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KINGDOM FUNGI
1. Introduction
(i) Kingdom Fungi is a group of multicellular eukaryotic, heterotrophic decomposer
organisms of diverse forms, sizes, physiology and mode of reproduction. Not only
mushrooms, but also many other organisms, like yeasts and moulds related to mushrooms
are considered to be fungi.
(ii) Mushrooms are among the largest fungi. These were collected and studied much before
the microscope was invented; and it is virtually with these organisms that the study of fungi
began. That is why the study of fungi is known as mycology (Mykes = mushroom + logos =
discourse) or mycetology.
(iii) Traditionally, these were regarded as plants, but now they are believed to constitute a kingdom
(Fungi) of their own, because their mode of nutrition, basic body structure, reproduction &
entirely different from plants.

2. General Character of Fungi

(i) There are more than 100,000 species of fungi. Fungi are cosmopolitan in distribution, i.e.,
these are widely distributed throughout the world.
(ii) Body thalloid, i.e., not differentiated into root stem and leaves. It is usually made up of fine
tubular thread-like filaments called hyphae. Hyph is building block of fungal body which are
usually woven into a network, called mycelium. Mycelium is complete body of fungus
produced from one spore.
(iii) These are heterotrophic because these lack chlorophyll and are, therefore
nonphotosynthetic. These are either parasites, saprophytes or symbionts.
(iv) Nutrition is absorptive, i.e., these first secrete enzymes in the surrounding medium. The
enzymes digest the complex molecules into simpler compounds, which are then absorbed by
the mycelium, so fungus commonly show extracellular digestion.
(v) Rigid cell walls are strengthened by chitin, a polymer of n-acetylglucosamine (except
some phycomycetes where cellulose occurs eg Pythium).
(vi) Food reserves are in the form of glycogen; not starch.
(vii) Reproduction by characteristic spore formation.
(viii) Fungi are mostly found at almost all the places i.e., these are found in every conceivable
habitat in deserts, mountains, living or dead bodies of animals and plant, jams, jellies, leather,
paper, plastics etc. These are found to occur in water, air and soil. These also occur in
symbiotic association with algae to form lichens or with roots of many higher plants to
form mycorrhizae. Many of these are parasitic on animals and plants, causing enormous
economical losses. Preferred habitat of fungi is moist, shady, warm & dark places.
(ix) In higher fungi, a number of cross-walls or partitions called septa are present in the hyphae so
as to divide them into compartments or cells. However, their septum has a central pore which
allows protoplasm (but not the nuclei) to flow between the compartments, The structure
facilitates mobilisation of reserve materials to aerial mycelium and fruiting bodies.
(x) The damaged/older portions of mycelium are completely cut off from the rest of the mycelium
by a plug which looks like a septum (pseudoseptum).
(xi) Hyphae having cross-walls in their vigorosuly growing regions are called septate while those
lacking septa are called non-septate (aseptate) or coenocytic. In aseptate mycelium,
numerous nuclei lie in a common mass of protoplasm.
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(xii) In a large number of simple fungi, the thallus is not made up of hyphae. Instead, it is a
single microscopic cell eg yeasts. At the time of reproduction entire cell may be converted
into reproductive structure. Such a body is called holocarpic eg Yeast. But if only a part of the
thallus is converted into reproductive structure, it is called eucarpic eg Rhizopus.
(xiii) The unicellular or multicellular forms have a cell wall.
(xiv) Sometimes, as in yeasts, the buds formed as a result of asexual reproduction, instead of
separating from mother cell, give rise to another bud. Thus, a branched chain of buds is
formed which may give false appearance of a mycelium. This is called pseudomycelium
(pseudo = false).
(xv) Usually, the fungal mycelium consists of a loose network of hyphae. However in certain forms
at certain stages in the life cycle, the mycelium gets organised into a loosely or compactly
woven “fungal tissue”. A general term plectenchyma (Gr. Plekerin =  weave) is used for all
such aggregations. If the tissue is loosely woven and the component hyphae are easily
distinguishable form one another, the tissue is termed prosenchyma. On the other hand, if the
hyphae are compactly packed, have lost their individuality, are indistinguishable; and in a
cross-section appear like the parenchyma of higher plants, the tissue is called a
pseudoparenchyma.
(xvi) In general, the fungal cells or hyphae have the same structure as the cells of other eukaryotes.
Plastids are absent.
(xvii) Fungi are heterotrophic, i.e., these require an organic source of carbon, In addition, they also
require some source of nitrogen like amino acids; inorganic ions such as K + and Mg+; trace
elements like Fe, Zn, and Cu as well as growth factors like vitamins.
(xviii) When these grow on dead substrates, these are called saprophytes. When these grow on
living organisms and derive their nutrition from them, these are called parasites. Facultative
parasites are those saprophytes which can derive their nutrition parasitically, as well.
(xix) Fungal hypha shows apical growth by chitosomes ; Lateral wall of fungal hypha is
synthesised by Lommosomes.

3. Reproduction in Fungi

3.1 Asexual Reproduction

Fragmentation, fission, budding, spore formation like sporangiospores, conidiospores,
chlamydospores, arthospores, uredospore, Teleutospores, aeciospores etc.

3.2 Sexual Reproduction

I Sexual reproduction is carried out by the fusion of the compatible nuclei form two
parents at a definite stage in the life cycle of the fungus. However, there are a large
number of species of fungi which seem to lack sexual reproduction. Such fungi are
known as imperfect fungi or Deutromycetes.
II The process of sexual reproduction in fungi, as in other organisms, involves three
phase :
(i) Plasmogamy, i.e., the fusion of two cells to mix of their protoplasts. It brings
together two compatible nuclei in the same cell.
(ii) Karyogamy, i.e., the two haploid nuclei from two different parents fuse together
to from a diploid nucleus.
(iii) Meiosis that results in the reduction of chromosome number to haploid.
The various methods by which these compatible nuclei are brought together in
plasmogamy include.
 Planogametic copulation: (fusion of naked gametes) one or both of the
gametes are motile eg Saprolegnia.
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 Gametangial contact: Male and female gametangia (structures

containing gametes) comes into contact but do not fuse: A fertilisation
tube from male gametangium enters the female gametangium. Male
nucleus passes into the female gametangium through this tube Albugo &
Phytophthora.
 Somatogamy: When two somatic hyphae fuse without the formation of
sex organs eg Agaricus.
 Conjugation : During sexual reproduction two gametoangia (gamete
producing structures) fuse together then gametes also to establish
fertilization eg Rhizopus.
 Spermatization or Spermatogamy : Small male gamete spermatium
fuse at the tip of Trichogyne (Conical projection of the tip of fask shaped
female gametangium) to establish fertilization eg Puccinia.

4. Fungi Classification
A number of criteria are used for classifying fungi. The important ones are
(i) Morphology or form structure and appearance of fungus. Morphology of assimilative
(vegetative) mycelium is useful in only a few cases. Morphology of reproductive
structures exhibits more variations and is hence important in fungus classification.
(ii) Types of spores and their dispersal.
(iii) Life cycle.
(iv) Physiology.
(v) Biochemisry.

The major groups of fungi are follows:

Fungi imperfecti or Deuteromycetes

(Sexual Reproduction not known)
Phycomycytes
(= Oomycetes,
FUNGI (Aquatic or algal
Mycelium Aseptate
fungi)
Oomycota
(lower fungi) Zygomycetes
[Sexual Reproduction known] (Conjugation Fungi)
Perfect Fungi

Ascomycetes
Mycelium Septate (Sac Fungi)
Eumocota
Basidiomycetes
(Club Fungi)
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5. Comparative Account of Classes (Fungi)

Phycomycetes Zygomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycet
es
(i) Common Algal fungi Conjugated fungi Sac fungi Club fungi Fungi
name imperfecti
(ii) Mycelium Aseptate, Aseptate, Septate, Septate, primary Septate,
multinucleated, multinucleated, branched, (n)and secondary multinucleated
coenocytic coenocytic primary(n) (n+n)(with clamp
secondary (n + n) connection)
(iii) Septum Absent Absent Present with Present with Simple pore
Simple pores Dolipore (except
rust and smut)
(iv) Asexual Zoospores Aplanospore, Conidia, Oidia, Conidia, Conidia,
spores (most flagellated, with sporangiospores Chlamydospores, Arthrospores Blastospores
common) Heterokont Arthrospores uredospores
flagellation etc.
(v) Sexual Isogamous or Gametangial Gametangial Sex organs Absent
reproduction. heterogamous copulation contact rarely absent, but (parasexuality
plamogametic Or somatogamy plasmogamy, is present)
copulation or Conugation karyogamy, and
gametangial meiosis.
contact (somatogamy)
rarely
spermatization
(vi) Example Albugo, Rhizopus, Mucor, Penicillium, Agaricus, Alternaria,
Phytophthora, Pilobolus etc. Aspergillus, Puccinia, Colletotrichum,
Pythium, Morchella, Ustilago, Tilletia Fusarium,
Saprolegnia. etc. Ascobolus, etc. Gibberella etc.
Claviceps etc.

5.1 Oomycota

This group includes fungi with aseptate and coencoytic mycelium. These are lower fungi. This group
is further divided into classes phycomycetes and zygomycetes.
I Phycomycetes = Oomycetes (Algal fungi or Egg fungi).

(i) They bear a striking resemblance to some of green algae (Vaucheria) in morphology of thallus
especially coenocytic condition.
(ii) The thallus ranges from unicellular to a profusely branched filamentous mycelium which is
coenocytic.
(iii) Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores or conidiosporangia.
(iv) Sexual reproduction occur mainly by gametangial contact (isogamous or heterogamous) or
by planogametic copulation. .
(v) Karyogamy immediately follows plasmogamy so there is no dikaryohase in life cycle.
(vi) Typical sexual spore is Oospore which helps in perenation, dispersal & reproduction.
(vii) Common examples are Albugo, Phytophthora and Downy mildews.
(viii) Saprolegnia: show diplanetism i.e., the production of two different types of zoospores
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(i.e. primary and secondary zoospores) in a succession by a single organism.

Saprolegnia parasitica grows on the gills of fishes and causes a serious ‘ Salmon
disease’
(ix) Pythium debaryanum: Produces single type of zoospore. It is called monoplanetism. It causes
“Damping off” of seedling disease.
(x) Water moulds: All aquatic fungi e.g. Achlya, Saprolegnia, Allomyces etc.
(xi) Some Common members :
(a) Albugo candida: It causes white rust of crucifer (family cruciferae). It
brings hyperplasia (increase in cell division) and hypertrophy (increase in
cell size) in plants. Common symptom as white blisters on surface of
leaf, flower etc. which in later stage produces powdrey mass of white
spores on surface of leaf or flower etc.
(b) Phytophthora infestans: It causes late blight of potato. It has caused
Irish famine
in 1843-46. This disease is common in hills where cold and high humidity is present.
Common symptoms burnt appearance in margin of leaves.
(c) Synchytrium endobioticum: It causes wart disease of potato. This
disease is endemic to Darjeeling in India. It affects both leaves and tubers
of potato. On potato tubers wart of dead tissue develops.

II Zygomycetes (conjugation fungi)

(i) These are saprophytic or parasitic fungi and can be grown on culture medium.
(ii) During life history a diploid resting spore called zygospore is produced by sexual
reproduction conjugation, hence the name of the group is zygomycetes.
(iii) Hyphae is coenocytic.
(iv) Hyphae are aseptate and haploid.
(v) Hyphae produces aerial branches called sporangiophores bearing sporangia at the tip of
hyphae which on transfer to aquatic medium produces zoospores motile spores.
(vi) Asexual reproduction commonly takes place by sporangiospores.
(vii) Life cycle is of Haplontic type.
(viii) Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
(ix) Asexual reproduction. Under favourable condition by means of sporangia borne on
sporangiophores. Each sporangium has central dome shaped columella and many
multinucleate sporangiospores. Sporangiospore on dispersal to other substarum again
produces new mycelium.
(x) Sexual reproduction. It occurs at the end of growing season under unfavourable conditions.
Sexual reproduction is by means of conjugation of two gametangia resulting in formation of
zygospore. Zygospore (2N) is the only diploid structure. Zygospore wall breaks during
favorable condition on moist substratum so there is formation of promycelium. Then a germ
sporangium develops at tip of promycelium. This germ sporangium develops uninucleate
haploid meiospores known as germ spores after meiosis in zygospores. So life cycle is
haplontic.
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Some Common members

(a) Pilobolus crystallinus (Squiriting Fungus) is a coprophilous ie growing
dung or faccal
matter of animals. .
(b) Rhizopus stolonifer (Bread Mould , black mould/pin mould)
(c) Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus. Mycelium is made up of rhizoidal
hyphae meant for
attachment and absorption of food and water, stoloniferous hyphae which arise from
apprent nodes & grow laterally spread the fungus. From upper surface of apparent nodes
vertically growing a group of aerial hyphae called sporangiophores. Hyphae are aseptate and
coenocytic. It has many nuclei, reserve food in the form of oil and glycogen.
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5.2 Eumycota (mycelium septate with monokaryotic or dikaryotic cells)

I Ascomycetes.
(i) These fungi occur in soil, water, store food as glycogen, commonly saprophytes rarely
parasite.
(ii) They are septate cells uninucleated or Binucleated and with branched hyphae.
(iii) Septa with simple pore
(iv) They posseses both types of spore i.e. exospore (e.g. conidia) and endospore
(ascospores).
(v) Ascospores are produced within sac like strcuture ascus.
(vi) Fruiting bodies bearing ascus are called ascocarps.
(vii) They also called sac fungi, characterized by presence of ascus in which usually 4 or 8
ascospores are produced. Many asci are grouped together to form a fructification
called ascocarp which is of four types viz.
 Cleistothecium (closed) spherical fruiting body e.g. Penicillium
 Apothecium (open cup shaped) e.g. Peziza
 Perithecium (flask shaped with terminal pore) with pore called ostiole e.g.
Claviceps purpurea or Neurospora.
 Ascostroma cushion like and chambered, locules separated by stroma and having
with asci.
 Hysterothecium : Boat shaped fruit body open at the upper surface by horizontal
slit for spore dispersal.
Yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer’s or
baker’s yeast)
(i) Study of yeast is called zymology. The
yeast is without mycelium. But during
budding stage mycelium like appearance is
observed the pseudomycelium
(ii) It produces two types of enzymes i.e.
zymase and invertase
(iii) Yeast is of three types budding fungi
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Saccharomyces ludwigii), fission fungi (e.g.
Schizosaccharomyces and Helobial yeast
eg Scharomycodes octosporus)

(iv) It is unicellular ascomycetes. It consists of a mass of protoplast surrounded by cell wall.

Cellwall contain mannose The protoplast has stored foods in the form of glycogen, fat
and volutin granules.
(v) Asexual reproduction is by budding and fission, large number of buds are formed in a
chain.
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(vi) Sexual reproduction by conjugation of two yeasts cells.

(vii) Yeast may be homothallic or heterothallic.
(viii) In Saccharomyces cerevisiae the life cycle is haplodiplontic type and haplontic in
Schizosaccharomyces octosporous and diplontic e.g. Saccharomycodes ladwigii.
Penicillium: (Blue mould or Blue Green mould) Name comes from brush like
appearance of branched conidiophores and conidia (Penicillus). It is also called blue
green mould. Conidia are branched. Colour of mould in due to coloured conidia.
Economic importance
(i) P. roqueforti used in ripening Roquefort cheese.
(ii) P. camemberti used in flavouring Camembert cheese.
(iii) P. notatum (used for discovary) and P. chrysogenum (commercial source)
used in making antibiotic penicillin.
(iv) P. glaucum used in manufacture of alcohol.
(v) Rich source of vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

Aspergillus
(i) It is also called Smoky green mould or common laboratory weed.
(ii) Majority of species are saprophytes.
(iii) The mycelium is hyaline, pale, tubular and with septate hyphae.
(iv) It is commonly known as Guinea pig of plant kingdom. It is also called chemical
weed.

Economic importance
(i) A. oryzae is used to produce alcohol.
(ii) A. oryzae and A. niger are used in making enzymes Citric acid is obtained by
using A. niger.
(iii) A. flavus secretes liver cancer causing substance called afflatoxin in moist
stored cereals grains.
(iv) A. flavus and A. fumigatus cause aspergillosis.
(v) A. flavus act as commercial source of vitamin  C.

Claviceps:
It causes disease ergot of rye. Sclerotia (compact mass of perennating hyphae) are
used to prepare LSD drug. This alkaloid is used as hallucinogen, antimigrain Its
alkaloids are used to prevent bleeding after child birth etc.

Neurospora
(i) It is called Drosophila of plant kingdom or pink mould.
(ii) “One gene one enzyme hypothesis” was developed by Beadle and Tatum in this
fungi. Nutritional mutant auxotroph discovered from it.
 Morchella (Morel) is used as food. Its fruiting body look like ‘basidiocarp’ but it
is an ascocarp.

II Basidiomycetes.
(i) These are also called as club fungi (due to club shaped Basidium)
(ii) Mycelium septate mono and dikaryotic.
(iii) Dikaryotic hypha contain clamp connections.
(iv) Presence of Dolipore septum.
(v) Binucleated spore like uredospore, teleutospores etc. may be present.
(vi) Sexual reproduction somastogamy or spermatization.
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(vii) It is characterized by presence of complicated fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.

They bear reproductive structures called basidia. Each basidium produces four
basidiospores exogenously.
(viii) The common examples are the smuts, rusts, the toadstools and puffballs etc..

Mushroom.
Agaricus campestris is the most common form of mushroom which being edible is also
cultivated. Commonly called button mushrrom or fairy ring mushroom.

Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of Agaricus

Life cycle of Agaricus It completes its life cycle in following phases.

(i) Monokaryotic phase (primary mycelium).Hypha with uninucleated cell short lived.
(ii) Dikaryotic phase (secondary mycelium). Hyphae with dikaryotic cells produced after
plasmogamy of sexual reproduction. Such dikaryotic cell are called dikaryons.
(iii) Diplophase (represented only by basidium).
(iv) Main plant body is divisible into rhizomorphic basidiocarp.
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(v) Sex organs are not formed. Act of sexual reproduction is somatogamy. Most of
species are heterothallic.
(vi) Secondary mycelium of the Rhizomorph develops rings of fruiting bodies called
basidiocarps, which emerge in the form of concentric rings called fairy rings.
 Agaricus also called Fairy ring mushroom.
(vii) Basidiocarp is umbrella shaped structure consists of stipe and pileus.
(viii) Stipe is massive, light pink colour and swollen at base.
(ix) Pileus is hemispherical white or yellow in colour. Inner surface bears 300 to 600 gills
(membrane like structure producing spores).
(x) Gill is having three distinct zones i.e. trama, subhymenium and hymenium.
(xi) Hymenium is fertile region which bears basidium (club shaped) and paraphyses.
(xii) Karyogamy takes place in basidium (diplophase) followed by meiosis. It produces four
haploid spores.
(xiii) Central vacuole enlarges in size pushes haploid spore into pouch like structure. This
structure now called basidiospore.
(xiv) Each basidiospore disperse from the basidium by water drop method.
(xv) Basidiospore germinate to form monokaryotic primary mycelium which is of short
duration and then there is somatogamy in two different strains and again secondary
mycelium is formed.

Life cycle of Puccinia

(i) It is heteroecious rust i.e. completes its life cycle in two hosts i.e. wheat (Primary host)
and Barbery (Secondary host).
(ii) It possess five typed spore in their life cycle.
 Uredospore - dikaryon on leaf and stem of wheat during favourable season.
 Teleutospore - dikaryon on stem of wheat, during end of favourable season.
 Basidiospore - monokaryon on moist soil by germination of teleutospores.
 Pycnidiospore - monokaryon on upper epidermis of Berberis.
 Aecidiospores - dikaryon on lower epidermis of Berbery in special cup like sructure
aecial cup.
(iii) Uredospores are brown in colour and multiplied again and again and attack the
new host (wheat plants).
(iv) At the late summer teleutospores are formed which are black in colour
(v) Teleutospores fall on the earth and dikaryon is followed by meiotic division. Four
haploid cells are produced out of which two are of (+) strain and two are of () strain.
These spores are called basidiospores.
(vi) Basidiospores fall on the upper epidermis of barbery where their mycelia grow and
produce pycnidia during favourable season produces pycniospores.
(vii) Pycnidia bear spermatium and trichogyne or receptive hyphae which can be
respectively called as male spore and female spore during unfavourable season on
upper surface of barberry leaf.
(viii) Spermatium is carried by insects from one place to other and attached with receptive
hyphae. This type of sexual reproduction is called spermatization. It leads to the
formation of protoaecidium.
(ix) Protoaecidium multiplies and produce aecidial cup, in which aeciospores are produced
which can infect new wheat plant
(x) Sequnece of spores produced  Uredospore  Teleutospores  Basidiospores 
Pycniospores  Aeciospores.
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Some Important Members :

 Puccinia graminis tritici  Black rust of wheat
 Hemileia vestatrix  Leaf rust of coffee
 Ustilago tritici  Loose smut of wheat
 Tilletia tritici  bunt of wheat or stinking smut of wheat
 Polyporus sulphareus  Bracket or shelf fungi
 Lycoperdon oblongisporum  Puff balls.

III Deuteromycetes
These are also called "Fungi Imperfecti" as sexual stage is absent or have yet not been reported .
The conidial stage is similar to conidial stage of ascomycetes.
(i) They are saprophytes as well as parasite.
(ii) Parasites causing severe diseases in plants and animals
(iii) Mycelium is branched and with septate hyphae. Cells are multinucleated
(iv) Chief reproduction is by asexual methods. Common type of spores are conidia
which are modified into different types of asexual fruiting bodies pycnidia,
sporodochium, acervuli and synnema.
 Synnema. Conidiophores arise in very close groups in such a way that their greater
parts is fused in length bearing conidiospores laterally.
 Acervuli. Condiophores remain clustered in saucer or barrel shaped forming a ring of
asexual fructification. They are found in asexual fungi.
 Sporodochium. It is hemispherical fruiting with lower portion of stroma like mass of
hyphae. Conidiophores arise from floor surface.
 Pycnidium. It is a flask shaped body with opening called ostiole the conidiophore arise
from inner lining of pycnidium. They are called pycnidiospores.
(v) Blastospore are produced by splitting up of hyphae into component cell.
(vi) Parasexuality ie typical sexual reproduction absent but recombination of genes takes
place and heterokaryosis are reported in certain forms of fungi imperfecti.
(vii) In many characters the members of deuteromycetes resemble with ascomycetes in
majority and with basidiomycetes in minority in those members where sexual
reproduction was discovered.
(viii) The fungi of this class cause many diseases of plants e.g,

(i) Colletotrichum falcatum Red rot of sugarcane.

(ii) Alternaria solani Early blight of potato.
(iii) Fusarium Wilt of arhar.
(iv) Cercospora personata Tikka disease of ground nut.
(v) Gibbeella fujikori Foolish seedling of rice

6. Economic Importance of Fungi

I As Food.
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(i) Yeast is used as food because it contains about 50% protein. Yeast protein is called
single - cell protein
(ii) Agaricus bisporous, Volvariella and Lentinus edodes, are some edible mushrooms.
II Research Tools. Neurospora and Physarum are used in several genetics and
biochemistry experiments respectively.
III Antibiotics. Penicillin (from Penicillium notatum and P. chrysogenum), griseofulvin
(from Penicillium griseofulvum) and Patulin (Penicillum patulum) are some
antibiotics obtained from fungi.
IV Acids. Several organic acids are produced from species of Rhizopus, Aspergillus,
Mucor, etc.
V Hormones. Gibberellin is obtained from Gibberella fujikuroi (or) Fusarium monififormis.
VI Vitamins. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other yeasts are good source of vitamin B 2
riboflavin.
VII Spoilage of food grains. Aspergillus, as spoiling agents of food grains, fruits,
Penicillium (spoil citrus fruits) etc..
VIII Poisonous fungi. Amanita palloides, A. verna and Boletus satavus are highly
poisonus fungi. Coprinus, Psilocybe - and Incocybe are also poisonous. Amanita
palloides is called "Death cup".
IX Toxins and aflatoxins. Amanita paloides, A. verna, Claviceps purpurea. Aspergillus
flavus, produce toxins and aflatoxins (Carcinogenic substances) mostly in stored
grains.
X Hallucinogenic drugs.
(i) Psilocybe mexicana, Amanita muscaria, Incocybe, Claviceps purpurea etc. are some
fungi which produce some hallucinogenic drugs, responsible for nausea,vomiting,
diarrhoea, and even death.
(ii) LSD is obtained from fungus, Claviceps purpurea. (ergots)
XI Other uses
(i) Nitrogen fixation by yeasts like Saccharomyces and Rhodotorula.
(ii) Production of latex by Mycena galopus.
(iii) Soil building by Rhizopus, Cladosporium, Aspergillus.
(iv) Along with bacteria, the fungi work as decomposers.
(v) Biological control of growth of hyperparasites like insects, nematodes, bacteria and
even other fungi.

Lichens (Discovered by Tulsane, term Coined by Theophrastus)

7.1 Introduction
(i) Lichens grow together with the mosses on the
tree trunk and rocks.
(ii) Lichen is a symbiotic association of fungus and
an alga.
(iii) Fungal component (mycobiont) dominating
partner may be ascomycetes(most common) Crustose apothecia
lichen
and rarely basidiomycetes and algal
component (phycobiont) may be blue green
algae (most common) or green algae.
(iv) Algae manufacture food from CO 2 and water
while fungus absorb water and minerals.
Asexual reproduction mainly takes place by
means of Soredia (few algal cells surounded
apothecia

apothecia

B
Forms of Lichens
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by fungal hyphae acting as common

reproductive structure of lichen)
(v) Lichen with ascomycete (Ascolichen)
(vi) Lichen with basidiomycete (Bassdiolichen) eg Cora.
(vii) Lichen capable of fixing N2 is Azotodesmic lichen.

7.2 Classification of lichens

I On the basis of habit

(i) Crustose lichens.The thallus is flat and forms a crust (a thin layer) on rock
e.g. Graphis, Lecanora, Rhizocarpon
(ii) Foliose lichens are broad much like leaf and lobed e.g.Parmelia. Peltigera,
(iii) Fruticose lichens. They are highly branched like bush and attached to
substraum by means of a disc. The branches bear reproductive structures
called apothecia e.g. Usnea, Cladonia, Ramalina, Evernia.
II On the basis of habitat
(i) Terricolous  Growing on barren soil eg. Lecidea, Cladonia
(ii) Saxicolous  Growing on rocky substrata e.g. Dermatocarpon.
(iii) Corticolous  Growing on bark of tree e.g. Usnea, Parmelia.
(iv) Lignicolous  Growing on wood eg. Cyphelium.

III. Some important structures in Lichens.

 Caphellae : Pores on lower surface of lichen for exchange of gases
 Isidia : Funger like projection on upper surface of lichen for increasing surface
area of lichen, if detached, helps in vegetative reproduction.
 Rhizines : Rhizoid like attaching structures on lower surface of lichen.
 Cephlodia : Bead or Buton like structure on upper surface of lichen carrying
different algae as compared to normal lichen body, helping in reproduction.
 Best term indicating relationship between algae and fungi in lichen in Helotism
ie controlled parasitism.
Economic Importance of Lichens
(i) Early colonizer. Lichens are the pioneers of ecological succession on rock on
bare rocks and are called first colonizers.
(ii) Soil builder. The lichens are pioneers of vegetation in a lithosere (succession
on rocky surface) they bring about biological weathering of rocks by forming
acids such as carbonic acid, oxalic acid, etc., which leads to soil formation.
(iii) Food. Some lichens are a valuable source of food for wild animals and cattle.

 Cladonia rangifera growing to a height of about 30cm, in the arctic

egions,
serves as food for Reindeer, hence called 'reindeer- moss'.
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 Certaria islandica is used as food article in iceland (hence called

'iceland
moss'), Sweden and Norway.
(iv) Pollution indicators Lichens are used as indicators of air pollutions
(specially SO2 pollution).
(v) Industrial uses
 A dye orchill is prepared from Roccella tinctoria used as pH indicator.
(vi) Religious importance. Sweet - scented thalli of lichens like Evernia, Ramalina
are used in the preparation of 'dhup' and 'hawan samagari'.
8. Mycorrhizae
The term ‘mycorrhizae’ (myco = fungus; rhiza = root, which means ‘fungus root’) was coined by
Frank. It represents the mutualistic symbiosis between the root system of higher plants and fungal
hyphae.
Types of mycorrhizae. The mycorrhizae are generally divided into two types - ectomycorrhizae
and endomycorrhizae :
I Ectomycorrhizae (Ectotrophic mycorrhizae). In this type of mycorrhizae, the fungus
completely encloses the rootlet in a sheath or mantle of tissue formed of compact hyphal cells
and penetrates only between the cells of root cortex. The ectomycorrhizal fungus cannot exist
saprotrophically in nature without a plant - host association. Such roots are devoid of root hair,
root cap and may become unforked, bifurcate, nodular or coralloid.
II Endomycorrhizae (Endotrophic mycorrhizae). In this kind of mycorrhizae the fungus does
not form an external mantle but lives within the root. The endomycorrhizae are further divided
into three group
(i) Ericaceous mycorrhizae - The fungus forms dense intracellular coils in the outer
cortical cells.
(ii) Orchidaceous mycorrhizae - These are associated with orchid roots. The fungus
forms association from the time when the orchid seeds germinate; and
(iii) Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) - The fungi of this group mostly belong to
phycomycetes. The type is significant in agriculture because it occurs in a large
number of crop plants. The fungal hyphae develop some special organs, called
vesicles and arbuscules, within the root cortical cells.
III Most common fungi in Mycorrhiza Glomus a member of class Zygomycetes.
9. List of various types of plants diseases with casual organisms :
I Types of Diseases
(i) Endemic - (moderate to severe in particular Country/Districts) e.g. wart disease of
potato caused by Synchitrium is restricted to Darjeeling only.
(ii) Epidemic - (occurs widely) e.g. Red rot of sugarcane, late blight of potato etc.
(iii) Sproradic - It occurs occasionally at irregular intervals in fewer areas and few plants of
area e.g. Angular leaf spot of cotton.

II Common Diseases of plants and their pathogens

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Common Disease Pathogen

(i) Wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
(ii) Damping off of seedling Pythium debaryanum
(iii) Late blight of potato Phytophthora infestans
(iv) White rust of crucifer Albugo candida
(v) Green ear disease of Bajra Sclerospora graminicola
(vi) Downy mildew of Pea Prenospora parasitica
(vii) Black rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
(viii) Loose smut of wheat Ustilago tritici
(ix) Bunt disease of wheat Tilletia tritici
(x) Tikka disease of groundnut Cercospora personata
(xi) Wilt of cotton Fusarium vasinfectum
(xii) Red rot sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum
(xiii) Coffee Rust Hamelia vestatrix
(xiv) Bakanne or (foolish seedling
disease of rice) Giberella fujikuori
(xv) Brown leaf spot or sessame of rice Helminthosporium oryzae
(xvi) Smut of maize Ustilago maydis

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS AS COMPETITION BOOSTER

 The fungi are achlorophyllous non vascular thallophytes.
 The science that deals with the study of fungi is called mycology or mycetology.
 Father of mycology Pier Antonio Micheli
 Father of Indian mycology Indian Plant Pathology E.J.Butler
 Father of plant pathology Anton de Bary (or modern mycology)
 Blakeslee studied heterothallism in Mucor mucido. He has also coined the terms
homothallism and heterothallism.
 K.C.Mehta studied annual recurrence of black stem rust of wheat in Indian planes and hills.
 N.Mitra discovered Tilletia indica in India causing bunt diseases of wheat.
 Fungi are composed of moulds, yeast, mushrooms, puffballs, Truffels, Buffles and toadstools.
 Fungi are found in almost all types of habitats. Many species of phycomycetes are found in
water and called as aquatic fungi e.g. Saprolegnia, Achlya.
 Epixylic fungi -Fungi growing on wood e.g. Polyporous.
 Xyllophilous fungi -Fungi growing on burnt wood e.g. Xylaria.
 Corticolous fungi - Fungi growing on tree bark e.g. Chaetomium.
 Coprophilous fungi - Fungi growing on dung e.g. Mucor, Ascobolus, Pilobolus.
 Endophytic fungi - Fungi growing inside host tissue.
 Xerophilic fungi - Fungi which can tolerate dry conditions.
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 Their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic either saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.

 Reserve food Glycogen and oil droplets.
 Cell wall of fungus is made up of chitin. It is a nitrogen containing polysaccharides and
heteropolymer of NAG (Nitrogen acetyl glucosamine) with -1,3 glucosidic bond.
 Outgrowth of cell membrane between cell wall & cell membrane is called Lomasomes. It
helps in cell wall synthesis and in endocytosis.
 Cell wall synthesis in apical region is by chitosomes (small vasicle in apical region of hypha
filled with chitin).
 Number of ascospores per ascus in ascomycetes are may be four or eight and number of
basidiospores per basidium in basidiomycetes are four.
 Yeast which produces ascospores is called true yeast e.g. Saccharomyces, and that do not
produce ascospores is called false yeast e.g. Cryptococcus.
 Ascospores in ascus of fungi (e.g. ascomycetes) may be ordered type (e.g. Neurospora) or
unordered type (e.g. yeast)
Kinds of Hyphae
 Hypha. Spore germinates, starts absorbing food and grows into thread like structure called
hypha which grows and branches rapidly.
 Coenocytic Hyphae. Hyphae with many nuclei in the same cytoplasm and is aseptate.
 Septate Hypha. A hypha divided by septa into many compartments containing one or more
nuclei.
 Dikaryotic hypha (dikaryon). A hypha containing two haploid nuclei of two genetically
different typed between each pair of adjacent septa. It is n + n rather than 2n diploid
cell.
 Monokaryotic hypha (Monokaryon) A hypha containing one nucleus per cell.
 Heterokaryotic hypha. A fungal hypha that has nuclei which is derived from two genetically
distinct individuals is called heterokaryotic hypha e.g. Deuteromycetes.
 Homokaryotic hypha If all the nuclei in hypha are genetically similar it is said to be
homokaryotic hypha e.g. Phycomycetes.
 Mycelium. The body of fungus formed of many hyphae is called mycelium and is well suited to
absorb food.
 Sclerotia. Hyphae aggregate to form a compact pseudoparenchymatous resting structures.
 Rhizomorphs. These are thick rope like twisted subterranean strands of somatic hyphae
having well defined apical growing point, in which hyphae aggregate and lose their
individuality.
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 Haustoria. Parasitic fungi absorb food from the body fluids of the host and may produce
specialized hyphae called haustoria that penetrate a plant's cells wall and lie against the
plasma membrane, where they can absorb food.
 Plectenchyma. When the mycelium gets organised into loosely or compactly woven tissue -
like structure.
 Pseudoparenchyma : Mycelium in which the hyphae are very closely packed to lose their
identity.
 Vegetative reproduction Fragmentation,
 Asexual reproduction (A) Zoospores (B) Conidia, (C) Oidia, (D) Chlamydospores.(E) Spores
 Sexual reproduction is isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy has not been reported in
deuteromycetes.
Useful Terms
 Clamp Connection. It is a small looped hypha which develops at the time of cell division
and septa formation in dikaryon of basidiomycetous fungus
 Eucarpic. When only a part of thallus is used for the formation of reproductive bodies e.g.
Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes
 Holocarpic. When entire mycelium converted into reproductive structure e.g. phycomycetes
 Dolipore septum. It is complex pore with barrel shaped thickening in margin of the pore in the
septum of the hypha of a basidiomycetous fungus.
 Rust. Fungal genera of Uredinales causing dark spots on the stem and leaves of hosts,
producing rusty mass of spores e.g., Puccinia.
 Smut. Fungal genera of Ustilaginales producing large number of black dusty or
charcoal like powdery mass of spores (chlamydospores) e.g. Ustilago.
 Zygospores. These are thick walled diploid spores of zygomycetous fungi formed after the
fusion of two gametangia.
 Heterothallism. Phenomenon where fungus possess two physiologically different types
of mycelia considered as + and  (strains) for the formation of zygosphores e.g.
Rhizopus stolonfer. It was discovered by A.I. Blakeslee.
 Severe famine of West Bengal of 1942 - 43 was due to destruction of rice crop by a fungus,
Helminthosporium.
 Smallest fungus - yeast. Largest fungus - giant puffball .Longest fungus - Gynoderma
 Gibberella fujikuroi is the perfect form of the conidial fungus Fusarium moniliforme.
 Penicillin discovered from Penicillium notatum by a W. Flemming, now a days it is mostly
obtained from P. chrysogenum.
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 LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide) is a powerful hallucinogen derived from Claviceps

purpurea.
 Ergotin is an alkoloid obtained from ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea) is used as medicine
against migraine, uterine troubles and uterine haemorrhage.
 A fungus requires only one host to complete life cycle is called autoecious e.g. Hemelia
causing cofee rust. A fungus requires two hosts to complete life cycle is called heteroecious.
e.g. Puccinia graminis tritici requires wheat and Berberry plants to complete the life cycle.
Collateral or alternate host of Puccinia are Hordeum, Bromus and Briza.
 Disease is metabolic disorder followed by symptoms. Symptoms can be localised (restricted to
a part only) or systemic (when infection reach the whole body).
 Bordeaux mixture: It was first fungicide to be discovered. It was discovered by J.H.
Millardet of Bordaux university. This mixture is so widely used against number of plant
diseases hence also called “Holy water of plant pathology” is mixture CuSO4 and Ca(OH)2
or lime.
 Afflatoxins are carcinogenic substances produced by fungi in food grains. e.g. Aspergillus.
 Phytoelexins: These are phenolic compound produced by plants as defensive system
after infection of fungi.
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ASSIGNMENT
A. Fill in the blanks

1. The division eumycota contains ___________ and basidiomycetes.

2. In case of Penicillium, asexuaI reproduction occurs by spores called ___________
3. C2H5OH is produced commercially with members of genus ___________
4. A lichen is a symbiotic association between a ___________ and a photosynthetic partner.
5. Citrus fruits develop blue spots in rainy season ______________________
6. The ___________ are the best decomposers of wood material.
7. White rust of crucifers is caused by ___________
8. Diseases spreading in small pocket of an area is ___________ disease.
9. Fungi lmperfecti are called as ___________
10. Lichens are highly sensitive to ___________of air pollutant.

B. True and false

1. Yeasts bring about fermentation.

2. Lichens grow may on rocks.
3. Amanita is a poisonous fungus.
4. Gills Agaricus helps in respiration.
5. Deuteromycetes produce edible fruiting bodies.
6. Closed frutification of ascomycetes is called apothecium.
7. Lichen are root fungal symbiotic association.
8. Agarcius grows as a parasite.
9. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming.
10. Puffballs and buffles belongs to class basidiomycetes.

C. Match the items of column I with column II

(a) Column I Column II

(a) Symbiotic (i) Rhizopus
(b) Zygospore (ii) Ustilago
(c) Gills (iii) Pilobolus
(d) Smut (iv) Pontecarvo & Roper
(e) Sac fungi (v) Ascomycetes
(f) Squirting fungus (vi) Deuteromycetes
(g) Fungi imperfecti (vii) Dactylella
(h) Parasexuality (viii) Agaricus
(i) Flask shaped Ascocarp (ix) Lichens
(j) Predaceous fungi (x) Perithecium

(b) Column I Column II

(a) Fission (i) Penicillium
(b) Ascus (ii) Gibberellin
(c) Albugo candida (iii) White rust
(d) Fusarium moniliforme (iv) Ascospores
(e) Cleistothaecium (v) Yeast
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D. Give one word answers for the following

1. Term indicate fungus growing on bark of tree.

2. Which fungus causes red rot of sugarcane?
3. Name the mycologist who discovered heterothallism.
4. How many ascospores are normally present in a ascus of Neurospora.
5. Name the composite organism which is made up of algae and fungal hypha. Each contributing
to other’s benefit.

E. Assertion Reason type Questions.

In each of the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is given and a corresponding
statement of reason (R) is given just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as:
A. If both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
B. If both A and R are true R is not the correct explanation of A
C. If A is true but R is false
D. If both A and R are false

1. Assertion : Zygospore formation is rare in Rhizopus in pure culture under laboratory

conditions.
Reason : It s a heterothallic oganism.
2. Assertion : Asexually produced spores of fungi are all identical genetically.
Reason : Spores produced asexually from a fungus are the result of mitosis.
3. Assertion : In mycorhizal association, the growth of the fungus within the plant does not
damage it.
Reason : Fungal partner in mycorrhizae provide antimicrobial substance to the plant.
4. Assertion : The Diameter of a fairy ring decreases every year.
Reason : The fairy ring of Agaricus underground mycelium of Agarius grows centripetally.
5. Assertion : Most fungi can survive only under high conditions of humidity.
Reason : Water is essential for diffusion of molecules resulting from extracellular
digestion of food particles across fungal cell wall.

F. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The branch of botany which is concerned with study of fungi is called

(a) Mycetology (b) Microbiology
(c) Mycology (d) Both (a) & (c)
2. The parasitic fungi take their food from the host with the help of
(a) Paraphysis (b) Haustoria
(c) Soredia (d) Conidia
3. Fungi that are used as food
(a) Puffballs (as white only) (b) Few typed Mushrooms
(c) Morchella (d) All above
4. Conjugation tube like structure in dikaryotic hypha of Agaricus
(a) Dolipore (b) Crozier
(c) Chlamydospores (d) Clamp connection
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5. Commercial mushrooms are grown in soil enriched with horse manure. These mushrooms are
(a) Autotrophic, grown from spores only
(b) Parasitic, grown by 1 hyphae , mainly
(c) Saprophytic, grown from 2 hyphae called spawn
(d) Chemosynthetic grown from spore or 2 hyphae
6. Most of the fungi grow at
(a) 20-30oC and pH 6.0 (b)10-15oC and pH 6.0
o
(c) 15-20 C and pH 6.0 (d) 5-10oC and pH 5.0
7. Who found phenomenon of heterothallism in Rhizopus
(a) Alexopoulos & Mims (b) Blakslee
(c) EJ. Butter (d) K.C. Mehta
8. Sporangiospores in Rhizopus are
(a) uninucleated & haploid (b) Biflagellated and diploid
(c) Multinucleated & haploid (d) Ciliated and heterokaryotic
9. Torula stage is found produced from hyphae in medium
(a) Rich in sugar (b) Pesticides
(c) Antibiotics (d) Rich in fats
10. Early blight and late blight diseases of potato are caused respectively by
(a) Aspergillus and Penicillium (b) Phytophthora and Alternaria
(c) Graphiola and Agaricus (d) Alternaira and Phytophthora
11. Citric acid is commercially manufactured from
(a) Mucor mucido (b) Citromyces sp.
(c) Aspergillus niger (d) Saccharomyces sp.
12. The fertile layer producing spores in ascocarp is
(a) Epiderm (b) Epicarp
(c) Hymenium (d) Periderm
13. Generally in pure cultures the Rhizopus, there is no formation of zygospore because
(a) There is deficiency of oxygen
(b) There is deficiency of light
(c) Due to the absence of either (+) or (–) strains of mycelia
(d) Presence of (+) and (–) strains of mycelia
14. In Rhizopus, which of the following stage does not contain 'n' number of chromosomes
(a) Hyphae (b) Zoospores
(c) Rhizoidal hyphae (d) Zygospore
15. Which enzyme is present in yeasts
(a) Diastase & Invertase (b) Sucrase & Lactase
(c) Maltase & Sucrase (d) Zymase & Invertase
16. Which of the following is commonly used in genetical experiments
(a) Mucor (b) Rhizopus
(c) Morchella (d) Neurospora
17. Which of the following is unicellular and uninucleated
(a) Rhizopus nigricans (b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(c) Puccinia graminis (d) Morchella esculenta
18. In most of the lichens, the fungal partner belongs to
(a) Phycomycetes (b) Ascomycetes
(c) Basidiomycetes (d) Deuteromycetes
19. "Foolish seedling disease of rice" behind the discovery of which growth hormone
(a) Auxins (b) Ethylene
(c) Gibberellin (d) Cytokinins
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20. Zygospore of Mucor germinates to form

(a) Mycelium (b) Promycelium
(c) Hyphae (d) Germ tube
21. Penicillin is produced from
(a) Penicillium chrysogenum (b) Penicillium calaviforme
(c) Penicillium expansum (d) Penicillium divaricatum
22. Black rust of wheat is caused by
(a) Penicillium recondita (b) Yeast
(c) Penicillium notatum (d) Puccinia graminis tritici
23. A facultative parasite is one which
(a) Always requires a living host
(b) Is normally saprophytic but can also become parasitic
(c) Is normally a parasite but can also become a saprophyte
(d) Always requires dead organic matter.
24. Yeast (Saccharomyces) belongs to
(a) Phycomycetes (b) Ascomycetes
(c) Basidiomycetes (d) Deuteromycetes
25. Flemming discovered penicillin from
(a) Penicillium camemberti (b) P. notatum
(c) P. chrysogenum (d) P.expansum
26. How many ascospores are formed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 16
27. To which class, the species of deuteromycetes have to transfer commonly if sexual reproduction
discovered in them
(a) Ascomycetes (b) Basidiomycetes
(c) Zygomycetes (d) None of these
28. When a portion of fungal mycelium is used in the formation of reproductive structure
(a) Eucarpic (b) Autocious
(c) Holocarpic (d) Heteroecious
29. An alga and a fungus remain in lichens as
(a) Parasite (b) Symbiont
(c) Saprophyte (d) Epiphyte
30. Beadle and Tatum proposed one-gene, one-enzyme theory in the fungus belonging to class
(a) Phycomycetes (b) Basidiomycetes
(c) Ascomycetes (d) Deuteromycetes
31. Which of the following is a fungal disease
(a) Tuberculosis (b) Small pox
(c) Rabies (d) Ringworm of scalp
32. 'Ergot of rye' is caused by
(a) Puccinia graminis (b) Ustilago maydis
(c) Claviceps purpurea (d) Alternaria Solani
33. Loose smut and covered smut means
(a) Spores comes out from ovary wall in loose smut while they remain with in ovary wall in covered smut.
(b) Spores are found in a part of plant in loose smut while they are found whole plant in covered smut.
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(c) Reverse of option (A).

(d) Reverse of option (B).
34. The coprophilous fungi inhabit
(a) Dung /Night soil (b) Dead wood
(c) Decaying leaves (d) Bark of tree
35. Fungi are always
(a) Autotrophic (b) Chemotrophic
(c) Parasitic (d) Heterotrophic
36. Mycorrhiza is a relationship between
(a) Algae and fungi (b) Fungi and the roots of higher plants
(c) Fungi and rhizoids of lower plants (d) None of the above
37. Each gill in Agaricus is divisible into
(a) Two zones (b) Three zones
(c) Four zones (d) Five zones
38. Aflatoxins are produced by
(a) Bacteria (b) Fungi
(c) Viruses (d) Algae
39. Smut is characterised by
(a) Production of powdrey mass of spores released by degenration of epidermis of stem and leaves
(b) Production of charcoal like powdrey mass of spores
(c) Black powdrey mass of zygospores
(d) Development of black spots on epidermis of stem & Leaf
40. Blue to green spots on citrus fruits are produced by
(a) Penicillium (b) Agaricus
(c) Aspergillus (d) Puccinia

G. Very Short answer type Questions. (1 Mark)

1. What type of nutrition is found among fungi (distinct from animals) ?

2. What would you call a loosely woven tissue of hyphae?
3. In which group of fungi sexual reproduction is absent?
4. Who gave the term Phycomycetes?
5. Who published first book completely devoted to fungi?
6. State whether the gametes of Mucor are isogametes or coenogametes?
7. Mention the general mode of nutrition in fungi.
8. Name the unicellular and one mycelial fungi .
9. Name one fungal disease of fish?.
10. What is conidiogenous cell called?
11. Tell the name of a macrocyclic rust.
12. Tell the name of a predacious fungus.

H. Short answer type Questions. (2 Marks)

1. What is lichens and mycorrhiza?

2. What is corticolous & coprophious fungus?
3. Differentiate apothecium and Cleistothecium.
4. How lichens improve soil condition?
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5. Differentiate between sporangiosphore and conidiophore.

6. Define soredia.
7. Explain gametangial copulation.
8. What are oidia and conidia.
9. Differentiate zoospore and zygospore.
10. Define Heterothallism.

I. Short Answer Type Questions. (3 Marks)

1. How do lichens reproduce?

2. What is a torula stage?
3. Give three important characters of ascomycetes.
4. Mention the economic importance of lichens.
5. Describe the composition of cell wall of fungi.
6. Explain briefly spermatization.
7. Give economic importance of Colletotrichum.

J. Long answer type questions. (5 Marks)

1. Write in brief what do you know about Parasexuality.

2. Write economic importance of yeast.
3. Describe briefly the internal structure of a mushroom.
4. Give economic importance of smuts and rusts.
5. Give a brief account of classification of kingdom fungi.
6. Draw graphic life cycle of mushroom Rhizopus.
7. Explain various stages of life cycle in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
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ANSWERS
KINGDOM FUNGI
A. Fill in the blanks

1. Ascomycetes 2. Conidio–spores
3. Saccharomyces 4. Fungus
5. Penicillium 6. Basidiomycetes(Polyporus)
7. Albugo candida 8. sporadic
9. Deuteromycetes 10. SO2

B. True and False

1 True 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. False

6. False 7. False 8. False 9. True 10.True

C. Match the following

(a) (a) (ix) (b) (i) (c) (viii) (d) (ii) (e)(v)
(f)(iii) (g) (vi) (h) (iv) (i) (x) (j) (vii)
(b) (a)(v) (b) (iv) (c) (iii) (d) (ii) (e) (i)

D. Give one word answers for the following

1. Corticolous
2. Collatolricum falcatum
3. Blakeslee
4. Eight
5. Lichen

E. Assertion Reason type Questions.

1. (A), 2. (A), 3. (B), 4. (D), 5. (A)

F. Multiple Choice Questions

1 D 11 C 21 A 31 D
2 B 12 C 22 D 32 C
3 D 13 C 23 B 33 A
4 D 14 D 24 B 34 A
5 C 15 D 25 B 35 D
6 A 16 D 26 B 36 B
7 B 17 B 27 A 37 B
8 C 18 B 28 A 38 B
9 A 19 C 29 B 39 B
10 D 20 B 30 C 40 A
KINGDOM FUNGI Foundation Course for +1 Students
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G. Very Short answer type Questions. (1 Mark)

1. Absorptive
2. Prosenchyma
3. Deuteromycotina
4. De Bary
5. Von Sterbeck
6. Both
7. Absorptive (Saprophytic)
8. Saccharomyces cerevisiae ; Rhizopus stolonifer
9. Salmon disease (caused by Saprolegina parasitica)
10. Sterigmata
11. Puccinia graminis
12. Dactylaria