CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

Some of the most important characters of fungi are as follows:

 Occurrence
 Thallus organization
 Different forms of mycelium
 Cell structure
 Nutrition
 Heterothallism and Homothallism

OCCURRENCE:

Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in- air, water soil and on plants and [Link] prefer to grow in
warm and humid places. Hence, we keep food in the refrigerator to prevent bacterial and fungal
infestation.

OTHALLUS ORGANIZATION:

Except some unicellular forms (e.g. yeasts, Synchytrium) the fungal body is a thallus called
[Link] mycelium is an interwoven mass of thread-like hyphae (Sing, hypha). Hyphae may be
septate (with cross wall) and aseptate (without cross wall). Some fungi are dimorphic that found as
both unicellular and mycelial forms [Link] [Link] thallus may be two types: Unicellular
and filamentous.

Unicellular thallus: In some of the lower fungi, thallus is more or less a spherical, single celled
structure. At the time of reproduction it becomes a reproductive unit such fungi are called
holocarpic. In the unicellular holocarpic forms, the mycelium is absent e.g. Synchytrium. Some
holocarpic fungi (e.g. yeast) producing bud cells in succession and these remain attached to
oneanother in a chain. Such a chain of bud cells is referred to as pseudomycelium

Filamentous thallus: In most true fungi, the thallus is filamentous composed of [Link]
aggregated hyphae are collectively forms a network known as mycelium. Each hypha may vary in
shapes and sizes. Branching of hyphae is dichotomous. On the basis of presence or absence of septa
the hyphae of mycelical fungi are of two types:

Non septate or aseptate hyphae: Mycelium contains numerous nuclei,lying in a common massof
cytoplasm, without cross wall in the hyphae, E.g., oomycetes and zygomycetes. Such condition is
known as coenocytic. However, septa may be laid down at the time of formation of reproductive
organs to delimit them from the rest of the vegetative hyphae, therefore called Pseudosepta. E.g.,
Allomyces.

Septate Hyphae: Hyphae are septate and hyphal segments may contain one, two or more nuclei.E.g.,
Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina, and Deuteromycotina. There are two types of septa:

Primary septa: Primary septa are ormed in association with mitotic or meiotic nuclear divisionand
they separate the daughter nuclei. These types of septa are found in Ascomycotina Basidiomycotina
and their asexual states.
Adventitious septa: Adventitious septa are formed in the absence of mitosis or meiosis and occur
especially in association with change in the local concentration of cytoplasm. These are found in
lower groups of fungi as mastigomycotina and zygomycotina.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF MYCELLIUM

Different forms of mycelium refer to as the various shapes and the functions of mycelium which
modified according to the circumstances. These includes the following forms:

a. Plectenchyma (fungal tissue): In a fungal mycelium, hyphae organized loosely or compactly woven
to form a tissue called plectenchyma. It is two types:

Prosenchyma or Prosoplectenchyma: In these fungal tissue hyphae are loosely interwoven lying more
or less parallel to each other.

Pseudoparenchyma or paraplectenchyma: In these fungal tissue hyphae are compactly interwoven

looking like a parenchyma in cross-section

b. Sclerotia (Gr. Skleros=haid): These are hard dormant bodies consist of compact hyphae protected
by external thickened hyphae. Each Sclerotium germinates into a mycelium, on return of favourable
condition, e.g,Penicillium.

c. Rhizomorphs: They are root-like compactly interwoven hyphae with distinct growing tip. They help
in absorption and perennation (to tide over the unfavourable periods),e.g., Armillaria mellea.

d. Rhizoids: A rhizoid is a short, root like filamentous branch of the thallus, generally formed in tufts
at the base of the thallus. These also function as anchoring and absorbing, e.g. Rhizophydium,
Rhizopus.

e. Appressoria (Sing appressorium): It is a terminal simple or lobed swollen ucilaginous structure of

infecting hyphae which adheres to the surface of the host or other substratum and helps in the
penetration of the infection hyphae. These are formed by some parasitic fungi such as powdery
mildews and rust.

f. Haustoria (Sing. haustorium): A haustorium is an organ that is developed from a hypha usually
performing the function of absorption. They are characteristic of obligate parasites. They vary in
shape and may be knob like or fungal hypha button shaped, elongated, finger-like or branched. They
secrete some specific enzymes which hydrolyse the protein and carbohydrates of the host plant.

g. Hyphal traps (Snares): The predacious fungi develop sticky hyphae or network of hyphal loops
known as hyphal traps or Snares. They help in capturing nematodes.

h. Stromata: These are compact somatic structures much like mattresses. Fructifications are generally
formed on or in them.

CELL STRUCTURE

Fungi are the eukaryotic organisms. The cell wall determines the characteristic shape of a cell. It
protects the cell from osmotic lysis and also acts as a binding site for some enzymes. The chemical
composition of the cell wall is not the same in all fungi. Chitin is characteristically present in the cell
walls of most fungi. The chitin in fungal cell wall is not strictly identical with animal chitin, and the
formula has been suggested the fungal chitin: It is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. The cytoplasm
at hyphal tip contains Golgi vesicles called chitosomes which filled with cell wall materials. Nucleus
and mitochondria are found to connect with ER. Nucleus divides by intracellular mitosis called
karyochoresis where nuclear envelop remain intact during nuclear division and internal spindle
develop. Reserve food is glycogen and oil.

NUTRITION

The fungi lack chlorophyll. Therefore, they cannot synthesize their own food. Depending on from
where and how they get nutrition, fungi are of following types:

a. Saprotrophs: They obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter. They secrete digesting
enzymes to outside which digest the substratum and then absorb nutrients, e.g., Mucor, Agarious,
Rhizopus etc.

b. Parasitic: They obtain food from living organisms. They may be facultative or obligate. Facultative
parasites grow on a variety of tissues [Link]. The obligate- parasites grow only upon suitable
host,e.g., downy mildews. The parasitic fungi that grow on surface of host cells and absorb food
through haustoria are called ectoparasites or ectophytic parasites (e.g., Mucor, Erisphae). When
parasitic fungi grow inside the host issue are called endoparasites or endophytic parasites
([Link], Puccinia)

c. Predacious: Some soil fungi develop ring-like noses to trap annelids, nematodes etc. e.g.,
Arthrobotrys, Zoophagus, Dactylella etc.

d. Symbiotic: They live in mutualistic relationship with another organism by which both are
benefited. The two common examples are lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are symbiotic associations
between fungi and algae. The fungal partner is a member of ascomycetes or basidiomycetes that
provides water and nutrients, while the algal partner is a green alga or cyanobacteria that prepares
food by photosynthesis

e. Mycorrhizas: or mycorrhizae are the mutualistic symbiotic associations between soil fungi and the
roots of most plant species. According to the carbohydrate theory (Bjorkman, 1949), the plants that
grow in soils deficient in P and N, and high intensity light develop mycorrhizas.

The two most common types of mycorrhizas are the ectomycorrhizas (ECM) and the
endomycorrhizas (also known as arbuscular mycorrhiza). The two groups are differentiated by the
fact that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate the cell wall of the plant's root cells,
while the hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi penetrate the cell wall.

HETEROTHALLISM AND HOMOTHALLISM

A. F. Blakeslee (1904) discovered mating types or genetically distinct strains in Mucor. He called fungi
with different mating types are called heterothallic and fungi without mating types are called
homothallic. Nowadays we call some fungi and algae homothallic if both male and female gametes
produce in the same individual can fertilize each other and heterothallic if the gametes can only be
fertilized by gametes from another individual of the same [Link] introduces
variations in the species.

REPRODUCTION

Morphology of Mushroom

Mushroom is a general term applied to the fruiting bodies of the fleshy fungi and as such belongs to
different groups of fungi. The majority of these mushrooms (fleshy fungi) belong to Hymenomycetes
of Basidiomycotina, characterised by the presence of spore-bearing layer known as Hymenium. This
layer may be present on either side of the gills as in the gill fungi [Link]; it may form the lining
of the numerous pores present in the fruiting body e.g., Boletus; it may form the covering layer of
teeth like structures as in Hydnum; or it may cover the more or less upright club or branched
fructification e.g.,Clavaria. In the puff balls (Lycoperdon) belonging to Gasteromycetes, the
basidiospores are produced and matured inside a closed saccate fruiting structure which opens by an
apical pore at maturity.

Other fleshy fungi, viz., Morchella belong to the Discomycetes (Ascomycotina). Here in contrast to
basidiospores, ascospores are produced inside a sac-like ascus and bear generally two to eight
ascospores. These asci may be intermixed with paraphyses and form the hymenium, lining the
fruiting body, which may be cup shaped apothecia, e.g., Aleuria, others may resemble basidiocarps,
which are clavate to pieleate with the surface convoluted, wrinkled or pitted as in Morchella. This is
also commonly known as "sponge mushroom" or the morels. However, the common term
"mushroom” often refers to the fruiting body of the gill fungi. The following parts of the carpophore
or the fruiting structure can easily be distinguished.

1)The cap or pileus

It is the expanded portion of the carpophore which may be thick, fleshy, membranous or corky and
varies greatly in shape, size and colour. The surface of the pileus may be smooth, hairy or rough.

2) The gills or lamellae

They are situated on the underside of the pileus starting from the apex of the stalk and radiate out
towards the margin. These gills bear spores on their surface and exhibit a change in colour
corresponding to that of the spores. For instance, in Agaricus bisporus the colour of the young
carpophore's gill is pink. With age the colour changes to dark purple, brown or nearly black due to
the changing colour of the spores. The attachment of the gill to the stipe helps in the identification of
the mushroom .When the gills do not touch the stipe or only do so by a fine line they are known as
Free. When they are attached directly to the stem, forming nearly a right angle with the latter, they
are termed as Adnate. If the attachment is only by a part of the width of the gills, they are Adnexed .
When the gills extend down the stem to a greater or lesser degree they are known Decurrent and
when they are near the stalk in a deep notch they are termed as Sinuate.

3) The veil

In young fruiting bodies the gill remain covered by a tissue that extends from the margin of the cap
(pileus) to the [Link] tissue in called the Veil. As the cap expands this tissue breaks away, some
portion remaining attached to the margin of the cap while the other may form a ring on the stipe
which is termed as the Annulus. It is very delicate and can easily be rubbed off or may even be
washed away by rains.

4) The stipe or stalk

The stalk supporting the pileus is also known as stipe. Its presence or absence and mode of its
attachment to the cap is an important character for identification of genera. Mostly the stem is
centrally attached to the cap, but in some cases the attachment may not be exactly in the middle but
lateral, then it is known as Eccentric. The stem may be solid, fleshy throughout or may be hollow in
which the central cavity is stuffed with pithy substances. In shape the stem can be cylindrical, i.e,
hay-ing the same diameter throughout, spindle shaped, being swollen in the middle and tapering
towards both the extremities, or club shaped when it enlarges towards the top and tapers towards
the base into a root-like form. The Bulbous stipe is that in which the base shows a sudden
enlargement whereas in Marginate the stipe base widens into a sort of saucer with a well defined
margin.

5) Volva (universal veil)

Initially the entire fruit body prior to differentiation is covered by a universal veil. As the carpohore
extends this veil breaks and remains as a cup ‘Volva' surrounding the base of the stipe. Or some
portion of the entire veil tissue may remain as scales or marks on the expanded [Link] to
the presence or absence of annulus and volva, the mushrooms can be put in the following four
categories(1) the mushroom in which both annulus and volva present as in Amanita, (2) only annulus
is present and volva is absent,e.g., Agaricus, (3) in which only volva is present and annulus is absent
as in Volvariella, and (4) in which both annulus and volva are absent, e.g., the common fairy ring
(Marasmius oreades).

A. Growth Kinetics of Unicellular Fungi

Unicellular fungi such as S. cerevisiae follow the growth kinetics well established for unicellular
bacteria. In these organisms, when cell number is taken as the indicator of growth there is an initial
part of the growth curve in which there is apparently no growth (an increase in cell size or protein
content may be occurring, however), and this is followed by a period of gradual increase in numbers
until the logarithmic phase of growth is reached. Toxic products of metabolism or limitation in a
nutrient (or nutrients) may bring about a deceleration of growth until a stationary phase of no
increase and then a phase of autolysis and decline in numbers is reached.

B. Filamentous fungi

Obviously, Filamentous cell Fungi number is an impossible means for measuring growth of
coenocytic fungi, and it is also an impossible means for septate species, since cell size may vary and
there is no simple means for sampling the number of cells from a mycelium to gain an indication of
the total number of cells.

REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH

A. Nutritional Requirements

As a framework for our consideration of fungal nutrition, a few generalizations about oxygen
requirements and effects of hydrogen ion concentration may be useful. While some fungi (certain
yeasts, for example) will grow in the absence of free oxygen, i.e., anaerobically, most fungi are
aerobic, and marked effects in form are produced by decreases in oxygen tension. Hydrogen ion
concentration (pH) likewise has great effects on morphological development. In general, most fungi
grow best on a slightly acidic medium, and a range from pH 4 to pH 8 is common. Of course,
individual species may differ widely. The factors just mentioned, oxygen tension and pH, influence
metabolic processes and consequently the ability of a fungal species to utilize certain substances as
nutrients, which is the subject we are now going to examine briefly.
1. Carbon

Carbon sources provide for both the structural and energy requirements of the fungal cell .The fungi
are quite versatile in utilization of carbon compounds. There are fungal species which utilize various
polysaccharides, monosaccharides, organic acids, amino acids, certain alcohols, polycyclic
compounds, and natural products such as lignin as carbon sources. The carbon source most
commonly provided for growth of fungi in the laboratory is probably the 6-C monosaccharide
glucose, which is well-utilized by most fungi, although some species grow better on other carbon
sources.

The concentration of the carbon source is an important consideration and should probably exceed
2% when the requirements of the species being cultivated are not precisely not known. There are, of
course, exceptions to this generalization concerning concentration. Some species of yeasts, for
example, require concentrations of glucose over ten times that recommended here to attain
maximum growth. The role of carbon for the skeletal framework of all the organic compounds
synthesized by the fungus is obvious. It should be pointed out that carbon compounds utilized by
fungi in their nutrition also provide the energy that is required for the fungus to perform its life
activities.

2. Nitrogen

Nitrogen is essential in the synthesis of proteins, purines, and pyrimidines. Chitin, a polysaccharide of
common occurrence in the cell walls of many fungi, also contains nitrogen. The fungi utilize a variety
of sources to obtain the nitrogen for the synthesis of these essential compounds. These have been
reported in the past to include atmospheric nitrogen (although no filamentous fungi have been
conclusively demonstrated to do this, using modern techniques), nitrate, the ammonium ion, and
organic nitrogen. Studies on nitrogen metabolism using microorganısms including mutants of the
ascomycete Neurospora have led to the following generalization. A species utilizing nitrate can also
utilize organic nitrogen and a species utilizing ammonium ion can also utilize organic nitrogen
compounds.

3. Minerals

While the importance of carbon and nitrogen for fungi is obvious, no less important are some other
elements which may be required in lower concentrations. Most species of fungi utilize sulfur in the
form of sulfate, but some, e.g., Blastocladiella and Allomyces (members of the Division
Mastigomycota, Class Chytridiomycetes), require a reduced form of sulfur such as cysteine or
methionine. Commonly, however, sulfur is provided as magnesium sulfate, and the requiremnent is
in the range of 0.0001 to 0.0006 M. Sulfur is necessary for certain sulfur-containing amino acids such
as the aforementioned cysteine and methionine, the vitamins thiamine and biotin, and for certain
products of metabolism such as penicillin and mercaptans.

Phosphorus is generally supplied in media for the growth of fungi as potassium phosphate in a
concentration of around 0.0004 M. Its presence in ATP, nucleic acids, and in the phospholipids of
membranes indicates the basic importance of the element phosphorus in the living fungal cell.

The most abundant metallic element found in fungi is potassium. It is commonly supplied as
potassium phosphate, and thus this salt provides two of the elements essential for fungal
metabolism. A concentration of potassium in the range of 0.0001 to 0.0004 M satisfies the potassium
requirement of fungi. Potassium has a role as a cofactor in some enzyme systems. Magnesium is
essential to all fungi. Many enzymes are activated by magnesium, and it is supplied at a
concentration of about 0.0001 M, usually as magnesium sulfate. Thus, just as we find that so many
media for fungi include potassium phosphate, which supplied the essential elements potassium and
phosphate, we also find that magnesium sulphate is a common constituent, supplying the essential
elements magnesium and sulfur.

[Link]

A vitamin is an organic molecule required in small amounts and is not used as a source of energy or
structural material of protoplasm. It has a catalytic action and imparts specificity in its function as a
coenzyme. As a coenzyme, such things as temperature and pH influence vitamin requirement. Most
fungi have relatively simple nutritional requirements, but some do have a requirement for one or
more vitamins. The requirement indicates the inability of the fungus to synthesize the vitamin. This
requirement may be complete, or partial, in that the vitamin is produced in insufficient amounts to
produce optimal growth.

The vitamin most commonly required by fungi is thiamine (vitamin B1), which is required in amounts
of about 100μg /l. Thiamine is a natural deficiency of several Basidiomycetes. Its role is as
cocarboxylase which functions as the coenzyme of carboxylase in the regulation of carbohydrate
metabolism by the conversion of pyruvic acid into acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide.

The next most commonly required vitamin by fungi is probably biotin (known also as vitamin B7 and
as vitamin H). Biotin requirements are satisfied by amounts of about 5 μg/l. Its role is probably in the
synthesis of aspartic acid. Other vitamins for which certain fungi have a natural requirement include
nicotinic acid(B3),pantothenic acid(B5), and para-amino-benzoic acid.

B. Physical Requirements

Operating in conjunction with the nutritional requirements for growth are certain physical factors.
Those that will be considered here are temperature, light, moisture, aeration, and gravity.

In the cases of these physical environmental factors, growth invariably occurs over a range of values.
It is common to refer to three cardinal parameters in describing these factors - the minimum (the
value below which growth will not occur), the optimum (the value at which the greatest amount of
growth occurs), and the maximum (the highest value at which growth occurs). These values are
affected by other factors such as nutrition, genetic strain, age of the mycelium, and the cultural
conditions employed.

1. Temperature

Of all the physical factors affecting fungal growth, temperature is certainly one of the most
important, and one which is most frequently studied. The temperature extremes (maximum and
minimum) are of great importance in determining the survival and distribution of a fungal species in
nature. The optimal temperature for growth, production of metabolic products, and sporulation are
more frequently of interest to experimental investigators. An increase in temperature generally
increases enzymatic activity. In that part of the growth curve which is linear, the growth rates
approximately double for each 10°C increase in temperature (i.e., the Q1o value is 2). High
temperatures inactivate enzymes with a resulting effect upon metabolism and, consequently, upon
growth. The failure of a fungus to grow at high temperature may be the result of inability to
synthesize a needed vitamin.

2. Light
Most fungi are exposed to alternating periods of daylight and darkness. Some, however, are situated
in the darkness of soil or within the tissues of a host. The growth of most fungi is not sensitive to
light, although strong light may inhibit or even kill (possibly a temperature effect). It has been
reported that this inhibition by strong light may be overcome by the addition of natural materials,
such as yeast extract, to the medium. A possible interpretation for this phenomenon is that the light
may have destroyed certain vitamins which were then replaced by those present in the natural
material.

A most significant role that light has for fungi is in the phototropic responses of reproductive
structures (e.g., the sporangiophores of Phycomyces and Pilobolus) and in the formation of
reproductive structures. The development of fruiting bodies of many Basidiomycetes is triggered by
light.

3. Moisture

It is generally recognized that most fungi require high moisture levels. A relative humidity of 95 to
100% supports maximum growth of most Basidiomycetes; but, of course, there are fungi adapted to
lower moisture concentrations. The extreme is the germination of powdery mildew spores.

4. Aeration

The components of the air that are of greater importance to most fungi are oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Most fungi are obligate aerobes, but many will also grow in reduced levels of oxygen.

An effect of respiratory carbon dioxide upon development has frequently been reported in a variety
of organisms. The nature of the sporangium developed by the chytridiomycete Blastocladiella,
whether an ordinary, thin-walled colourless (OC) sporangium or a dark, thick-walled resistant (RS)
sporangium has been shown by Cantino to be determined by the carbon dioxide concentration.

The mushrooms of Basidiomycetes may be malformed in the presence of too much respiratory
carbon dioxide – a fact which emphasized the need for proper ventilation in mushroom growing
houses. The effect of high concentrations of carbon dioxide upon the development of fruiting bodies
was first reported by Lambert in 1933.

5. Gravity

The influence of gravity upon fungal growth is revealed most clearly in the development of fruiting
bodies of basidiomycetes. The role of the fruiting body is concerned with sexuality, and, if the value
of sexual reproduction is to be obtained, the basidiospores must be disseminated.

The spores are discharged from the basidia which are located on a hymenium that covers a gill, pore,
or a tooth-shaped surface. After discharge from the basidium, the spore falls by gravity until it
emerges from the region of the gills or pores; then air currents send it to its eventual destination.
Thus, the orientation of the fruiting body and the gills or pores must be such as to permit a free fall,
unobstructed by the gills or pores. This is accomplished by growth that adjusts the fruiting body to
vertical position, since the stipes of these mushrooms are negatively geotropic, and the hymenia
maintain their vertical orientation by positive geotropism of the gills .
REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process by which an organism gives rise to new individuals. The fungi are
extremely diverse in matters of reproduction, which may be accomplished through sexuality or by
non-sexual means (commonly referred to as asexuality). Sexual reproduction is characterized by the
union of two nuclei. It is the usual practice to describe sexuality as consisting of three cardinal
events. These events are plasmogamy, which is the fusion of the protoplasts, bringing different nuclei
into the same cytoplasm; karyogamy or fusion of the unlike nuclei; and meiosis, which is reductional
division of nuclei that results in the formation of haploid nuclei. Non-sexual (asexual) reproduction
does not involve the union of nuclei, or sex cells, or sex organs. In non-sexual reproduction. progeny
are formed from a single parent, and thus there is no nuclear contribution from second parent, so
that any offspring resulting from asexual reproduction is genetically identical to the parent from
which it arose.

It cannot be stressed too strongly that the advantage of sexual reproduction comes from the fact
that the offspring which result vary from one another genetically. That is, sexual reproduction
imparts variation to species , with the consequence that some individuals will be more fit for a
particular environmental situation than other individuals. On the other hand, in non-sexual
reproduction the progeny formed are identical to the parent from which they arose, and since they
are commonly produced in very large numbers, an available habitat will soon become densely
populated if the environmental conditions are favourable. Sexuality insures the maintenance of the
species under changing conditions, while asexuality provides for wide dissemination of the species so
long as conditions are suitable for the existence of the genotype undergoing non-sexual
reproduction.

In the fungi, reproductive organs may be formed. The reproductive organs may be sexual or non-
sexual. If the entire thallus is converted into a reproductive structure or structures, as occurs in some
of the Chytridiomycetes, the fungus is referred to as being holocarpic. The more common situation,
however, is for the reproductive organs to arise from only a portion of the thallus. Fungi of this type
are referred to as being eucarpic.

In fungi reproduction may take place by three methods; vegetative, asexual and sexual.

During asexual and sexual reproduction processes spores are the essential structures. The spores
formed after meiosis are called meiospores (e.g., ascospores, basidiospores and sporangiospores)
and those resulting from mitosis, called mitospores (e.g., mitospores, zoospores, aplanospores,
conidia, uredospores).

The diploid body produced as a result of sexual fusion is known as zygote which in lower fungi is
termed as resting spore, oospore or zygospore. In higher fungi, the zygote is represented by a diploid
nucleus produced in a cell (ascus or basidium). This diploid nucleus after undergoing meiosis results
in the formation of haploid nuclei serving as centres for haploid sexual spores called ascospores and
basidiospores.

Vegetative reproduction: In this type of reproduction, a part of mycelium separate and forms a new
individual. The various methods of vegetative reproduction are:

a. Fragmentation: The hypha break into small fragments. Each piece upon getting suitable conditions,
germinates to form a new mycelium.
b. Fission: This method involves the splitting of cells into two daughter cells by the formation of a
constriction followed by a cell wall formation.

c. Budding: A small bud formed from the parent cell which gradually increases in size and receives a
part of nucleus. A cell wall is formed which separates the daughter cell from the parent cell.

d. Sclerotia: These are perennating bodies formed by the compact masses of interwoven hyphae.
Sclerotia under suitable conditions germinate to form new individuals e.g. Claviceps, Sclerotinia.

e. Rhizomorphs: These are root-like elongated mycelial strands. They remain dormant under
unfavourable conditions and under favourable conditions develop into a new mycelium.

Asexual reproduction: It commonly take place through spores, either motile or non-motile and

form in a specialized part of mycelium. The various types of spores are:

a. Zoospores: These are commonly found in lower fungi e.g., Saprolegnia, Pythium etc. They are
naked spores, which after swarming, encyst, secrete a cell wall and germinate by germ tube into a
thallus. They are equipped with one or two flagella.

b. Sporangiospore: The sporangiospores or aplanospores are nonmotile and lack flagella and are
formed inside the sporangium e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus. These spores may by uninucleate or
multinucleate and possess two-layered cell wall.

c. Conidia: They are produced externally on branched or unbranched hyphal tips termed as
[Link] conidia may be formed singly or in chains. The conidial chains may be basipetal or
acropetal in succession. Conidia may be uninucleate or multinucleate. The latter type is more
common in the members of the form class Deuteromycetes.

d. Oidia: They are produced by fragmentation of hyphae from apex to base. Each cell thus formed
rounds off and separates as a spore which under favourable circumstances germinates and forms the
mycelium.

e. Chlamydospores: They are formed by rounding off and enlargement of terminal or intercalary cells
of a hypha. These can be single or formed in chains. They do not separate from the hyphae but
remain viable and germinate under favourable conditions.

f. Ascospores: An ascospore are produced inside an ascus during the optimal condition. This kind of
spore is specific to fungi classified as ascomycetes

g. Uredospores: A thin-walled, red, summer spore of a rust fungus, produced usually on the leaves
orstems of grasses.

[Link]: These spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. They typically each contain one
haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells
called basidia.

Sexual reproduction: It involves the formation and fusion of gametes. Sexual reproduction found in
all groups of fungi except deuteromycetes or fungi imperfecti. Sexual reproduction has three distinct
phases i.e. plasmogamy (protoplasmic fusion), karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and meiosis (reduction
division of zygote). The various methods of sexual reproduction in fungi are as follows:
a. Planogametic copulation: This is simplest type of sexual reproduction. In this process fusion of two
gametes of opposite sex or strains takes place where one or both of the fusing gametes are motile
(flagellated). It results in the formation of a diploid zygote. This process is usually of these types:

Isogamy: In this process fusing gametes are morphologically similar and motile but physiologically
dissimilar. These gametes are produced by different parents, e.g. Synchytrium .

Heterogamy: When the fusing gametes are morphologically as well as physiologically different, the
Process is known as heterogamy. Heterogamous reproduction is of two types: anisogamy and
oogamy. Anisogamy consists of the fusion of two motile gametes where the male gamete is small and
more active than the female gamete, e.g., Allomyces. In oogamy the motile male gamete
(antherozooid) fuses with the large, non-motile female gamete (egg or ovum) e.g., Synchytrium etc.

b. Gametangial contact: In this process two gametangia of opposite sex come in contact with one
another. The male gametangium (antheridium) transfer male nucleus or gamete into the female
gametangium (oogonium) either through a pore at the point of contact or through a fertilization
tube, e.g., Phytophthora, Albugo, Pythium etc.

c. Gametangial copulation: In involves the fusion of entire contents of two gametangia to form a
common cell called zygote or zygospore, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus.

d. Spermatization: Some fungi produce many minute, spore-like, single-celled structures spermatia
(nonmotile gametes). These structures are transferred through agencies like wind and insects to
either special receptive hyphae or trichogyne of ascogonium. The contents migrate into receptive
structure. Thus dikaryotic condition is established, e.g. Puccinia.

e. Somatogamy: This takes place in fungi where formation of gametes is absent. In such fungi,
anastomoses takes place between hyphae and their somatic cells fuse to produce dikaryotic cells,
e.g, Agaricus, Peniophora etc.

REQUIREMENT FOR MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

[Link]

Spawn is merely mycelium from a selected mushroom grown o on some convenient medium and it is
the strain of mushroom selected which decides the type of mushroom the spawn will produce. The
essential qualities of good spawn are :

a) It should be of a strain originating from a single specimenor of a perfect crop.

b) It should have the following aspects. The substratum must be covered with the white mycelium, it
must be uniform and at the moment of removal from the container, be absolutely free not only from
mould but also from all other micro-organisms.

Although some of these characters may be visible at a glance a good spawn cannot in principle be
distinguished from bad spawn merely by looking at it. Sometimes odour may help to remove the
suspicion. Fresh spawn has a strong mushroom odour, dried pawn is odourless. But only a thorough
examination and test can establish whether the spawn is good or bad.
A number of materials mostly agricultural wastes, can be used to prepare mushroom spawn. The
type of waste available varies from region to region. Some of these wastes are chopped rice straw,
tobacco midribs, sawdust, water hyacinth leaves, cereal grains used tea leaves, coffee hull; cotton
wastes, cotton pulp, husk and lotus seed husk.

The most important factor to consider is good growth of the mycelium on the given substrate. In
most laboratories cereal grains (sorghum, rice, wheat or rye) are used as mother spawn and
agricultural wastes as the planting spawn substrate. Large grains such as wheat and sorghum carry a
greater reserve of food materials per grain to sustain the inoculum of mushroom mycelium till the
mycelium has established in the compost. The smaller grains such as millets on other hand have
more units of inoculum per grain of spawn which gives a quicker penetration of compost by
mushroom mycelium.

Rigid containers used in preparing spawn also vary from region to region. They must be heat
resistant and must have suitable lid. Heat resistant plastic bags (polypropylene) are now used
because of their light weight and ease of handling and transport. Dextrose bottles which can be
obtained free from most hospitals, are ideal because they have rubber stoppers with air outlets that
can be loosely plugged with cotton wool. Dextrose bottle are excellent for mothers spawn because
the spawn is easier to dispense.

PREPARATION OF SUBSTRATE

Mushroom substrate may be simply defined as a kind of lignocellulosic material which supports the
growth, development, and fruiting of mushroom mycelium. The process of preparation of substrate
is usually termed "'composting.'. The final product of composting is called the compost.

A. Composting

Generally, composting refers to the piling up of substrates for a certain period of time and the
changes due to the activities of various microorganisms which result in the composted substrate
being chemically and physically different from the starting material. This is sometimes referred to as
solid state fermentation. Two types of composting are commonly described. One type involves the
decomposition of heaps of organic wastes and the subsequent application of the residue to the soil.
The aim of this type of composting is to reduce, in a sanitary manner, both the volume and the
carbon:nitrogen ratio of the organic waste so that it is suitable for manuring soil to improve the
growth of plant crops. When given directly to soil without composting, organic wastes with a high
C:N ratio (such as straw) can give rise to a temporary nitrogen deficiency which will then result in a
reduction in yield of the plant crop.

The second type of composting is also a process of microbial fermentation. But in this case, the
substrate is used for the cultivation of edible [Link] composting, a mixture of rich
organic materials is converted into a stable medium which is selective for the growth of a particular
mushroom but is not suitable, or is less favourable, for the growth of competing microorganisms. The
competitors exist in uncomposted materials, and often in partially composted materials, but they are
far less active in well-composted mushroom substrates. Actually, this type of composting is derived
mainly from the Agaricus mushroom growing industry, in which a composting technique which
renders wheat straw with horse manure specific for the growth of the Agaricus mushroom has been
developed. It should be noted that the treatment of substrates for growing other mushrooms can be
regarded as "composting'', but the procedures followed in composting and the nature of the product
can be quite different. This is because the starting materials and the lengths of time accompanying
the various changes in the substrate vary from mushroom ta mushroom.
Our concern is to present the reader with the purposes of composting and the general changes that
take place during this process. Consequently, we will discuss this with special reference to Agaricus,
since composting has been most extensively studied in this mushroom, and we shall not attempt to
include all the differences that occur in composting for other mushrooms.

Under natural circumstances when mushroom spawn is inoculated into raw substrate, the competing
microorganisms may quickly gain dominance and prevent the mushroom mycelium from developing.
The main purpose of composting, then, is to prepare a medium of such characteristics that the
growth of mushroom mycelium is promoted to the practical exclusion of other organisms. During
composting, certain chemical properties, physical qualities, and microbial flora have to be developed
in the substrate. All of these are equally important, and none is independent of the others. Broadly
speaking, the proper chemical state is one in which the food materials best able to serve the
nutritional needs of the mushrooms are accumulated. These foodstuffs must be in a form available
to the mushrooms. For instance, it would be unsatisfactory if all the nitrogen were changed to nitrate
instead of protein since the mushrooms cannot use nitrates. Moreover, toxic substances which
inhibit the growth of spawn must not be produced. The substrate must also have certain physical
qualities. It must support aerobic conditions, hold waste without becoming waterlogged and have a
proper pH and good drainage. Biologically, the substrate must have a population of suitable
microorganisms. It is literally teeming with millions of bacteria and fungi. The substrate in compost
preparation for most mushrooms should not be sterilized.

Traditionally, horse manure and wheat straw are the basic ingredients of Agaricus mushroom
composts whereas wood logs and paddy straw are used for growing Lentinus and Volvariella
mushrooms, respectively. Accordingly, any substrate which is composed of agricultural and/or
industrial waste materials mixed with various organic supplements is called a 'synthetic compost''
when used for growing Agaricus or Volvariella, and a "synthetic log`, when used for Lentinus.
Numerous formulations employing every manner of lignocellulosic waste products and residues for
the preparation of synthetic composts and logs have been devised. Synthetic compost in this sense
is, in fact, the general substrate used for growing edible mushrooms, including Agaricus and Lentinus.
Actually, the preparation of a compost suitable for mushroom growing is still very much dependent
upon the skill and experience of the individual grower. A well-prepared compost is essential for a
successful crop, since subsequent cultural operations cannot produce good crop from a compost of
poor quality. The comprehensive results of research on mushroom composts have been intensively
reviewed.

The process of mushroom composting, particularly with regard to Agaricus, takes place in two
distinct phases. Although the principles of this complicated process are known and guidelines are
available, in practice modifications are necessary to meet various situations, e.g., the availability of
raw materials. the facilities in the growing area, and, above all, the species of mushroom which is to
be cultivated. There is no possibility that the technology of the Agaricus cultivation industry, even
though it is considered to be the most advanced one, can be uniformly followed or applied for the
growing of other mushrooms in every [Link] is this the case for Volvariella volvacea,
since this mushroom lacks sufficient polyphenoloxidases to neutralize the poisonous phenol
compounds which are liberated from the lignins during composting.

1. Phase I Composting (Compost Preparation)

The purpose of Phase 1 composting is to mix and wet the raw materials and to begin the composting
process during which various microorganisms break down the straw .In straw or other plant residues,
the main components are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The hemicelluloses are generally found
in rather close association with cellulose in plant fibers. Both cellulose and hemicellulose are
carbohydrates which yield sugars after appropriate treatment. They are readily attacked by some
bacteria and fungi are easily decomposed after suitable circumstances. Lignin, on the other hand is a
resistant substance which more or less impregnates plant fiber and is not readily attacked by
bacteria.

After composting, the easily composed carbohydrates, which serve as an excellent source of food for
molds and bacteria, tend to diminish and the substrate is no longer favourable for these potential
competitors. Proteins Increase as a result of the activity of the microorganisms which convert simple
nitrogenous materials such as ammonia and nitrates to complex proteins The heating of the heap is
of special interest. Lambert and Davis identified four zones of activity in compost stacks, which were
related to the distribution of temperature to the natural diffusion of air into the stacks and to
microbial activity.

2). Microbial activities in the anaerobic zone 4 and the outside cold zone are considered to be
unsatisfactory. Therefore, a good turner and turning schedule should move the material between
zones and give the entire compost the desirable aerobic zone conditions for a time. The composting
stack can be made up in the open or, more commonly now, under the protection of open-sided
compost sheds. For commercial purposes, yields from Phase I compost would not be high enough,
because such compost is itself vulnerable and would also be subject to pathogens.

Phase II Composting (Compost Conditioning)

This is commonly known as pasteurization or peak-heating. The objectives of Phase composting are
two fold:

1. To eradicate insects and pests carried in with the Phase I composting substrate and to destroy
spores of contaminating microorganisms.

2. To bring the substrate to a uniform temperature of about 50 to 55C which promotes

decomposition of the substrates by thermophilic microorganisms. Through this final adjustment,a
more selective medium favoring the growth of the mushroom is produced.

Live steam generated from a water boiler is generally employed for pasteurization, and it gives
satisfactory results. It must be noted that it is the bed temperature which is critical, and the object is
to manage the air temperature in any way necessary to keep the bed temperature at the desired
level. This entire process must be adapted to meet the specific circumstances existing in different
mushroom houses. Generally speaking, it takes approximately 2 hr after the introduction of live
steam to have an air temperature of 60 to 62°C. This temperature should be maintained for 2 hr, and
then a gentle stream of fresh air introduced to lower the temperature to 52°C. This temperature is
maintained for the next 6 to 8 hr for Volvariella volvacea, and for several days for Agaricus bisporus.
The steam supply is then shut off, and the compost is allowed to cool gradually to the desired
temperature for the outdoor spawning.

Housing

Mushroom Farm / House Design

In India mushroom cultivation is basically a seasonal activity. In plains mushrooms are generally
cultivated in the temporary built mud houses or thatched structures where proper condition of
ventilation, humidity and temperature control are difficult to maintain resulting in poor yields and
occasional crop failure but now with the advancement of technology it can be done under controlled
conditions with the specially constructed mushroom houses. Mushroom growing is an agricultural
activity where hygiene is the most important factor. To be profitable one should starts with 3 growing
rooms each with a cropping area of 200 m²and one bulk chamber with scope for future expansion.

1. BUTTON MUSHROOM (AGARICUS SPP.)

For growing button mushroom on a commercial scale, selection of proper site and layout of
mushroom farm are of great importance for conducting various operations systematically and
efficiently. The site should be connected by road and have availability of clean water, regular power
supply with 3 phase facility, drainage arrangements, availability of raw materials and labour, vicinity
of market and green surrounding from the area. The site can should be away from populated area as
foul odours emanating from the compost yard can be bothersome.

For button mushroom following infrastructure is required to be built for establishment of a

mushroom farm:

(A) Composting Unit

 Outdoor Phase I composting platform/indoor bunkers or aerated chambers

 Indoor Phase II in peak heating/bulk chamber.
 Peak heating chamber.
 Bulk pasteurization chamber.
 Cooling of compost in summer months, a special requirement.
 Casing pasteurization chamber.

(B) Spawn unit

 Spawn laboratory

(C) Cropping unit

 Seasonal cropping rooms

 Environmental controlled cropping rooms
 Environmental control, air conditioning and forced air circulation
 Ancillary units.

(D) Post harvest handling unit

 Pre-cooling chamber
 Canning hall with canning line
 Packing room

The Dutch farm design and construction is widely being adopted all over the world, with
modifications to suit local conditions. In principle two system are recognized in the field of
mushroom growing the one system zone and the two zone system, with variations suiting local
conditions. In the single zone system, peak heating, spawn run and cropping is done in one room
which means that each room must be ensulated and equipped SO that the highest temperature
required (55-59° at peak and 70°C at cookout) can be reached. With the one zone system growing is
always done in fixed beds, called shelf-beds.

In 2-zone system, there are separate rooms for peak heating, spawn run and cropping. Obviously the
2-zone system will be larger than the one zone system. In this system the temperature in the
cropping rooms will not rise higher than 16-20° C and will not need heavy insulation. However,
rooms for peak heating (or tunnels) and spawn run will have to be heavily insulated.

Composting Yard

For compost preparation a covered shed without wall is necessary. This will facilitate the escape of
foul gases into the atmosphere. The composting yard should be laid on a firm ground. A bed of sand
15-20 cm thick is laid followed by a layer of concrete (15 cm thick). It needs a gentle slope working
towards a guddy pit (2x2x3 cm) which is built away from the bulk chamber at one end of the
platform and is provided with a dewatering pump and hose.

The size of the composting yard should be about 100x40 ft. It is large enough to allow three
simultaneous stacks of 8 tons each along with space for wetting the straw for pile preparation. The
roof of the outdoor composting platform is built on RCC pillars with 15’ high with a G.I roof. A drain
should run on two sides of platform away from the wall to facilitate with periodic cleaning of
platform.

Bulk Chamber/Peak Heating Chamber/Tunnel

Bulk chamber/tunnel is required for mass treatment of compost. Location of bulk

Chamber in a mushroom farm is very important. Following considerations will influence its location.

1. Risk of infection

2. Location relative to the growing room

3. The ease of connection to the site services

4. Transporting of compost.

5. The possibility of expansion

The floor of the bulk chamber is first laid with a sand 15-20 cm thick, then spread a layer of broken
brick/stone 10 cm thick, followed by 5 cm concrete floor ([Link]) and insulation with thermocol/glass
wool 5 cm thick (15 g/m² density). This will give K value of 0.5-0.6 k Cal/m20 C/hour. The insulation is
covered with isolating membrane of PVC sheeting followed by 5 cm concrete floor and finally the
finish. The outer brick wall should be 22.5 cm thick over the concrete foundation floor and walls are
separated to leave space for expansion of construction under extremes of temperature. This is done
by filling 1 cm broad polystyrene battens to the base of the walls before pouring the concrete. They
are burnt a way later and the space is then filled with bituminous sealant.
The dimension of the bulk chamber depends on the quality of the compost to be filled in the
chamber with the height of 13 ft. During peak heating about 25% of compost is lost. The tunnel,
therefore must be filled with 30% more of compost.

The roof is made of 4" thick RCC. The wall, ceiling and the floor below the plenum are insulated with
5 cm thick insulating material (15 kg density per m³) necessary for insulating effect during
pasteurization and conditioning of the compost. The floor must be laid with good run-off provided
with a drain to facilitate cleaning. Air leakage in the bulk chamber must be prevented. The grated
drain floor must allow the air to pass through, for which approximately 25-30% of the floor area is
left the form of gaps for ventilation/circulation of air and steam. The plenum is divided with a
perforated brick in wall (one or two) in the centre for supporting the grated floor. The grating can be
made of wood (painted with bituminous paint), coated iron strips mounted on angle iron frame or
cement if possible

The doors of the bulk chamber are made of angle iron or wooden frame with 2-3" insulation in the
middle and covered on both side with aluminium sheets. The chamber will have 2 exhaust vents one
for recirculation exit and the other for exhaust of gases on introduction of fresh air filtered dampers.
Fungal filters of 2-3μ are fitted on the entry points to keep out pathogenic fungal spores and others
pests. The fresh air dampers are provided on top of the roof and connected with recirculation duct
for introduction of fresh air. The chamber is serviced by blower fan below the plenum, installed in
underground room on the side of the chamber. The blower fan size will depend on the amount of the
compost to be handled in the bulk chamber. A centrifugal blower fan air ventilation capacity of 150
m3 per hour per ton of compost filled with pressure of 80-100 mm of water of gauge at entry point
to the chamber will be required to be installed for recirculation of air in the bulk chamber. This
blower should be energized by a motor preferably with 1440 rpm. Bulk chamber of 20 tons capacity
will require 3000 m³ air per hour with pressure of 80-100 mm of water gauge to facilitate the air to
pass through 2m thick compost layer over the plenum. The steam line is also connected at the entry
point. The walls and the ceiling can be damp proof by coating bituminous paint on inside over the
cemented surface, which will also serve as an effective vapour barrier. The grated floor inside and the
work floors outside should be of the same height for operational convenience.

The bulk chamber can be filled/emptied manually or by conveyer belt/machines. The use of
machines for filling/emptying are labour saving, time saving. The compost when brought out is fed
into the spawning machine where requisite amount of spawn is mixed with the compost and the
seeded compost is them poured into clean polythene bags for transport to growing room.

In summer months when outside temperature are around 30-40°C air handling units with cooling
coils are required for cooling of compost.

Compost in the tunnel should be loosely filled, up to the height of 2-2 m only. When the compost is
tightly filled, aeration will become difficult which results in greater difference in temperature and
lack of local oxygen which may result in poor unproductive compost. Compost up to the height of 4m
can also be filled but in such a case design and capacity of the blower is required to be changed
accordingly.

Most of the air being circulated inside the tunnel is the air exhausted in the space above the compost
and blown inside under the grated floor through a blower. Only little fresh air is drawn inside, this
fresh air should be filtered.
Casing Pasteurization Chamber

Most of the growers in India are pasteurizing their casting soil with formaldehyde. However modern
mushroom farms having steam pasteurization facilitates for compost are required to build
pasteurization chamber or room for casting soil. A room of 15’ x 9’ x 12’ is large enough for this
purpose. The walls and ceiling should be heavily insulated. The room is also provided with the grated
floor made up of wood and is about 25 cm above the concrete floor. Casting soil is placed in trays on
the grated plenum below grated floor and pasteurized at 60-65°C for 4-6 hours. One recirculation
fan/ blower can also be provided for recirculation of steam. Such system gives better results.

In India rotten farm yard manure (FYM) and spent compost (both 2 years old) are used as a casing
medium which gives good results. But there is problem of salt accumulation in these materials
resulting in higher electrical conductivity. This can be rectified by washing/steeping these materials in
clean water for 4/6 hours before steam pasteurization. So, construction of cemented water tanks
with arrangement for free flow of clean water above and drainage below will be required to
wash/steep the casing material before use.

Spawn Unit

For the entire spawn unit a total built in area of 60 X 30 ' x 12' is enough. This area will be divided
into cooking/autoclaving room, inoculation room, incubation room with A/C, washing area, store
office, and one insulated cold room for storage of spawn.

Cropping unit

Since the mushrooms are grown indoors under simulated environment especially created for
mushroom growth, the cropping rooms are required to be especially built for the purpose. Two types
of cropping rooms are built, seasonal cropping room and environment controlled growing room.

Seasonal Cropping Rooms

Seasonal growing rooms are simple with some modifications. The growing rooms will have a
cemented floor, cemented walls, cemented ceiling, or a false ceiling with arrangement for forced air
circulation. In low cost growing houses where thatched roof or asbestos sheets are used, false
polythene ceiling will be good enough to create the sealing effect on top. The seasonal growing
houses should not be insulated, as it will be difficult to maintain the environment inside the room
congenial for crop growth. In extreme areas where lower temperature prevalent in some part of the
season, brick walls in the gaps should be good enough prevent condensation of water on the walls
cropping room in winter months.

The door is insulated on one end and the exhaust vent on the opposite end of the door. The forced
air circulation is very essential in seasonal growing houses by installing an exhaust fan on top of the
door fixing inwards, joined to a perforated polythene duct running along the entire length of the
room. The walls and false ceiling should be air tight to make the forced air circulation system
effective and workable.

The mushrooms are grown on beds made out of bamboo sticks and sarkanda stems. These growing
rooms can also be built as low cost structure steel pipe frame with heavy desity polythene covering
from outside. In any rural areas the low cost low technology growing houses are made of ( walls, roof
and door) sarkanda stems without any forced air circulation. The air is naturally exchanged in these
rooms through porous stem walls all the time. But these houses are at the mercy of the climate and
low winter temperature interferes in the normal crop production.

The mushroom houses made with bamboo frame and synthetic fiber cloth material, both inside and
outside with paddy straw insulation in between has also given good results under hill conditions for
seasonal growing.

Environment Controlled Cropping Room

These cropping rooms are especially designed insulated rooms. The dimensions of the cropping
rooms are determined by the amount of compost to be filled into the room. For 20 tonnes of
compost, room size should be 35’x25’x12’ and growing rooms should be in lines on both sides. The
cropping rooms of above dimensions should have 3-5 shelves one above the other. Polythene bags
are also used for growing mushrooms in these growing houses.

The foundation of the growing room should be laid on dry and firm ground. The floor is laid as
explained in bulk chamber. The walls are made up of 9’’ thick bricks which are given a smooth
insulation with cement plaster. The insulation sheets are fixed on the wall (5 cm thick thermocol,
glass wool/polyurethane), with the use of hot coal tar. The layer of cement plaster is then applied (2
cm) on the top of this and given a smooth finish. Bituminous paint is applied on cement plaster as a
vapour barrier.

The roof is made of RCC ([Link]) 4" thick. The inside is given a cement plaster finish for application of
insulation (as explained for the wall). The roof on the outside is protected by tarring it on top,
followed by 10 cm thick loose soil 5 cm thick mud capping and finally the tiles. This will protect the
roof from weathering effects of rain and will ensure longer life of insulation and prevent seepage of
moisture into the room in rainy season. In hilly areas with a high rain fall slanting GI sheet roof will be
excellent and in that case mud capping and tiling of the roof is not done.

Single insulated door is made up of GI sheets or aluminium sheet. A rubber gasket is also provided in
the door. Two vents (1.5’’ x 1.5’’0 provided in the opposite walls 2-3’ above ground level. The vents
are closed with wire nets and provided with insulated shutter for closing and opening. For change of
air, a fresh air duct is provided on the top of the door made of polythene sheets having small holes
all over. This duct runs length wise in the room and is connected to the exhaust fan (24’’ diameter)
energized by a 1.5 HP motor, mounted in a box, which is known as air handling equipment. This
equipment has provision of cooling, heating and providing proper humidity in the rooms, and is
installed in each growing room. The duct keeps the air movement within the room in permissible
limit to prevent cracking of mushroom. The air is blown through the unit into the growing room and
carbon dioxide is exhausted through the back vents. The mushrooms generally require 22.5 m3 fresh
air per 100 kg compost and 9000 k cal of heat is produced by 20 ton of compost per hour during
pawn run and initial flushes.

There should be provision for tube lights and a mobile strong light tor inspection in each cropping
room. The tube lights should be fitted on all the walls vertically at various heights to facilitate lighting
of all beds. There should be provision for few electrical points for operation of water spraying
equipment and CO2 measuring instruments. One clean water pipe line (1" Or 1.25") for delivering
clean water for spraying should be provided in each room. Underground drainage line for carrying
the washings from the room and wash basin discharge should laid before construction of building.
The gallery between the rows of cropping rooms should be wide (approximately 20 feet) to allow
efficient performance of various operation.

For getting a healthy crop of mushrooms fresh air, cooling / heating, pH, heat and CO2 removal and
evaporation from the beds have to be maintained in coordinated manner, as changes in one factor
affects the other.

For seasonal growing all the above requirements are met with by coinciding various stages of crop
growth with the prevailing seasonal temperature outside. In hilly areas the mushroom can be grown
seasonally with minor adjustments, raising 2-3 crops in a year. The seasonal crop can also raised in
plains in winter months. Forced air circulation is very essential for forcing the oxygen and exhausting
the CO2 laden air during cropping, as the compost is microbiologically active and produce CO2 all
the time consumption of oxygen. In controlled growing houses the forced air circulation is achieved
by the use of ‘Air Handling Unit’ (AHU).The AHU contains the cooling coils, the heating coils and one
chamber for humidification with a centrifugal blower fan in front to pull through the air into the
room for circulation via air ducts places in the centre of the room. The recommended air pressure of
the blower fan should support 50 mm of water gauge in the entry point. The cooling coils are
supplied with chilled water at 5-6° C from a chiller in the AC room. The air after its passage through
the cooling coils is cooled to about 13-14°C before its blown into mist chamber for its humidification.
The air in humidity chamber is brought to 100% RH at 13-14°C and then blown into the ducts for
circulation into the cropping room. By the time it reaches the crop bed, the temperature rises to
about 16-17°C lowering the RH automatically to 85%. The slow movement of air over the crop bed
ensures slow evaporation of moisture from casting resulting in removal of CO2 and heat from the
crop bed. The CO2 gets mixed with the air and is finally blown out via the exhaust pipes.

The fresh air/recirculated air quantities are mixed/controlled by adjustment of dampers at fresh and
re-circulated air entry points. The size of the damper is known and by measuring the air speed at
entry point, the air quantity can be adjusted. The air displacement capacity of AHU in a cropping
room should be about 4500-5000 m3/hour for a cropping room with 20-25 tons of compost (225-250
m³ air/hr/ton of compost in the room).

For heating of rooms, the heating coils in AHU are supplied with steam from the boiler and number
of eating coil needed will depend upon the prevailing outside temperature. The RH is created in the
additional chamber in AHU with fine water jets located in the RH chamber for misting. Alternatively,
foggers or mist makers can be installed in the air delivery duct with a humiditostate for RH. The duct
should be laid in such a way to ensure slow movement of air over the bed surface. Slow air
movement over bed will ensure regular evaporation from the crop bed.

OYSTER MUSHROOM

Oyster mushroom grow over a wide range of temperature of 15-30° C and hence is ideally suited for
cultivation under temperate and tropical climatic conditions.

For commercial cultivation of this mushroom following facilities are required:

1. Substrate preparation area/steeping tank.

2. Substrate pasteurization chamber.

3. Spawn run and growing room.

4. Post harvest handling room/dehydration chamber

Substrate Preparation Area

On a commercial scale if large quantity of substrates is prepared by adopting chemical sterilization

techniques then the two large cemented steeping tanks (10 x 10" X 8' depth) are required to be
constructed near to the growing houses. In Germany Zadrazil and Schneidereit adopted steam
pasteurization of substrate using tunnel technology on commercial scale. There are various minor
variations of their methods adopted in Europe. Hence a cemented platform of 40" x 40' will be
required for farm having production target of 100--200 tons of fresh mushroom per year.

Substrate Pasteurization Chamber

A bulk chamber or tunnel is required to be built at the farm for the mass treatment of straw for its
effective pasteurization. The size of the tunnel should be 25' x 9’ x 14 ‘. The bulk room has a double
floor. The lower floor consist of an insulated concrete layer lying about half a meter below the level.
This floor is constructed at a slope of 2 per cent down to the air inlet. While the top, fake floor
generally built of 1"-1.5" thick wood is grated leaving 25-30 per cent air gaps in between. The
plenum should be 3' deep at the lower end and only 6" deep at the upper end

At the lower point of the tunnel provisions are made to carry off condensed water and washings of
the tunnel. For insulation of floor, wall and ceiling 5 cm insulation material like thermocol or
glasswool is used, covered with cement plaster on the inner side required k value (0.5 kcal/h/m2) can
be achieved. Finally the entire surface of the tunnel is painted with bitumin so as to give vapour
proof finish to the tunnel.

On deeper side of the tunnel, below the grated floor is an inlet for steam pipe and air which are
connected to a boiler and blower. Two vents are provided at the top of the tunnel, one connected to
the blower via recirculating duct while another is meant for the exchange of surplus gases and water
vapour.

Spawn Run and Growing Room

Oyster mushroom can be cultivated seasonally or throughout the year by controlling the
temperature. For seasonal growing under Indian condition, a house/mud house/thatched house may
be used. Here all the parameters are achieved seasonally and hence different species will have to be
selected as per the climate. Air vents on the upper wall and side walls are provided for ventilation.

For round the year cultivation of oyster mushroom insulated poly houses are common in Europe
since their cost of construction is far less compared to cemented structures Polyhouses should be
around 75' x 15' x 12' in dimensions made up of UV stabilized high density polythene sheets (HDPE)
supported by GI pipe structure. Poly houses are insulated with 6" thick glass wool pads. Such
structures should hold around 12 tons of pasteurized material in 2 rows of racks having 4 shelves
each made either of bamboo or iron. Dimension of shelves would be 70 x 4.5 X 6.5 ft. The roof may
be simple with arrangement for water pipes with jets to facilitate watering and cooling. A modified
heavy desert cooler with perforated polythene ducts can also serve the purpose.
Cultivation of paddy straw mushroom in India is practiced indoors in a low cost hut or a mud-house
under seasonal conditions. More recently polythene cropping houses built of metal frame with high
density polythene on top have been used successfully. Further improvement should be needed in
cultivation technology and farm design of this mushroom