins: The sclerotia of Claviveps purpurea contain poisonous alkaloids like
ergotamine, ergometrimine, ergocristine and ergonorin.

(iii) Mushroom toxins: Several mushrooms produce mycotoxins which causes diarrhoea
and vomiting in early stage but in severe cases, liver damage, kidney failure, and even death
may take place Amanita phalloides produces about ten toxins. Gyromitrin is a toxin and

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carcinogen present in several members of the fungal genus Gyromitra, like G. esculenta.
Toxin muscarine produced by Inocype and Clitocybe. Species of Coprinus produce the toxin
coprine that affects the autonomic nervous system.

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