Kingdom Fungi

Syllabus: Fungi
(As mentioned for AIPMT)
manufacture their own organic food. They are,
Fungi (sing. = fungus) are achlorophyllous. eukaryotic
therefore, dependent upon living organisms or dead
thallophytes. These form a large group which includes
organic matter for their nutrition. On the basis of food
more than 1,00,000 species. The branch of botany
habits fungi can be grouped into following three
dealing with the study of fungi is known as mycology
classes:
(mykes = mushroom, logos = discourse). The first
systematic description of fungi was given by an Italian (a) Parasites. Those fungi which obtain their food
botanist Pier' Antonio Micheli (1729) in his book from other living organisms (plants or animals) are
Nova Planlarum Genera. He is rightly called the called parasites.
'Founder of Mycology'. Although fungi have many
The organisms on which a parasite lives is knows as the
characters common to chlorophyllous thallophytes (i.e.,
host. Many parasites grow only on the host surface and
algae) but differ from them in many features.
send out specialized absorbing organs called haustoria
Therefore, they have been placed in a separate group.
within the host tissue for food absorption. Such
Some distinctive features of fungi are as follows.
parasites are called ectoparasites or ectophytic
General Characters of Fungi parasites (e.g. Erysiphe, Mucor). Some other parasitic
fungi which grow inside the host tissue (intracellular)
[I] Habit
are called endoparasites or endophytic parasites
Thallus is called mycelium. It is made up of thread- (e.g., Pythium, Puccinia). Among fungi, different
like filaments known as hyphae (sing. = hypha). The levels of parasitism may exist. These are briefly
hyphae are septate or aseptate. The cell wall is mostly discussed below.
made of chitin. Fungi lack chlorophyll and, hence,
(i) Obligate (total or complete) parasites : These
cannot manufacture their own carbohydrate food by
fungi obtain their food from the host throughout their
photosynthesis. Thus fungi are heterotrophic i.e.,
life without which they can not complete the li fecycle;
saprophytes (obtaining their food from dead organic
e.g., Albugo, Puccinia.
matter) or parasites (obtaining food from living
organisms). They store their food in the form of (ii) Facultative (partial / by chance)
glycogen (glycogen being common in many animals, it saprophytes : These fungi are normally parasites but
is known as animal slarch). under certain circumstances may obtain their food
from dead organic matter i.e., may lead saprophytic
[I] Habitat
life; e.g., Ustilago.
Fungi occur almost everywhere in nature. They grow in
(b) Saprophytes : Fungi which obtain their food from
water, soil, air, on food, leather, cloth, on optical
dead and decaying organic matter, are called
instruments, etc. They can also be seen on our hair,
saprophytes. Saprobes may be further divided into
mouth, eyes and even intestine. The economic losses,
following two categories.
they cause are out of all proportions to their size and
importance as plants. (i) Obligate saprophytes : These fungi always
obtain their food from dead matter throughout their life
[II] Nutrition
and do not require living organisms; e.g., Mucor,
1. Modes of nutrition: All fungi are characterised by Saprolegnia.
the complete absence of photosynthetic pigment -the
(ii) Facultative parasites : These fungi are
chlorophyll. Hence they lack the ability to
normally saprophytic but under certain conditions

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become parasite and obtain their food from a living Stemonites, etc.
host; e.g., Pestalotia.
2. Filamentous fungi: In majority of fungi the
(c) Symbionts : It is an organic relationship between thallus is made of long and slender filements called
two individuals in which both the partners are hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
benifited. Two common examples of symbiosis are (i) The hyphae are hyaline or coloured and may by
lichens and (ii) mycorrhiza. Lichen is a composite aseptate or septate. Aseptate hyphae are long, branched
plant formed by the association of algae and fungi. and acellular with many nuclei embedded in the
The algal partner belongs to Chlorophyceae or common protoplasm. Such type of thallus is known
Cyanophyceae and the fungal partner is a member of as coenocytic and is characteristic of Phycomycetes;
Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes. Mycorrhiza is an e.g, Mucor. The hypae in Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes
association between fungal hyphae and roots of higher and Deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti) are septate.
plants as in Pinus. Septa in most cases possess a central pore (perforated
septa) or are non-porous. In septate hyphae cells are
2. Elements used by Fungi: Using culture
either multinucleate (as in Ascomycetes) or uninucleate
techniques it has now been established that elements
(as in Basidiomycetes). The uninucleate hyphae of
like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium,
Basidiomycetes are known as monokaryotic or
manganese, sulphur, zinc, iron, copper, calcium, and
homokaryotic. Sometimes monokaryotic cells of two
cobalt are required by almost all fungi. Besides, fungi
different strains or genomes fuse and as a result each
also need vitamins and hormones for their growth and
cell of the hyphae may have two nuclei. Such a pair of
reproduction. Usually these are synthesized by fungi
nuclei is called dikaryon. These nuclei remain together
themselves but have to be absorbed from outside when
without fusing and divide independently and
deficient. Fungi store excess food material in the form
simultaneously as new cells are formed. Such hyphae
of glycogen or oil.
are termed as dikaryotic or heterokaryotic.
[III] Vegetative structure
[IV] Modifications of hypal structure
Fungi show great variation in the shape and structure
The hyphae of a mycelium are usually distinct. Under
of thallus (Fig 1Α-G). The thallus is usually simple
certain circumstances, the hyphal structures become
consisting of either single cell or long slender
modified into some specialized structures. Such
filaments. Accordingly, they can be placed into
modifications are usually adaptations to ecological or
following two groups:
physiological factors. Some important modifications
1. Unicellular fungi: In lower groups of fungi, the are described below.
thallus consists of only a single cell (e.g.,
Synchytrium). In some other non-mycelial fungi
called slime molds, the thallus is naked and
multinucleate amoeboid mass of protoplasm. Such
structure is called plasmodium, e.g., Plasmodiophora,

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Fig. 1 Α-G. Different types of fungi: A. Physarum (Myxornycetes), B. Rhizopus (Phyconycetes), C. Penicillium
(Ascomycetes), D. Morchella (Ascomycetes) E. Agaricus (Basidiomycetes), F. Polyporus (Basidiomycetes). G.
Alternaria (Deuteromycetes).

1. Plectenchyma: It is loosely or compactly woven [V] Reproduction

mass of fungal hyphae. Plectenchyma is of following
Fungi reproduce by three methods- vegetative, asexual
two types
and sexual.
(a) Prosenchyma : In this type of plectenchyma
1. Vegetative reproduction: Some common
the hyphae lie parallel to one another and are easily
methods of vegetative multiplication are as follows:
distinguishable.
(a) Fragmentation. Thallus or hypha breaks into a
(b) Pseudoparenchyma : The hyphae lie side by
number of segments. Each segment grows into a
side and in a cross section look like oval or
new individual.
isodiametric parenchymatous cells. In this type of issue
the fungal hyphae do not retain their individuality. (b) Fission. In fission a cell simply breaks into two
daughter cells by constriction. It is common in
2. Sclerotium (plu. = sclerotia): It is a tough
unicellular fungi such as yeasts.
and hard resting body resistant to unfavourable
conditions. It may remain dormant for long periods (c) Budding. In this process a 'bud' or an outgrowth
and germinates under favourable conditions; e.g., is produced by the parent cell. Meanwhile the
Claviceps. nucleus divides and one of the two daughter nuclei
migrates into the bud, Eventually the bud gets
3. Rhizomorpn: It is a thick, dark coloured strand of
separated from the parent cell and grows into a new
somatic hyphae running parallel to each other. The
individual; e.g., yeast.
hyphae lose their individuality. The growing tip of
the rhizomorph looks like a root lip, hence the name. 2. Asexual reproduction. It occurs practically in
These structures are resistant to unfavourable all fungi. It usually takes place during unfavourable
conditions and remain dormant until favourable conditions by means of a wide variety of unicellular or
conditions return. Rhizomorphs also creep under bark multicellular spores. They are either motile or non-
of trees or in the soil, thus helping in the spread of motile. There is also much variation in the form
fungus, e.g. Armillaria, Agaricus, etc.

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of spore bearing structures. Some common types of (b) Conidium (pl. = conidia): Conidia are non-
asexual spores are briefly described below. motile spores borne either singly (e.g., Phyto- phthora)
or in chains (e.g., Penicillium, Aspergillus) at the tip of
(a) Zoospores : These are motile, uninucleate and
the hypae (Fig. 2B). The hypha bearing conidia at its
naked flagellate structures (Fig.2A). Zoospores are
tip is called conidiophore. Conidia are usually
formed endogenously within a sac-like structure called
unicellular but septate conidia arc found in some fungi;
zoosporangium; e.g., Albugo, Synchytrium.
e.g., Alternaria.

Fig. 2A-E. Fungi: Asexual reproduction; A. Zoospores; B. Conidia in chain; C. Oidia; D.

Chlamydospores; E. Sporangiospores.

(c) Oidium (pl. = oidia): These are small, thin rest of the thallus remains vegetative. Such fungi are
walled free cells formed due to the fragmentation of called eucarpic; e.g.,Mucor.
a somatic hypha into cells (Fig.2C). The hyphal branch
3. Sexual reproduction: Sexual reproduction in
forming oidia is called oidiophore; it cuts off oidia
fungi, as in other organisms, also involves fusion of
apically in succession. Each oidium behaves as a
two compatible nuclei. Some fungi develop distinct
spore; c.g.,Coprinus, Mucor.
male and female sex organs whereas others (the
(d) Chlamydospores : These are unicellular, thick advanced forms) do not develop them. In such forms
walled, non-motile resting spores formed by the the somatic hyphae take part in sexual reproduction.
rounding off of the contents of the hyphal cells (Fig.
The sexual process involves following three
1D). Chlamydospores may be terminal or intercalary in
steps:
position; e.g., Mucor, Peziza, Ustilago.
(a) Plasmogamy : This is the fusion of the
(e) Aplanoxpores or sporangiospores : These are
protoplasm of two sexually compatible elements such
non-motile unicellular spores which are formed
as the spores, gametes or vegetative cells. In this
within a sac-like sporangium (Fig. 1E). The hypha
process the haploid nuclei come to lie in a single cell
bearing terminal sporangium is called sporangiophore;
but they do not fuse.
e.g., Mucor.
(b) Karyogamy : This is the fusion of two nuclei
In some fungi the entire thallus is converted into one
brought together by plasmogamy. These nuclei are
or more reproductive structures (sexual or asexual).
haploid and fuse to form a diploid nucleus. Karyogamy
Therefore, the vegetative and reproductive phases do
may take place either immediately after plasmogamy or
not occur together at the same time in the same
there is sufficient interval between these two steps.
individual. Such fungi arc called holocarpic e.g.,
Synchytrium. However, in majority of fungi only a part (c) Meiosis : Karyogamy, sooner or later, is followed
of the thallus produces the reproductive structure and by the reduction division of the diploid nucleus. In
fungi the plasmogamy and subsequent stages of sexual

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process may be brought about by any one of the spermatium and receptive hypha through which nucleus
following types. of the spermatium is transferred to the receptive hypha
(Fig, 3F); e.g., Puccinia, Podospora.
(i) Gametic copulation : It may be any of the
following three types. (v) Somatogamy : In many higher fungi sex organs
are not produced and instead somatic cells directly
(1) Isogamy: It involves fusion of two morpho
function as gametes (Fig.3G); e.g., Peniophora.
logically similar and motile gametes (Fig.3A).
Economic Importance of Fungi
(2) Anisogamy: Here both the fusing gametes are
motile but the male gamete is smaller than the female Fungi are important to us as they affect our daily life
gamete (Fig.3B). directly or indirectly. Some of them are friendly and
provide us food, life saving drugs and other items of
(3) Oogamy: In this type of copulation, female
human use while others cause diseases in man and
gamete is larger and non-motile while the male gamete
plants and spoil food and other articles.
is smaller and motile due to flagella (Fig.2C). Primitive
fungi usually have isogamous planogametes whereas in A. USEFUL ACTIVITIES OF FUNGI
advanced forms the fusing gametes are anisogamous the
[I] Fungi as food
male is motile and small and female is non-motile and
relatively large, e.g; Synchytrium, Monoblepharella. Fungi provide us food that is rich in proteins.

(ii) Gametangial contact : In this process gametes 1. Yeasts: Dried yeasts contain about 50% protein.
are not released from the gametangia, instead the two Besides, they are rich in vitamin and B-complex.
gametangia of opposite sex come in contact and the
2. Mushrooms: These are members of
gametes are directly transferred from one gametangium
Basidiomycetes. Different mushrooms have 21 to 30%
to the other through a tube called fertilization tube
protein and the proportion of fats and carbohydrates is
(Fig. 3D); e.g., Albugo, Pythium.
relatively less. Therefore, they are considered to be a
(iii) Gametangial copulation : It involves fusion of good food for diabetics and heart patients.
the entire contents of two gametangia. Two
Table 2: Some Edible Mushrooms
gametangia of different sex come close together and
the common wall between the two gametangia Species Common name
dissolves. As a result a common cell is formed where
the protoplasm and the nuclei of the two gametangia l. Agaricus bisporus White button mushroom
fuse (Fig.3E); e.g., Mucor. 2. Volvariella volvaceae Paddy straw mushroom
3. Pleurotus ostreatus Oyster mushroom
4. Auricularia polytricha Jew's ear
(iv) Spermatization : Some fungi (Basidiomycetes
and Ascomycetes) produce numerous minute, 3.5. Morels.
Tuber melanospermum Trufles
These are highly prized edible fungi
uninucleate, spore-like male gametes called spermatia belonging to the genus Morchella of class
(sing. = spermatium). These are non-motile and are Ascomycetes. They grow abundantly in apple and
carried by wind, insects or water to respective female peach orchards of northen India.
hyphae. A pore develops at the point of contact of

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Fig. 3 Α-G. Fungi: Sexual reproduction ; A-C. Gametic copulation; D. Gametangial contact; E. Gametangial copulation;
F. Spermatization; G. Somatogamy.

[II] Fungi and nitrogen fixation Many fungi are helpful in controlling plant diseases
caused by soil borne pathogens such as nematodes,
Biological nitrogen is the commonest and the largest
insects, viruses and other fungi. These fungi compete
cause of soil fertility. It is mainly achieved through
with pathogens for essential nutrients or destroy them.
symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules of
legumes. A small amount of atmospheric nitrogen is [V] Fungi in biological research
also fixed by non-symbiotic fungi such as Rhodotorula
1. In Biological assay: Use of microorganisms in
and Saccharomyces.
determining the potency of drugs, detection and
[III] Soil fertility estimation of various chemicals in given samples and
other similar purposes is known as biological assay.
Some fungi like Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Rhizopus,
Amongst fungi, Aspergillus niger is used to detect very
Penicillium, etc., have soil binding property. This is
minute quantities of Zn, Ca Bb, Mn, Mo, Cu, etc., in
achieved by the secretion of mucilaginous substances.
given samples. Similary, Neurospora crassa is used as
Many saprophytic fungi along with bacteria help in the
test organism to detect the presence and quantity of
decomposition of dead organic matter. As a result the
vitamin B-complex in any sample.
amount of humus increases in the soil and it becomes
more fertile. 2. In genetic experiments: Neurospora is an ideal
material for genetical and biochemical studies. It is
popularly known as "Drosophila of Plant Kingdom",
because of its suitability in the studies of heredity.
Besides this, Physarum polycephalum is also a good
[IV] Fungi in the control of plant diseases

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material for the study of mitotic cycle and DNA list of industrially important acids produced by fungi is
synthesis. given in Table 4.

Table 3: Some Fungi Helpful in Controlling the 4. In enzyme production: Many fungi produce
Pathogens enzymes which have industrial uses. Table 5 gives a list
of some enzymes, along with then sources.
Fungi Pathogen Controlled
5. In cheese making: Penicillium camemberti
1. Trichoderma Armillaria
and P. roquefortie are used in cheese making. These
(causes root
diseases) molds add a special flavour to the cheese.

6. In vitamin extraction: Some fungi are rich

2. Arthobotrys protoascus 
 Nematodes source of vitamins. (Table 6).
3. Dactylaria. 
7. In antibiotic production: Antibiotics are
4. Isaria, Aschersonia, 
 Insects substances produced by microorganisms which inhibit
Septobasidium  or kill other microorganisms. At present more than 700
5. Aspergillus, Fusarium  fungal species are known to secrete these antifungal
6. Helminthosporium  Viruses and antibacterial substances The firs antibiotic
penicillin was extracted from Penicillium notatum by
[VI] Fungi as a source of hormones Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, for which he was
awarded Nobel prize in 1945. Some important
Gibberellin or gibberellic acid is a growth promoting
antibiotics and their sources are given in Table 7.
hormone obtained from an ascomycetous fungus —
Gibberella fujikuroi. Besides stimulating growth in Table 4: Some Industrial Products and Fungi
genetically dwarf plants, it also accelerates flowering
and breaks dormancy of certain resting bodies such as Industrial
Fungi
potato tubers. products
1. Citric acid Aspergillus niger, Citromyces
[VII] Mycorrhiza
pfefferiaur
It is a symbiotic association between fungal hyphae 2. Gallic acid Penicillium glaucum, Aspergillus
gallomyces
and roots of higher plants. Several fungal genera such
3. Gluconic acid Penicillium purpurogenum
as Amanita, Boletus, Tricholoma and Scleroderma 4. Fumaric acid Mucor, Rhizopus
cover the roots of evergreen trees. These fungi 5. Lactic acid Rhizopus oryzae
decompose the dead organic matter and thus make 6. Oxalic acid Aspergillus niger
mineral nutrients available to the roots.

[VIII] Fungi in industry Table 5: Enzymes and Fungi

1. In Baking industry: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Enzymes Fungi

(yeast) popularly known as 'baker's yeast is widely
1. Amylase Aspergillus
used in baking industry. 2. Invertase Alternaria, Saccharomyces
3. Zymase Saccharomyces
2. In production of alcoholic beverages:
Preparation of alcoholic beverages involves
fermentation of sugar or malt solution by yeast,
particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
S. ellipsoides. The enzyme zymase present in yeast
cells converts hexose sugars into alcohol and CO 2 . Table 6: Vitamins from Fungi
Besides this, yeast also has two more enzymes –
Vitamin Source
sucrase and maltase which facilitate the conversion of
other sugars into hexose sugar. 1 Thiamine (B 1 ) Saccharomyces cerevisiae
2. Riboflavin (B 12 )
zymase
C 6 H 12 O 6 
 2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2 3. Vitamin B 12 Eremothecium ashbyii
from yeast 4. Vitamin A Rhodotorula gracilis
(alcohol)

3. In acid production: Several fungi are helpful in Table 7: Some Antibiotics and Fungi
the commercial production of many organic acids. A

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Table 8: Some Important Plant Diseases and
Antibiotics Fungi
the Fungi Causing them
1. Brefeldin Penicillium brefeldianum
2. Chaetomin Chaetomium cochloides Name of the disease Fungus
3. Fumigallin Aspergillus fumigatus
4. Penicillin Penicillium notatum and 1. Ergot of bajra Claviceps microcephala
P.chrysogenum 2. Green ear disease of Sclerospora graminicola
5. Ramycin Mucor ramannianus bajra
3. Smut of bajra Tolyposporium penicilliare
4, Loose smut of barley Ustilago nuda hordei
B. HARMFUL ACTIVITIES OF FUNGI 5. Coffee rust Hamileia vastatrix
6. Wilt of cotton Fusarium vasinfectum
[I] Deterioration of articles Plasmodiophora brassicae
7. Club root disease of
Saprophytic fungi (e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor, Aspergillus, crucifers
8. White rust of crucifers Albugo Candida
etc.) grow on food articles such as bread, jam, pickles,
9. Stem gal! of dhania Protomyces macrosporous
meat, etc., and make them inedible. They also destroy
10, Tikka disease of Cercospora personata or
leather articles. Damage of library books by cellulose ground nut C. arachidicola
eating fungi is quite frequent. In addition, rubber, wool 11. Downy mildew of Sclerospora sorghii
and painted surfaces are damaged by species of jowar
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Alternaria and 12. Covered smut of oat Ustilago kolleri
Rhizopus. Etching and blurring of microscopes and 13. Loose smut of oat Ustilago avenae
camera leases is due to Aspergillus and 14. Early blight of potato Alternaria solani
15. Late blight of potato Phytophthora infestans
Helminthosporium.
16. Blast of rice Piricularia oryzae
[II] Decay of wood 17. Brown leaf spot of Helminthosporium oryzae
rice
Decay is the biological decomposition of organic 18. Red rot of sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum
matter. In India commercial timber yielding plants such 19. Blister blight of tea Exobasidium vexans
as sal, teak, sisham, deodar, etc, are destroyed by 20. Black or stem rust Puccinia graminis tritici
species of Fomes, Polyporus, Ganoderma, etc. These of wheat
21. Loose smut of wheat Ustilago nuda tritici
fungi secrete cellulose and lignin decomposing
22. Powdery mildew of Erysiphe graminis tritici
enzymes (e.g., cellulose and phenolic oxidase) and wheat
cause 'heart rot'.
[IV] Fungal toxins
[III] Staining of wood
Mushrooms like Amanita phalloides, A. virosa and A.
Some fungi feed on sap wood. Although these fungi do
muscaria are poisonous and are quite a menace to
not destroy the wood but stain it. Penicillium sp. give
common people. Poisoning by these mushrooms causes
yellow stain, Fusarium negundi red and Trula
abdominal pains with vomitting, cold sweats,
ligniperda stains green.
diarrhoea, excessive thirst and eventually death.
Claviceps purpurea, a parasitic fungus (causing ergot
of rye) contains a powerful poison. When eaten it
causes gangrenes and convulsions. LSD (Lysergic acid
diethylamide), a hallucinogenic and hypnotic
compound, is also obtained from Claviceps. Besides
this, some fungi secrete a group of toxic compounds
called aflatoxins. Aspergillus flavus, an important
toxin producing fungus, frequently infects ground nut.
Animals eating such nuts fall sick.

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[V] Plant diseases Class2. Phycomycetes: The thallus of these fungi
is non-mycelial or aseptate, filamentous and
A disease may be defined as a disturbance brought
coenocytic hyphae. Many of the Phycomycetes are
about by a living organism or an environmental factor
aquatic, hence these fungi are also known as algal
which interferes with manufacture, translocation or
fungi. Aquatic members are isogamous, anisogamous
utilization of nutrients, yield loss and morphological
or oogamous but terrestrial members are mostly
changes. A disease causing agent is known as
isogamous with non- motile gametes. The class
pathogen and the branch of botany that deals with all
Phycomycetes has been further classified into
aspects of plant diseases is known Phytopathology
following three sub-classes.
(phyton = plant, pathos = sufferings, logos =
knowledge). Fungi infect many economically Sub-class1. Archimycetes: Thallus consists of a
important plants and minimise the yield of food grains large single cell; mycelium absent. Examples:
considerably. In 1945 late blight of potato (caused by Synchytrium, Protomyces.
Phytophthora infestans) destroyed millions of acres of
Sub-class2. Oomycetes: Mycelium is well
potato crop and caused famine in Ireland It resulted in
developed; sexual reproduction is by gametic contact
the death of about a million people and almost the
or gametic copulation; gametic fusion results in the
same number of people migrated ίο other continents.
formation of oospore. Examples: Saprolegnia,
Similarly, the 1942 Bengal famine which resulted in
Pythium.
the death of two million people was due to destruction
of rice crop by brown leaf spot disease caused by Sub-class3. Zygomycetes: Mycelium is well
Helminthosporium oryzae. developed; sexual reproduction is by gametangial
copulation. Examples: Mucor, Rhizopus.
[IV] Human and animal diseases
Class3. Ascomycetes: These are also known as sac
A good number of human and animal diseases are
fungi. Thallus is non-mycelial (e.g., Saccharomyces)
caused by fungi. Fungal infections are either restricted
or profusely branched septate mycelium (e.g.,
to the skin and its appendages like hair, nails, hooves,
Aspergillus, Penicillium). Asexual reproduction occurs
horns, etc. (superficial mycosis) or may infect internal
by means of conidia or budding. Sexual reproduction
organs like lungs, intestine, deep skin, brain, etc.,
takes place by means of antheridia and ascogonia and
(deep mycosis).
their fusion results in the formation asci (sing. =
Classification of Fungi ascus). The asci are formed within a fruiting b ody
called ascocarp. Each ascus has eight ascospores. The
Various classifications of fungi have been given by
ascospores on germination give rise to haploid
different scientists. One of them, which is the most
mycelium. The class Ascomycetes have been further
practical, has been briefly described below. In this
classified into two sub - classes,
system fungi have been classified into five classes on
the basis of thallus structure and types of sexual Sub-class1. Hemiascomycetes: Ascogenous
reproduction. hyphae and ascocarp are absent. Example:
Saccharomyces.
Class1. Myxomycetes: These fungi are also known
as slime molds. The body (thallus) consists of a Sub-class2. Euascomycetes: Ascogenous hyphae
multinucleate structure called plasmodium. They do and ascocarp are present. Example: Morchella.
not have a definite cell wall and instead the outer
Class4. Basidiomycetes. These are also known as
protoplast (ectoplasm) is thick and tough. Thus the
club fungi. Mycelium is septate and uni-, bi-, or
thallus resembles amoeba, hence, these fungi are also
multinucleate. Asexual reproduction takes place by
termed as myxamoeba. Like amoeba they move by
budding and conidia but no special sex organs are
means of pseudopodia. These are holocarpic. Asexual
formed; sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation
reproduction takes place by fission and cysts. During
of hyphae of two different strains, resulting in the
sexual reproduction haploid spores are formed. The
formation of dikaryotic hyphae.
sporangium has a characteristic network of
protoplasmic threads, called capillitium. Gametes are
biflagellate and the sexual reproduction is isogamons.
Examples: Physarum, Reticularia.

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Two nuclei of one of the dikaryotic cells fuse to form moist-fresh organic matter. Some species of Rhizopus
diploid nucleus (this cell is now called basidium) which are weak parasites and cause fruit drop of jack fruit
after meiosis forms four haploid basidiospores. Thus (Rhizopus artocarpi), fruit rot of apple (Rhizopus
basidium always has definite (i.e., four) basidiospores. arrhizus) and soft rot of strawberry, tomato and sweet
The Class Basidiomycetes has been classified into two potato (Rhizopus stolonifer).
sub classes: Structure
Sub–class1. Hemibasidiomycetes: Basidium is The vegetative body is composed of well branched,
not septate. Example: Agaricus. aseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic) mycelium. It
Sub–class2. Heterobasidiomycetes: Basidium usually forms a white cottony network on the surface
septate and deeply divided. Examples: Ustilago, of the substratum. The mature mycelium is
Puccinia. differentiated into three types of hyphae–the stolons,
Class5. Deuteromycetes: This class is also rhizoids and the sporangiophores (Fig. 5).
known as Fungi imperfectii. Mycelium is septate
and well branched. The class includes fungi in
which stages of sexual reproduction are absent and
reproduction occurs by asexual methods only.
Some of the asexual structures are synnema,
pycnidia, acervulii, sporodochium, etc.
Examples: Alternaria, Helminthosporium,
Colletotrichum, etc.
Rhizopus
(Bread mold or Black mold)
Systematic Position*
Kingdom Plantae
Sub-kingdom Thallophyta
Phylum Eumycophyta
Class Phycomycetes
Sub-class Zygomycetes
Order Mucorales Reproduction
Family Mucoraceae Rhizopus reproduces by vegetative, asexual and sexual
Genus Rhizopus methods.
* Classification after Oswald Tippo. [I] Vegetative reproduction
Habitat It takes place by fragmentation. If stolon breaks
Rhizopus is a cosmopolitan fungus. Most of its species accidently into small segments, each part grows into a
are saprophytic; growing on all kinds of dead and new mycelium.
decaying organic matter. Rhizopus stolonifer, the most [II] Asexual reproduction
common species, occurs very frequently on moist bread It takes place by unicellular, multinucleate and non-
(Fig. 4), hence commonly called bread mold. It is also motile spores. They are formed in small, black and
called black mold or pin mold because of black spherical sporangia. Each sporangium develops at the
coloured pin head-like sporangia. Besides, it also tip of the sporangiophore. The sporangiophores
occurs on jams, jellies, cheese, pickles and on other develop as small erect branches from the upper surface

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of stolons at nodes (Fig. 7 A). The tip of each of these closer. These produce opposing branches called
branches swells considerably into a knob-like vesicle progametangia (Fig. 9 B). The terminal parts of two
(Fig. 7 B). Cytoplasm along with many nuclei move opposing progametangia come in contact with one
into this vesicle (Fig, 7 C). This is the young another. Soon a septum is laid down near the tip of
sporangium. At maturity the cytoplasm of sporangium each progametangium separating it into two cells. The
gels differentiated into outer peripheral dense small terminal cell forms the gametangium and a long
multinucleate region and central highly vacuolated tubular basal cell forms the suspensor cell (Fig. 9 C).
region with only a few nuclei (Fig. 7 D). Small The gametangium cytoplasmic and multinucleate. Such
vacuoles of the central region flatten and fuse laterally gametes are called coenogametes. They are non-motile
with one another forming a wall which separates the (i.e., aplanogaraetes). The gametangia of fusing pairs
central vacuolated zone from the peripheral zone (Fig. are generally equal in size. At maturity the walls of the
7 E). This central region is known as columella and it two gametangia in contact dissolve and the two
is sterile. The cytoplasm of the peripheral region now coenogametes unite to form new cell called zygospore
gets divided into many small segments, each with 2 -10 (Figs. 9 D, E).
nuclei (Fig. 7F). Each multinucleate segment functions The zygospore enlarges considerably within the
as a sporangiospore. Each spore is globose or oval, gametangial wall. The wall becomes thick, black and
unicellular and multinucleate (Fig. 7H). If conditions warty at maturity (Fig. 9 E). It is differentiated into
arc favourable, the spores germinate immediately by outer thick exine (exopore) and inner relatively thin
producing a germ tube. It develops into a much intine (endospore). Just before germination diploid
branched while mycelium (Figs. 7 I, J). nuclei within zygospore divide by meiosis. Half of the
Some species of Rhizopus form chlamydospores under nuclei resulting from meiosis are of ' +' strain and
unfavourable conditions, particularly when sufficient other half of ' - ' strain. It functions as sporangiophore
moisture is not available. Some of the cells of the and after growing for sometime forms a terminal
septate hypha become thick walled and accumulate sporangium, called zygosporangium (Fig. 9 F). The
sufficient food material. These are called protoplast of the zygospore flows into the sporangium.
chlamydospores. Chlamydospores are usually formed It gels divided into many multinucleate units, each
in a chain with an empty cell between two functioning as a meiospore (Fig. 9 G). These spores on
chlamydospores (Fig. 8). This stage is known as torula germination give rise to hyphae of both '+' and ' -'
stage. strains (Fig. 9 H). Sometimes the gametangia fail to
fuse and as such zygospore is not formed. Under such
conditions each gametangium functions as a
parthenospore or azygospore. Like Zygospores, these
are also thick walled structures.
Heterothallism
The term heterothallism refers to the condition in which
sexual reproduction requires the union of two
Sexual reproduction compatible thalli. These are not externally
Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus takes place by differentiated into male and female thalli but are
conjugation between two multinucleate but single physiologically different. Such species has two
celled gametangia. The gametes are isogamous and physiologically and sexually different strains or races
non-motile. Sexual reproduction occurs towards the which arc referred to as ( + ) and ( — ) strains. Sexual
end of the growing period. Most of the species of reproduction takes place only between individuals of
Rhizopus are heterothallic but a few (e.g., S. sexualis) two different strains. This process was first observed
are homothallic. In heterothallic species conjugation is by an American geneticist, A. F. Blakeslee in 1904.
possible only when hyphae belonging to two different
strains (mating types) come close to each other (Fig. 9
A). The hyphal branches of (+) and (—) strains come

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(Yeast)

Saccharomyces Systematic Position*

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Kingdom Plantae medium containing sugar (Saccharon = sugar, Myketes

Sub-kingdom Thallophyta - fungi, i.e., sugar containing fungi or Saccharomyces).

Phylum Eumycophyta Structure

Class Ascomycetes Yeast was first described by Antony von Leeuwenhoek

in 1680. It is a non-mycelial unicellular fungus. The
Order Endomyce tales
cells are round, oval or elliptical in shape.
Family Saccharomycetaceae Occasionally, the newly formed cells may adhere ίο one
Genus Saccharomyces another in a chain forming a pseudomycelium. The
cells are microscopic, generally varying from 5 - 30 μ
* Classification after Oswald Tippo.
in length and 1-5 μ in width. The cell wall is mainly
Habitat composed of two polysaccharides - glucan (30-40%)
Saccharomyces is a saprophytic fungus that grows and mannan (30%). Besides, proteins (6-8%), lipids
rapidly in media containing sugar, such as sugar -cane (8.5 - 10.5%) and chitin (2%) are also present. Inner to
juice, date palm, grapes, etc. In fact name the cell wall is cell membrane which surrounds the
Saccharomyces comes from its great affinity to the protoplasm.

Vegetative reproduction takes place by budding and

fission. Accordingly, yeasts have been grouped into
budding yeasts (e.g., S. cerevisiae) and fission yeasts
(e.g., S. octosporus).

[II] Sexual reproduction

[I] Vegetative reproduction

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Sexual reproduction in yeasts takes place during nuclei. Each of these eventually transforms into an
unfavourable conditions, particularly when there is less ascospore. Thus eight ascospores are formed within the
amount of food. Yeasts are homothallic (e.g., S. ascus. The wall of the ascus ruptures at maturity and
octosporus) or heterothallic (e.g., S. cerevisiae). They ascospores are Set free. Each ascospore now develops
lack definite sex organs, instead somatic cells or into somatic cell.
ascospores function as copulating gametangia. Their
fusion results in the formation of a diploid zygote cell.

In this type of life cycle the zygote is the only diploid

cell. Other stages, forming the major part of the life
cycle, are haploid. On this basis the life cycle is called
haplobiontic.

2. Diplobiontic life cycle: This type of life cycle is

The following three life cycle patterns are shown by S. ludwigii (Fig. 16). The somatic cells are
found in different species of Saccharomyces : diploid. Each cell directly functions as ascus. The
diploid nucleus of ascus divides meiotically forming
1. Haplobiontic life cycle (e.g., Saccharomyces)
four haploid ascospores. These spores now behave as
octosporus),
gametes and fuse in pairs within the ascus. Thus two
2. Diplobiontic life cycle (e.g., S. ludwigii) and diploid cells are formed from two pairs. Subsequently,
these cells germinate by a germ tube which pushes
3. Haplodiplobiontic life cycle(e.g., S. cerevisiae),
through the ascus wall. It is multicellular and functions
1. Haplobiontic life cycle: This type of life cycle is as diploid sprout-mycelium. The cells of the mycelium
shown by S.octosporus, a homothallic species (Fig. 15). form my diploid cells by budding. In this type of l ife-
Here the somatic cells are haploid. Two such haploid cycle the haploid stage is represented only by ascospres
cells come together and form conjugation tubes. The and all other stages are diploid. Hence it is called
common wall where the two conjugation tubes meet diplobiontic.
dissolves and the nuclei of two conjugating cells fuse.
Diploid cell, thus formed, now functions as an ascus.
The diploid nucleus undergoes a meiotic division
followed by a mitotic division formin g eight haploid

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[I] In baking

In bakery, CO 2 from formentation by yeast makes the

dough to rise in the baking oven and gives the bread
its spongy nature. Flavour and quality of bread
depends upon the proper selection of different strains
of yeast. Commercial yeast is available in the market
as dried yeast cakes and powder.

[II] Production of alcohol

Any carbohydrate can be converted into ethyl alcohol

by fermenting it using yeasts.
yeast
C 6 H 12 O 6  2C 2 H 5 OH + 2CO 2
(Glucose) enzymes (Ethyl alcohol) (carbon dioxide)

Many species of Saccharomyces used in the production

of different types of alcoholic beverages are given in
Table 9.

Table 9: Yeast and Alcoholic Beverages

Product Species of Yeast Substrate

1. Beer Saccharomyces cerevisiae Barley malt
2. Rum S. carlsbergensis
S. cerevisiae Blackstrap
molasses
3. Whisky S. cerevisiae Grain mash
4. Wine S. ellipsoideus Grapes

Yeasts used in breweries are grouped into two

classes:

3. Haplodiplobiontic life cycle: It is shown by 1. Top yeast: These cells ferment while floating on
S.cerevisiae, a heterothallic species (Fig. 17). Here the surface of the beverage. They have geater
both haploid and diploid phases are equally developed. fermentive power.
Diploid somatic cells multiply by budding, forming
2. Bottom yeast. Such cells settle down at the base of
large number of diploid cells. Some of the diploid
the beverage where oxygen supply is poor.
cells function as asci. They divide meiotically forming
four haploid ascospores. These upon liberation, form a [III] Protein source
number of haploid somatic cells by budding which are
Dried yeast cells contain about 40-50% protein.
smaller than the diploid cells. Fusion also takes place
Besides, their growth is very rapid. Therefore, in a
between haploid cells to form diploid somatic cells. In
given area and time protein yield from yeast can be 10
this type of life cycle both haploid and diploid phases
to 15 per cent more than Soybean and 25 to 50 per cent
are capable of reproducing independently, thus both
more than maize,
are equally important. Hence, it is called
haplodiplobiontic. [IV] Source of vitamins

Yeast cells are a rich source of vitamin B complex.

They contain Thiamine, Riboflavine, Nicotinic acid,
Pyridoxine, Pantothellic acid, Folic acid, Biotin, Ρ
aminobenzoic acid, choline and Inositol. It is due to
these substances that the yeast cells are useful in
stomach disorders.
Economic Importance of Yeasts
B. HARMFUL ACTIVITIES
A. USEFUL ACTIVITIES
(1) Fermentation of fruits and fruit juices by yeast

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cells makes their taste unpleasant. Life Cycle

(2) Parasitic species of yeast cause diseases in tomato, The life cycle of P. graminis tritici is extremely
cotton, etc. complicated. It involves as many as five types of
spores, viz., uredospores, teleutospores, basidio-
(3) Parasitic yeasts cause diseases in human beings
spores, pycnidiospores and aeciospores. Such a life
(e.g., cryptococcosis, blastomycosis and torulopsis).
cycle is called polymorphic and macrocyclic. Of the
Puccinia above five types of spores, the uredospores,
teleutospores and basidiospores develop on the primary
(Rust Fungi)
host and the pycnidiospores and aeciospores are
Systematic Position* produced on the alternate host.
Kingdom Plantae

Sub-kingdom Thallophyta

Phylum Eumycophyta

Class Basidiomycetes

Order Uredinales

Family Pucciniaceae

Genus Puccinia
* Classification after Oswald Tippo
[II] Stages on the primary host ( Triticum
vulgare )

1. Uredineal stage: Wheat plants are infected by

Habitat aeciospores. These are thin walled polygonal

Puccinia is an obligate parasite which causes rust binucleate spores which develop on the lower surface
diseases in many cereals, millets and other important of the leaves of Berberis vulgaris. They germinate on
crops, It is a large genus with more than 700 species wheat leaves and stem producing dikaryotic hyphae.
distributed all over the world. Some species of The hyphae enter the leaf through stomata. A network
Puccinia are autoecious, i.e., they complete their life of intercellular mycelium is thus formed just below the
cycle on a single host (e..g., P. asparagi, P. butleri)
epidermis. Some of the intercellular hyphae grow
while others are heteroecious, i.e., they require two
unrelated hosts to complete their life cycle (e.g., P. upright and arrange themselves in groups at right
coronata, P. graminis) angles to the epidermis. Each upright hypha bears a
single uredospore. It is an oval, unicellular, binucleate
P. graminis tritici (black rust or stem rust), P.
striiformis (yellow rust or stripe rust) and P. recondita and stalked spore that has 2 - 15 germ pores. These
(brown rust or leaf rust) are the three common rusts spores are yellow to orange is colour (Fig. 23).
which infect wheat, Puccinia graminis tritici is an
The hypodermal groups of uredospores, thus formed,
obligate, intercellular and heteroecious rust whose life
cycle is completed on two hosts — wheat (Triticum are called uredosori (sing. = uredosorus). These are
vulgare) is the primary host and barberry bush seen on the surface of leaf blade, leaf sheath and stem
(Berberis vulgaris) is the secondary host (Fig. 22). as reddish-brown or blackish pustules or streaks.

Vegetative Structure Mature uredospores are exposed when epidermis of the

host is ruptured. They are blown away by wind. The
P. graminis tritici produces two types of mycelia -
spores germinate as soon as they come in contact with
monokaryotic and dikaryotic. Monokaryotic
mycelium is confined only to the alternate host — uninfected leaves of nearby wheat plants. The
Berberis vulgaris while the dikaryotic mycelium occurs mycelium now produced also forms uredospores. In
in wheat, the primary host. Both the mycelia are well this way several crops of uredospores are produced in
branched and septate. The septa have pores through one growing season and large area of wheat crop is
which cytoplasm of the adjacent cells is in
continuation.,

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infected. Hence these spores are also known as
repeating spores.

2. Telial stage: Later in the season when wheat

plants approach maturity, the dikaryotic mycelium
starts producing teleutospores instead of uredospores.
Gradually, the uredosori change into teleutosori (Fig
24). The latter are characterized by dark brown or black
pustules. Teleutospores are dark brown, stalked,
spindle shaped and 2 celled. Each cell is binucleate and
has a germ pore. However, at maturity both the nuclei
of a cell fuse and form a diploid nucleus. Teleutospores
are resting spores and can survive unfavourable
conditions due to their highly thickened walls.
Teleutospores can not infect wheat plant and remain in
the soil till the next spring season.
[II] Stages on the alternate host ( Berberis
3. Basidial stage: In the spring season when the
vutgaris ): The haplophase of the life cycle of P.
conditions of temperature and moisture are suitable,
graminis tritici begins with the germination of the
each cell of the teleutospore gives out a long tube
basidiospores and is confined only to the alternate host,
through germ pore (Fig. 25). It is called epibasidium.
i.e., barberry (Berberis vulgaris).
The diploid nucleus of the cell migrates into the
epibasidium and divides meiotically producing four 1. Spermogonial stage: Under favourable
haploid nuclei. Two of these are of ‗+‘ strain and two conditions the haploid basidiospores infect barberry
of ‗–‘ strain. Finally, the epibasidium divides into four leaves. They germinate on the surface of the leaves by
cells, each of which contains a single haploid nucleus. producing germ tubes. These enter the host through
Each epibasidial cell gives out a tube laterally. It is epidermis and form well developed intercellular
called sterigma (pl. = sterigmata) and bears a terminal mycelium. It is known as haplomycelium as it is
basidiospore. Each basidiospore is unicellular, formed by haploid basidiospores. Depending upon the
uninucleate and haploid. They are discharged nature of the basidiospores the mycelia are of ‗+‘ or ‗–‘
explosively and are blown away by wind. Like strains.
teleutospores, basidiospores also cannot infect wheat
Within few days of infection closely woven mats of
plants. However, if they happen to fall on the leaves of
hyphae are formed just below the host epidermis (Fig
barberry (the alternate host), they germinate and
26). These hypodermal hyphal mats eventually form
produce monokaryotic mycelium.
flask - shaped spermogonia (also called pycnidia). The
cavity of spermogonium is lined with long unicellular
spermatiophores and sterile paraphysis. Amongst the
paraphysis are also present some branched slender
hyphae, called flexuons hyphae or receptive hyphae.

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nucleus of the spermatium migrates into the flexuous
hypha. This process is known as spermatization. Both
these nuclei lie side by side in the basal part of the
flexuous hypha forming a dikaryon (a cell with two
nuclei of different strains).

2. Aecidial stage: The formation of aecidial stage

actually begins much before the aecidial cup appears
on the lower leaf surface. It is initiated with the
penetration of haplomycelium which forms the
pycnidial or spermogonial cup near the upper leaf
surface. The haplomycelium, on reaching the lower
surface, forms primordia of the aecial cups, called
protoaecidia. The further development into aecial cups
occurs only if spermatization occcurs in the
haplomycelium of pycnidial cup. As a result, the
mycelium that would now form aecial cup becomes
dikaryotic.

Fig. 25. Puccinia : Germinating teleutospore showing

formation of basidtospores.

Each spermogonium (pycnidium) opens on the upper

surface of the leaf through an opening called ostiole.
The spermatiophores and paraphysis remain within the
cavity of spermogonium but flexuous hyphae prot rude
through the ostiole. Each spermatiophore produces a
series of smooth uninucleate spermatia or Each aecial cup has a deep cavity embedded on the
pycniospores. These come out of the spermogonium surface of the leaf (Fig. 26). The wall of the cup is
through ostiole along with nectar. Spermatia neither made of a sterile tissue known as peridium. The roof is
infect wheat nor barberry but simply function as male lined with the dikaryotic cells formed as a result of
gametes. Spermatia of one strain are transferred to the spermatization. These cells function as aecidiospore
flexuous hyphae of another strain through insects. The mother cells. They form chains of binucleate cells
latter are attracted towards spermogonia by sweet towards the lower epidermis. These cells differentiate
smelling nectar. As soon as the spermatium of one into long and short cells which are arranged
strain comes in contact with the flexuous hyph a of alternately. The long cells mature into aecidrospores
another strain, the wall between the two dissolves. The whereas short cells, called disjuncture or disjunctive

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cells, remain sterile. Aecidiospores are smooth, suitable environmental aeciospres germinate on the
binucleate and polyhedral. They are orange - coloured leaves of wheat and form dikaryotic mycelium (Fig.
and almost completely fill the aecial cups. 27).
Aecidiospores are incapable of infecting the barberry
plants. They are carried by wind to the plain where
they infect fresh wheat crop, the primary host. Under

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Objective Problems: [BHU ‘84]

1. Gametangial copulation (conjugation) is common in 9. The hyphae of aspergillus are

a) Ascomycetes b) Zygomycetes a) Aseptate and multinucleate

c) Phycomycetes d) Deuteromycetes b) Septate and multinucleate

[BHU ‘83] c) Aseptate and uninucleate

2. A fungus whose extract of sclerotia can be d) Septate and uninucleate

chemically altered to produce a powerful [RPMT ‘85]
hallucinogenic drug is [BHU ‘83]
10. Fungi imperfecti ( Deuteromycetes ) lack
a) Claviceps purpurea b) Aspergillus
a) Spores b) Sexual reproduction
c) Penicillium d) Agaricus
c) Asexual reproduction d) Hyphae
3. A fungus contain cells with two nuclei form different
genomes. The nuclei do not fuse but divide [CPMT ‘85]
independently and simultaneously as new cells are 11. In Rhizopus, sexual fusion takes place between
formed. It belongs to
a) Two gametangia b) Two gametes
a) Phycomycetes b) Zygomycetes
c) Two hyphae d) Two sporangia
c) Deuteromycetes d) Basiodiomycetes
[CPMT ‘85]
[ZIPMER ‘83]
12. Which causes hypertrophy in floral parts?
4. In Yeast during budding which process occurs
a) Aspergilus b) Cystopus
a) Synapsis
c) Nostoc d) Bacteria
b) Unequal division of cytoplasm
[RPMT ‘85]
c) Doubling of chromosome
13. Yeast cells are rich in vitamin
d) Spindle formation [CPMT ‘84]
a) A b) B c) C d) D
5. Fungal spores produced asexually at the tip of
hyphae are called [CPMT ‘86]

a) Sporangiospores b) Arthrospores 14. Penicillin was discovered in the year of

c) Conidia d) Spores a) 1901 b) 1919 c) 1929 d) 1909

[CPMT ‘84] [BHU ‘86]

6. Motile sperms are absent in 15. Thread like filaments of fungi are known as

a) Rhizopus b) Funaria a) Plectancyma b) Parenchyma

c) Fern d) Cycas [CPMT ‘84] c) Pseudoparenchyma d) hyphae

7. Lichens are ecologically important as they [Pondicherry ‘87]

a) Purify air 16. In what form the food is stored in the mycelium of
cystopus?
b) Are pioneers on barren rocks
a) Starch and protein b) Glycogen and oil drops
c) Are symbionts of algae and fungi
c) Protein and steroids d) Oil and sugar
d) Are associated with mycorrhizal roots [DPMT ‘84]
[RPMT ‘87]
8. First antibiotic isolated was
17. Tikka disease is mostly disseminated by
a) Neomycin b) Terramycin a) water b) insects
c) Streptomycin d) Penicillin c) animals d) wind [JIPMER ‘87]

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18. In which of the following fungi oospore on a) Coralloid roots of cycas b) Lichens
germination produces biflagellate zoospores?
c) Mycorrhiza d) Both b and c
a) Alternaria b) Rhizopus
[CPMT ‘89]
c) Synchytrium d) Albugo
27. Parmelia is a
[MPPMT ‘87]
a) Crustose lichen b) Fruticose lichen
19. ‗Ergot of rye‘ is caused by
c) Foliose lichen d) Moss
a) Claviceps purpurea
[BHU ‘89]
b) Sclerospora graminicola
28. Lichens indicate SO 2 pollution because they
c) Cannabis satina
d) Papaver somniferum [BHU ‘87] a) Show association between algae and fungi

20. Bio-indicators of pollution are b) Grow faster than others

a) Lichens b) Mosses c) Are sensitive to SO 2

c) Mycorrhizal association d) Toadstools d) Flourish in SO 2 rich environment

[Bih PMT ‘87] [CBSE ‘89]

21. Alcoholic fermentation is performed by 29. Loose smut of wheat is due to
a) Chlorella b) Agaricus a) Puccinia graminis tritici b) Ustilago tritici
c) Yeast d) Puccinia c) Tilletia tritici d) Cystopus candidus
[MPPMT ‘88] [BHU ‘89]
22. Lichens are composites consisting of algae and
30. Irish Famine of 1845 was caused by
a) mosses b) Fungi
a) Alternaria solanii
c) bacteria d) mycoplasma
b) Sclerospora graminiecola
[MPPMT ‘88]
c) Phytophthora infestans
23. In which of the following plants columella is
present? d) Fusarium oxysporum

a) Spirogyra b) Ulothrix [AMU ‘89]

c) Rhizopus d) Saccharomyces 31. Yeast is an important source of

[AIIMS ‘88] a) Riboflavin (Vitamin B) b) Vitamin A

24. Puffball is c) Vitamin D d) Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

a) Alga b) Fungus [MPPMT ‘89]

c) Slime Mould d) Composite organism 32. Fruiting body in penicillium is known as

[BHU ‘89] a) cleistothecium b) apothecium

25. Fungi differ from algae in being c) perithecium d) pycnidium

a) Coenocytic [BHU ‘89]

b) Without motile gametes 33. Slime mould is a type of

c) Without unicellular forms a) fungi b) Protista

d) Without chlorophyll and possessing chitinised walls c) pteridophyta d) bryophyta

[CPMT ‘89]
[BHU ‘89]
26. Symbiotic relationship between an alga and a
34. What is a puff ball ?
fungus occurs in

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a) Alga b) Fungus 41. Saprolegnia is a best example for demonstrating

c) Pine cone d) Moss a) heterospory b) dischogamy

[BHU ‘89] c) herkogamy d) displanetism
35. Which statements is false regarding the cycle of [BHU ‘90]
Rhizopus and spirogyra?
42. Toad stools (Agaricus) cannot manufacture their
a) asexual reproduction takes place in both by spores
own food because
b) When conjugation fails azygospores and
a) they do not have leaves
parthenospores are formed in both
b) they do not have chlorophyll
c) zygote meiosis occurs in both

d) sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation in c) they do not need food for their growth
both d) they do not have roots
[BHU ‘89] [AFMC ‘90]
36. Yeast secretes an enzymes which is responsible for
43. The cycle of events which has the same outcome as
fermentation . This ezymes is
sexual cycle without the regular alternation of meiosis
a) invertase b) zymase and fertilization is known as
c) dehydrogenase d) aldolase a) parthenogenesis b) self-sterility
[MPPMT ‘89] c) parasexual cycle d) dichogamy
37. In diplobiontic life cycle of yeast the number of [MPPMT ‘90]
ascospores produced in ascus are

a) 2 b) 4 c) 8 d) 16
44. The reduction division in the life cycle of Rhizopus
[CPMT ‘89]
occurs

a) at the time of germination of zygospore

b) during the formation of germ sporangium,

38. A widely but periodically occurring fungal plant
c) during asexual reproduction
disease will be
d) during the formation of gametangilum
a) epiphytotic b) epidemic
[CPMT ‘91]
c) sporadic d) endemic
45. Ergotine drug is derived from
[AMU ‘89]
a) Claviceps purpurea b) Sclerospora graminocola
39. Bunt disease of wheat is due to a
c) Cannabis sativa d) Papever somniferum
a) Tilletia b) Puccinia
[MPPMT ‘91]
c) Ustilago d) Cystopus 46. The fungus that may cause disease in human beings
[BHU ‘89] is

40. Early blight of potato is caused by a) Puccinia b) Aspergillus

c) Cystopus d) Rhizopus
a) Phytophthora infestans
[BHU ‘92]
b) Penicillium notatum

c) Alternaria solani
47. Rust and smut disease of fungi are caused by fungi
d) Cystopus candidus belonging to
[MPPMT ‘90]

www.m-learning.in Page 22
a) ascomycetes b) deuteromycetes b) Enhancing buoyancy

c) basidiomycetes d) fungi imperfecti c) Nutrition

[BHU ‘92] d) Bearing spores for reproduction

48. A scientist famous for his work on the wheat rust [BHU ‘94]
problem was 56. Mushrooms is
a) P. Maheswari b) Kashyap a) Mucor b) Agaricus
c) K.C Mehta d) V. Puri c) Yeast d) Penicillium

[BHU ‘92] [Bih. PMT ‘94]

49. Cell wall of fungi is made up of 57. Which type of life cycle occurs in Mucor

a) Cellulose b) Pectin a) lsomorphic b) Heteromorphic

c) Chitin d) hemicellulose c) Haplontic d) Diplontic

[MPPMT ‘94]
[CET chd. ‘92]
58. Ustilogo caused plant diseases are called smuts
50. An edible fungus is
because
a) Aspergillus b) Ustilago
a) They parasitise cereals
c) Polyporus d) Morchella
b) Mycelium is black
[MPPMT ‘91]
c) They develop sooty masses of spores
51. Which one is not a mode of reproduction in Yeast
d) Affected parts become completely black
a) Budding b) Plasmogamy
[CBSE ‘94]
c) Oogamy d) Ascospore formation
59. Genus Penicillium belongs to the class
[CPMT ‘90]
a) Basidiomycetes b) ascomycetes
52. Absorptive heterophic nutrition is exhibited by
c) phycomycetes d) deuteromycetes
a) Algae b) Fungi
[CPMT ‘94]
c) Bryophytes d) Pteridophytes
[CBSE ‘90] 60. Covered smut of barely is caused by

53. Which one secretes pheromonones for the function? a) Ustilago hordei b) Tilletai caries

a) Rhizopus for formation of zygospore c) Ustilago nuda d) Colletotrichym falcatum

b) All fungi for sexual reproduction [BHU ‘94]

c) Yeast for mating [BHU ‘94] 61. Yeast is an important source of

d) Plants for growth and development a) Vit. A b) D c) C d) riboflavin
54. In lichens, sexual reproduction is usually performed [CPMT ‘94]
by
62. Life cycle depicted by Mucor is ?
a) Algal partner only
a) Haplontic b) Diplontic
b) Fungal partner only
c) Isomorphic d) Heleromorphic
c) Both algal and fungal partners
[MPPMT ‘94]
d) Either of the two partners
[BHU ‘94]
55. Gills of mushroom take part in 63. The disease witches broom of leguminosae family
is caused by a
a) Respiration
a) virus b) Mycoplasma

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c) Bacterium d) fungus [MPPMT ‘94] c) U. maydis d) U. avenae

64. Black rust of wheat is caused by [CBSE ‘95]

a) Erysiphe b) Albugo 72. In Albugo the food reserve is mostly

c) Colletotrichum d) Puccinia graminis a) Glycogen b) Volutin granules

[CPMT ‘94] c) Protein granules d) Fat

[RPMT ‘95]
65. Red rot of sugarcane is caused by

a) Phytophthora b) Albugo
73. Fertilization does not require water in
c) Collectotrichum d) Erysiphe
a) Ulothrix b) Albugo
[CET Chd. ‘94]
c) Bryophyta d) Pteridophyta
66. Decomposers are organisms that
[RPMT ‘95]
a) Elaborate chemical substance, causing death of
tissues 74. Mycelium of albugo is

b) Operate in living body and simplifying organic a) Intracellular b) Intercellular

substance of cells step by step c) Surface of host d) Surface of flower
c) Attack and kill plants as well as animals [RPMT ‘95]
d) Operate in relay terms, simplifying step by step the 75. Which is a fungicide?
organic constituents of dead body
a) 2, 4, D b) DDT
[CBSE ‘94]
c) Bordeaux mixture d) BHC
67. VAM represents
[BHU ‘95]
a) Saprophytic fungi b) Symbiotic fungi
76. Chemical compounds which are produced by host
c) Saprophytic bacteria d) Symbiotic bacteria due to infection as a defence reaction to fungi is called
[Har. PMT ‘94] a) Phytotorium b) Phytoalexin
68. Mycorrhiza represents c) Phytotorn d) Vaccination
a) Antagonsium b) Endemism [CPMT ‘95]
c) Symbiosis d) Parasitism 77. In 1943 the causal organism and host of Bengal
[CBSE ‘94] famine was

69. Host and causal organism of Bemgal famine of a) wheat rust by Puccinia
1943 was b) Blast of rice by Phyricularia
a) Brown leaf spot of Rice by H. oryzae c) blast of rice by Xanthomonas oryzae
b) Wheat Rust by Puccinia d) brown leaf spot of rice by Helminthosporium oryzae
c) Blast of Rice by Pyricularia oryzae [BHU ‘95]
d) Blast of Rice by X. oryzae 78. One of these is not a fungal disease?
[MPPMT ‘95] a) White rust of crucifers b) red rust of tea
70. Zygospores are produced in c) rust of coffee d) rust of wheat
a) Mucor b) Penicillium
c) Pucinia d) Alternaria [BHU ‘95]
[MPPMT ‘95] 79. The organism used for fermentation of lactic acid is
71. Smut of Maize is due to a) Penicillium b) Lactobacillus
a) Ustilago hordei b) U. nuda c) Aspergillus d) Saccharomyces

www.m-learning.in Page 24
[CBSE PMT ‘95] [BHU ‘96]
80. Conidia of Albugo are arranged 88. In Neurospora crassa number of crossing over in
a) Irregularly b) Acropetally ascus in arrangement of ascospores is

c) Basipetally d) Intercalary a) 2:4 b) 2:2 c) 4:6 d) 4:4

[RPMT ‘95] [DPMT ‘96]

81. Which one produces alcohol ? 89. One of the following is a fungal disease in man

a) Clostridium botulinum a) tuberculosis b) Cholera

b) Leucoonostoc sitrovorum c) small pox d) ringworm

c) Saccharomyces cerevisiae [RPMT ‘96]

d) Torulopsis utilis 90. A dikaryotic cell has

[MPPMT ‘95] a) Two haploid nuclei

82. Zygospores occur in the life cycle of b) Diploid zygote

a) Penicillium b) Alternaria c) Two similar nuclei

c) Rhizopus d) Puccinia d) Two dissimilar haploid nuclei

[MPPMT ‘95] [DPMT ‘ 97]

83. Number of spore stages in puccinia is 91. Yeast is
a) Five b) Four c) Three d) Two a) Purely aerobic b) Anaerobic
[Bih. PMT ‘96] c) Rarely anaeriobic d) Both aerobic and anaerobic
84. Which statements is wrong about lichens? [AIIMS ‘97]
a) Some species are eaten by Reindeers
92. A fungus that causes damage to timber resources is
b) Lichens are indicators of pollution
a) Aspergillus b) Puccinia
c) They grow rapidly about 2 cm per day
c) Polyporus d) Morchella
d) They have symbiotic relationship between alga and
fungus [ZIPMER ‘97]

[CBSE ‘96] 93. Algal fungi are placed in

85. Puccinia graminis tritici is a) Ascomycetes b) Basidiomycetes

a) Hetrerocious c) Phycomycetes d) Deuteromycetes

b) Heterothallic [MPPMT ‘97]

c) Heteroecious and heterothalic 94. Parasites which can grow saprobiotically in the
d) Heterokaryotic absence of hosts are

[ZIPMER ‘96] a) Facultative saprophytes b) Obligate saprophytes

86. Common Bread Mould is c) Obligate parasites d) Facultative parasites

a) Yeast b) Rhizopus [ZIPMER ‘97]

c) Clostridium d) Myxovirus
[MPPMT ‘96]
87. Fungal partner of a lichen is commonly 95. Bacterial blight of Rice is due to
a) Ascomycetes b) Basidomycetes a) Collectotrichum b) Alternaria
c) Phycomycetes d) Deuteromycetes c) Xanthomonas d) Phytophthora

www.m-learning.in Page 25
[Orissa ‘97] a) (+) and (-) strains

96. Majority of lichens are made of b) spermatia and vegetative hyphae

a) Blue–green algae and basidiomycetes c) Same strains

b) Blue–green algae and ascomycetes d) two different vegetative hyphae

c) Red algae and ascomycetes [MP PMT ‘97]

d) Brown algae and higher plants 104. Apple scab is caused by

[CBSE ‘97] a) Puccinia b) Erysiphe

97. In Mucor / Rhizopus isogamy occurs between c) Ustilago d) Venturia

a) (+) and (-) strains b) same strain [BHU ‘97]

c) Aplanospores d) Zygospores 105. Puccinia produces

[MPPMT ‘97] a) Uredia and Pycnia on Barberry leaves

98. Pencillium is commercially synthesized from b) Uredia and aecia on Barbery leaves

a) vulgaris b) oligactis c) Uredia and aecia on wheat leaves

c) chrysogenum d) All d) Uredia and telia on Wheat leaves

[Manipal PMT ‘97] [CBSE ‘98]

99. ―Reindeer moss‖ a very important producer in 106. The total number of ascospores in Penicillium are
arctic zone and which constitute the starting point of
a) 8 b) 16 c) 4 d) 2
food chain in this region and also the staple food of
reindeers belong to [CBSE PMT ‘98]

a) pterodphyta b) Green algae 107. One of the following is known as green mould

c) lichens d) None a) Aspergilus b) Mucor

[AMU ‘97] c) Penicillium d) Saccharomyces

100. Bordeaux mixture was prepared by [AFMC ‘98]

a) Bordeaux b) Micheli 108. Which of the following is heterocious fungus ?

c) Millardet d) de Bary a) Albugo b) Puccinia

[BHU’97] c) Ustilago d) Phytophthora

101. Extracellular digestion occurs in [AMU ‘98]

a) Chamydomonas b) Cycas 109. All fungi differ from algae in

c) Rhizopus d) Volvox a) lacking chlorophyll and in having cell wall which is

chitinized
[Manipal PMT ‘97]
b) lacking unicellular forms
102. Poisonous mushroom is
c) lacking motile ciliated gametes
a) Artabotrys b) Puff balls
d) being coenoctic [CBSE PMT ‘98]
c) Amanita phalloides d) none

[CET Chd. ‘97]

110. Yeast Saccharonyces cerevisiae is used in the
industrial production of

a) butanol b) citric acid

103. In Rhizopus isogamy occurs between
c) tetracycline d) ethanol

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[CBSE PMT ‘98] c) Polyporus d) Strepttomyces

111. The mycorrhizal fungi help its host by [Manipal PMT ‘99]

a) improving nutrient uptake 120. Hetrothallism was first discovered by

b) giving mechanical support a) Blaskeslee b) Mehta

c) stimulating vegetative growth c) Pasteur d) Alexopolous

d) None [AMU ‘98] [AMU ’83, CPMT ‘91]

112. Powdery mildew is caused by a member of 121. Cheese is prepared from

a) basiodiomycetes b) Phycomycetes a) Aspergillus nigar b) Penicillium cammberti

c) ascomycetes d) deuteromycetes c) P. Oryzae d) All

[Manipal PMT ‘98] [Manipal PMT ‘99]

113. Mass of woven fungal hyphae associated with 122. Ascocarp of penicillium is
fruiting body is called
a) Cleistothesium b) apothecium
a) Plectenchyma b) Stroma
c) perithecium d) Absent
c) sclerotium d) rhizomorph
[Pb. PMT ‘99]
[CET Chd. ‘98]
123. flaicin is an antibiotic extrated from
114. One of the following fungus lacks mycelium
a) Asperguillus fumigatus b) Asperguillus niger
a) Puccinia b) Phytophythora
c) Penicillium chrysogenum d) Streptomyces grisus
c) Saccharonyces d) Rhizopus
[BHU ‘98] [MPPMT ‘99]

115. ‗Witches Broom‘ of legumes is due to 124. Puccnia growing on barberry infects wheat
through
a) Mycoplasma b) Bacterium
a) telutospores b) aeciospores
c) Fungus d) Virus
c) urediospores d) Pycnospores
[AMU ‘98]
[CPMT ‘99]
116. Columella is a structure found in
a) Ascus of Penicillium b) Sporangium of Rhizopus 125. One of the following spores suggest the
imperfect stage of the fungus
c) Pycnidia of Puccinia d) None
a) meispores b) mitospores
[Pb. PMT ‘98]
c) basiodiospores d) ascospores
117. Cell Wall of yeast is made of
[JIPMER ‘99]
a) Sucrose and mannose b) Glucose and muramic acid
126. One of the following can cause hair loss
c) Glucose and mannose d) Amuylose and glucose
a) Coprophiloius b) corticolous
[AFMC ‘99]

118. Bakanae fungal disease is associated with the c) kearatophilous d) None

discovery of [JIPMER ‘99]
a)2 , 4-D b) GA 127.Which of the following is used in industrial
c) IAA d) ABA preparation of ethanol?

a) Lactobacilus b) Azotobacter
[KCET ‘99]

119. Citric acid is obtained from c) Penilicllium d) Saccharomyces

a) Aspergillus niger b) Penicillium notatum [CBSE PMT 2000]

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128. LSD is extrated from a) Biological antagonism b) Substrate competition

a) Puccinia b) Claviceps c) Struggle of existence d) Genotype competition

c) Mucor d) Rhizopus [NCERT ’83, ZIPMER ‘84]

[AFMC ‘2000] 137. Dikaryon formation is characteristic of

129. Black rust of wheat is caused by a) Ascomycetes and basidomycetes

a) Rhizopus b) Mucor b) Phycomycetes and basidomycetes

c) Agaricus d) Puccinia c) Ascomycetes and phycomycetes

[CBSE PMT ‘2000] d) Phycomycetes and zygomycetes

130. Most of the fungi store their store matter as [BHU ’81, CPMT ‘83]

a) mannitol b) Glycogen 138. Lichens multiply by

c) lipids d) mannan a) Conidia b) Oidia

[CBSE Chd. ‘2000] c) Ascospores d) Soredia

131. True fungi store the food in the form of [BHU ’86, Orissa JEE’95]

a) glycogen b) glucose 139. Penicillium is commonly known as

c) fats d) chitin a) An alga b) Blue green mould

[CET Chd. ‘2000] c) Bacterium d) Virus

132. Fungi having one host in their life cycle are [AFMC ’83, ’86, 96]

a) autoecoius b) hetroecoius 140.Litmus was previously obtained from

c) hetrosporic d) hetrothallism a) Puffball b) Cetraria islandica

[CET Chd. ‘2000] c) Rocellas tintoria d) Cladonia rangofera

133. Bakane disease is caused by [DPMT ’80, AIIMS ’84, ZIPMER ‘83]

a) Gilberrella b) Phytopthora

c) Erysiphe d) Alugo candida 141. Storage grains produce aflatoxin by growth of

[MGIMS Wardha ‘2000] a) Virus b) Yeast

c) Bacterium d) Aspergillus flavus

134. Yeast and Penicillium/ penicillin producing fungus [MPPMT ’89, ’90, BHU ’86, ‘91]
are included under
142. When thallus of fungus entirely converts to
a) Basiodiomycetes b) Zygomycetes reproductive body, it is called as

c) Ascomycets d) Phycomycetes a) Eucarpic b) Holocarpic

[MPPMT ’86, ZIPMEr ’88, AMU ’92, Har. PMT ’94, c) Holozoic d) Homothallic
CPMT ’95, BHU ’95, RPMT ‘96] [AFMC ’90, ZIPMER ‘85]
135. A fungus which requires only one single host for 143. Toadstools cannot manufacture their food because
completion of its life cycle is called they
a) Heteroecious b) Autoecious a) Possess haustoria b) Lack chlorophyll
c) Helethallism d) Heterosporus c) Live in dark places d) Do not have leaves
[DPMT ’86, CPMT ‘83] [ZIPMER ’86, AFMC ‘90]
136. The phenomenon that led to discovery of 144. ―Damping off of seedlings‖ is due to
penicillin involves
a) Nematode b) Albugo candida

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c) Fusarium oxysporum d) Pythium debaryanum [BHU ’89, 90, MPPMT ’89, ’91, ’94, Har. PMT ‘94]
[BHU ’86, ‘89] 153. White Rust of crusifers is due to
145. Study of fungi is a) Albugo candida/ Cystopus candidus
a) Palynology b) Mycology b) Cercospora personata
c) Phycology d) Microbiology c) Collentotrichum falcatum
[ZIPMER ’90, AMU ‘98]
d) Phythium debaryanum
146. Coenoytic mycelium occurs in
[CPMT ’86, AMU ‘91]
a) Deuteromycetes b) ascomycetes
154. Food is stored in Rhizopus/ Cystopus/ Fungi as
c) Phycomycetes d) Basidomycetes
a) Protein and steroids b) Sugar and oil
[CPMT ’89, Har. PMT ‘94]
c) Protein and starch d) Glycogen and oil
147. Rice crop was destroyed by a fungus which
[RPMT’85,’87,’96, MPPMT ’87, CBSE ‘92]
resulted in sever famine of Bengal in 1942 –1943. It
was due to 155. Mycorrhizae are useful for
a) Penicillum b) Helminthosporium a) Providing resistance against stresses
c) Rhizopus d) Puccunia b) Killing pathogens and insects

[MPPMT ’88, BHU ’90, ‘95] c) Enhanced absorption of mineral nutrients and water
from soil
148. Yeast produces an enzymes complex that is
responsible for fermentation. The enzymes complex is d) Fixing nitrogen
a) Aldolase b) Dehydrogenase [BHU ’94, CPMT ‘94]
c) Invertase d) Zymase 156. Yeast is employed for production of

[CPMT ’92, MPPMT ’89, ‘92] a) Curd b) Cheese

149. L.S.D. is derived from c) Acetic acid d) Ethyl alcohol

a) Papaver somniferum [CBSE ‘95, MPPMT ‘96]

b) Cannabis sativa 157. Phytoalexins produced by plants in respon se to

fungal infections are
c) Sclerospora graminicola
a) Phenolic compounds b) Glycoproteins
d) Claviceps purpurea
c) Proteins d) Lipids
[BHU ’86. MPPMT ‘91]
[BHU ’89, 97]
150. Penicillin was discovered by
158. A chemical substance produced by a micro -
a) S. Waksman b) Robert Koch organism for inhibiting the growth of another is

c) Louis Pasteur d0 Alexander Fleming a) Antibody b) Antibiotic

[MPPMT ’88, BHU ’85, ’87, AMU ’91, AFMC ‘91] c) Aflatoxin d) Antiallergic

151. A Fungal disease of humans is due to [MPPMT ’95, RPMT ‘96]

159. Chitin present in fungal wall has a formula of
a) Typhoid b) Trichophyton
a) (C 22 H 54 N 2 O 21 ) n b) (C 21 H 54 N 4 O 22 ) n
c) Microsporum d) Both b and c
c) (C 22 H 54 N 4 O 13 ) n d) (C 22 H 24 N 4 O 21 ) n
[MPPMT ‘92]
[AMU ’96, CET CHD. ‘97]
152. Late blight of potato is due to
160. The fungus without a mycelium is
a) Alternaria solani b) Albugo candida
a) Rhizopus b) Saccharomyces
c) Fusarium moniliforme d) Phytophthora infestans
c) Puccinia d) Phytophthora

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[AMU ’96, Manipal ’97, BHU ‘98] c) fungus d) nematode
161. Heterothallism in fungi was first discovered or 8. Commercial source for manufacture of citric acid is
described by
a) citrus fruits b) Aspergillus
a) Robert Hooke b) Blakeslee
c) yeast d) Penicillium
c) Warburg d) Wallace
9. Antibiotic Flavian is obtained from
[CPMT ’91’ AMU ‘83]
a) Aspergillus fumigatus b) Aspergillus clavatus
162. Zoospore of Albugo possesses flagella
c) Streptomyces griesus d) Streptomyces fradiae
a) Two similar and apical
10. Which of the molecules listed below is a product of
b) Four similar and median
fermentation of glucose by yeast ?
c) Four apical
a) (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n b) C 2 H 5 OH
d) Two dissimilar and median [RPMT ’95, 96]
c) C 6 H 12 O 6 d) CH30H
Towards Perfection: 11. Some haploid structures of Rhizopus include the
1. The mycelium is typically coenocytic in a) mycelia, sporangia and spores
a) Phycomycetes b) Ascomycetes b) hyphae, zygote and sporangia
c) Basidiomycetes d) none of the above c) mycelia, zygospore and spores
2. Plectenchyma is a tissue composed of d) mycelia, zygospore and suspensor
a) parenchyma 12. Torula condition is seen in
b) collenchyma (l) Agaricus b) Yeast
c) mycelial threads of fungi c) Mucor d) Puccinia
d) tracheids of higher plants 13.Which of the following is a good example of
3. A facultative parasite is one which heterothallism ?

a) always requires a living host a) Spirogyra b) Pinus

b) is normally a saprophyte but can also become c) Mucor/Rhizopus d) Castor beans

parasite 14. Generally in laboratory cultures of Rhizopus there
c) is normally a parasite but can also become a is no formation of Zygospores because
saprophyte a) there is deficiency of oxygen
d) always requires dead organic matter b) there is deficiency of light
4. Which one of the following is an edible fungus? c) due to the absence of (+) and (-) strains in the
a) Penicillium b) Rhizopus mycelium

c) Mucor d) Agaricus d) presence of (+) and (-) strains of mycelium

5. Penicillin is produced mainly from 15. Yeast is an important source of

a) Penicillium notatum b) Penicillium chrysogenum a) vitamin C b) riboflavin

c) Penicillium claviforme d) Penicillium divaricatum c) Sugars d) proteins

6. One of the common fungal diseases of man is 16. Black wart disease of potato is caused by

a) cholera b) plague a) Pythium debaryanum

c) typhoid d) ring worm b) Phytophthora infestans

7. Aflatoxins are produced by c) Peronospora destructor

a) virus b) bacterium d) Synchytrium endobioticum

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17. Fungal filament system is known as mycelium; d) capacity of producing diseases in crops
pseudomycelium is formed in

a) Synchytrium b) Yeast
26. Which one of the following is not the mode of
c) Rhizopus d) spores by Rhizopus reproduction in yeast

a) budding b) fission

18. Vegetative reproduction in Yeast takes place by c) plasmogamy d) oogamy

a) akinetes b) ascospores 27. In diplobiontic life cycle of yeast, the number of

ascospores produced in an ascus is
c) aplanospores d) budding
a) two b) four
19. Which one of the following belongs to the same
class c) six d) eight
a) Agaricus and Aspergillus
28. Neuroapora belongs to
b) Rhizopus and Yeast
a) Ascomycetes b) Phycomycetes
c) Morchella and Saccharomyces
c) Basidiomycetes d) Deuteromycetes
d) Mucor and Yeast
29. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is
20. Heterothallism was discovered by
a) akaryote b) prokaryote
a) Blakeslee b) Waksman
c) mesokaryote d) eukaryote
c) Butler d) Alexopoulos
30. The conidiospores of Penicillium are
21. Zygospore of Mucor germinates to form
a) uninucleate and colourless
a) mycelium b) promycelium
b) uninucleate and pigmented
c) hyphae d) germ tube
c) binucleate and colourless
22.Heterotrophic absorptive mode of nourishment is
d) binucleate and pigmented
found in
31. The condition when two host species are required
a) algae b) fungi
for completion of the life-cycle of a parasitic fungus is
c) Bryophytes d) pteridophytes known as

23. Reduction division in the life cycle of Rhizopus a) autoecism b) heterothallism

occurs
c) heteroecism d) heterokaryotic
a) at the time of germination of zygospore
32. Puccinia forms
b) during the formation of germ sporangium
a) uredia and pycnia on barberry leaves.
c) during asexual reproduction
b) uredia and aecia on wheat leaves
d) during formation of gametangium
c) uredia and telia on wheat leaves
24. Rhizopus is
d) uredia and aecia on barberry leaves
a) autotrophic b) symbiotic
33. Which of the following microorganisms is used for
c) saprophytic d) parasitic production of citric acid in industries?

25. Most of the species of Rhizopus are different from a) Lactobacillus bulgaris
Spirogyra because they have
b) Penicillium citrirum
a) sexual reproduction
c) Aspergillus niger
b) heterothallism
d) Rhizopus nigricans
c) thalloid plant body

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Answers Objective Problems:
1b 2a 3d 4b 5c 6a
7b 8d 9b 10b 11a 12b
13b 14c 15d 16b 17a 18d
19a 20a 21c 22b 23c 24b
25d 26b 27c 28c 29b 30c
31a 32a 33a 34b 35a 36b
37b 38c 39a 40c 41d 42b
43a 44a 45a 46b 47c 48c
49c 50d 51c 52b 53b 54b
55d 56b 57c 58c 59b 60a
61d 62a 63b 64d 65c 66d
67b 68c 69a 70a 71c 72a
73b 74b 75c 76b 77d 78b
79b 80c 81c 82c 83a 84c
85c 86b 87a 88d 89d 90d
91d 92c 93c 94d 95c 96b
97a 98c 99c 100c 101c 102c
103a 104d 105d 106a 107c 108b
109d 110d 111a 112c 113c 114c
115a 116b 117c 118b 119a 120a
121a 122a 123a 124b 125b 126c
127d 128b 129d 130b 131a 132a
133a 134c 135b 136a 137a 138d
139b 140c 141d 142b 143b 144d
145b 146c 147b 148d 149d 150d
151d 152d 153a 154d 155c 156d
157a 158b 159b 160b 161b 162d

Answer Towards Perfection:

1a 2c 3b 4d 5b 6d

7c 8b 9a 10b 11a 12b

13c 14c 15b 16d 17b 18d

19c 20a 21b 22b 23a 24c

25b 26d 27b 28a 29d 30b

31c 32c 33c

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