COURSE MATERIAL ON GNS 301 FOR HND I (PTI)

TOPICS

1. THE SENTENCE: PART OF THE SENTENCE AND TYPES OF

SENTENCES WITH EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES, TENSE AND ITS
USES, CONCORD (TYPES AND RULES OF CONCORD) WITH
EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES
2. LOGICAL PAINTING
3. ESSAY WRITING
4. LITERATURE (EMPHASIS: POETRY)

COMPILED BY

MUONAGOR, ADAOBI

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THE SENTENCE

A sentence is usually defined as a group of words that expresses a complete thought. It

usually begins with a capital letter and ends in a full-stop, question mark or exclamation
mark. E.g.

 We will leave either on the weekend or on Monday.

 The striped cat on the chair hasn’t moved for hours!
 When will Maria and her aunt arrive?

Part of a Sentence
To express a complete thought, a sentence must have tow parts a subject and a
predicate. The subject of the sentence is the person. Place, thing, or idea that the
sentence is about. The predicate says something about the subjects
Subject predicate

My dog has fleas

Odetta is a famous folk singer

The letter on the desk came this afternoon

The Subject

Subject may be only one word, or it may be several. All the words composing the
subject are called the complete subject. The main word or words in the complete
subject are called the simple subject.

The only person for this job is Suzette

Complete subject: The only person for this job

Simple Subject: person

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Mrs. Yuan’s daughters run the China Flower Restaurant.

Complete Subject: Mrs. Yuan’s daughters

Simple Subject: daughters

Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha has a fine collection

Complete Subject: Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha

Simple Subject: Joslyn Art Museum

Compound Subjects

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects that are joined by a
coordinating conjunction and that have the same verb

Compound subjects are italiczed in the following sentences

Books and magazines are available in the library

Compound Subject: Books and magazines

Simple Subject: Books

Magazines

Marian Anderson, Beverly sills, and Leontyne Price are great singers

Compound Subject: Marian Anderson, Beverly Sills and Leontyne Price

Simple Subjects: Marian Anderson

Beverly Sills

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Leontyne Price

Compound subjects, like one-word simple subjects, may take modifies

The ambassador from Ghana and the British Manufacturer agreed

Compound Subjects: Ambassador

Manufacturer

An old, dilapidated born and a shed with no roof were on the property

Compound Subjects: barn

Shed

Understood Subject

The imperative sentence, which gives an order or makes a request, is different from
other sentences: it does not name the subject. The subject is always you, meaning the
person being addressed. Subjects of this kind are called understood subjects.

Lend me five dollars, please.

Understood Subject: you [you lend me five dollars, please]

Call me about the assignment

Understood Subjects: you [you call me about the assignment.]

Look at that strange storm cloud

Understood Subjects: you [you look at that strange storm cloud.]

Even if the sentence names the person who is addressed, the true subject is still the
understood you

Hand me that wrench, Nicky

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Subject: you [understood]

Officer, please give me some directions

Subject: you [understood]

Sentence: A sentence is a group of words which makes complete sense.

Ex: Man is a social animal by nature.
Honesty is the best policy.
Ajaokuta is a steel city.
Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.

Kinds of Sentences: Sentences are divided into five kinds, namely:

1. Declarative Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence
5. Optative Sentence

1. Declarative Sentence: A sentence that states or declares something is called an

Assertive or declarative Sentence.
Ex: The earth moves round the sun.
Accra is the capital of Ghana
Yoruba is spoken in Western Nigeria.
The museum is built by Lagos State.
Chinua Achebe is a Nigerian writer.

2. Interrogative Sentence: A sentence that asks a question is called an

Interrogative Sentence.
Ex: What do you want?
Do you know English?
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Have you ever been to America?
Did you post the letter?
When do you return from Abuja?
Where did you go yesterday?

3. Imperative Sentence: A sentence that expresses a command, a request, an

entreaty or suggestion is called an Imperative Sentence.
a. Request:
Ex: Please post the letter.
Can you lend me fifty Naira?
May I use your phone?
Could you wait for me outside?
b. Command:
Ex: Don’t smoke in the room.
Stop there!
Come here!
Bring the book tomorrow.
Be regular to your classes.
Close the door!
c. Suggestion:
Ex: You should help the poor.
You must apply for a job.
You had better consult a physician.
What about a cup of tea?
What about seeing a film this evening?
How about starting a small scale business?

4. Exclamatory Sentence: A sentence that expresses some strong or sudden

feeling is called an Exclamatory Sentence.
Ex: What a shame!

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What a beauty!
What a great success!
How brilliant Victoria is!
How happily they are living!
How difficult the question paper is!

5. Optative Sentence: A sentence that expresses a wish, probability or supposition

is called an Optative Sentence.
Ex: I wish you were my wife.
If I had wings, I would fly.
May God help you in your attempt.
If Bukola had been my wife, I would have been happier
She ought to have been married by now.
We wish she would be with us.

EXERCISE 66.
Change the following command into requests
1. Lend me your book
2. Post this letter
3. Give this letter to my brother
4. Wait for me as the theatre
5. Don’t play with fire
6. Dine with me this evening
7. Teach me how to spell the word.
8. Let me tell you something.
9. I may go home early today
10. Help me in the work.
11. Tell me your name and address.
12. Show me the way to the theatre.
13. Give me a cup of tea.
14. Get me two tickets for the film.
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15. Come early tomorrow
16. Drive carefully

EXERCISE 67.
Turn the exclamatory sentences into assertive sentences:
1 What a pity you have failed once again!
2 What a shame!
3 What a tragedy it is!
4 How gracefully Bukola walks!
5 What a great thing you have done!
6 How dark the sky appears!
7 What a good memory he has!
8 What a fine evening!
9 How kind of Emeka to save me from danger!
10 How clever of her to cheat her husband!
11 How glad I am that you have won the scholarship!
12 How cold the night is!
13 How long 1 have waited for Emeka!
14 What a beautiful building!
15 What a strange person you are!

EXERCISE 68.
Change the statements into questions:
1. You enjoy watching films.
2. I saw the film last year.
3. You never visited the Lagos Zoo.
4. You have never been to Akure.
5. No one can believe her words.
6. That is the way you should speak to your mother.
7. Prevention is better than cure.

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8. They play cricket in the evening.
9. My father reads newspaper daily.
10. Titi goes to school every morning.
11. I shall speak to him tomorrow.
12. She will be twenty next year.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

It may be pointed out here that sentences can be divided into four classes from
structural point of view.
They are:
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex or Double Sentence

1. Simple Sentence: A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate is
called a Simple Sentence.
Ex: I saw Bukola at the bus stop.
The sun rises in the east.
Man is a social animal.
A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
Brevity is the soul of wit.
Revenge is a kind of wild justice.

2. Compound Sentence: A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate

clauses is called a Compound Sentence.
Ex: I went to Lagos and visited the zoo.
Bukola told me about her marriage and I was glad of it.
He tried hard but failed in his attempt.
The doctor examined the patient and cured him.

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The film ended and the audience went away.
I looked at Abike and she smiled at me.

3. Complex Sentence: A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses is called a Complex Sentence.
Ex: When I went there, I found that Lola was cooking.
I saw Amaka when she was talking to her brother.
he got a job after she had completed her studies.
I did not know what had happened when I was away.
I talked to Bukola before she went to Abuja.
If you know about it, please tell me.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence: A sentence which consists of two or more main

clauses and at least one subordinate clause is called a Compound-Complex or
Double Sentence.
Ex: While the chief guest went on his speech, the audience laughed at him and
threw stones at him.
I knew that Bukola had loved me but I did not have any idea whether she was
interested in marriage.
My friend believes that he can do anything if he has a lot of money, but I cannot
agree with him.

EXERCISE 69.
Turn the sentences into other forms. [Simple, Compound or Complex]:
1. When he saw the tiger, he ran away.
2. He lost his watch, he was sad.
3. Follow my advice or you will be in trouble.
4. If you don’t hurry, you can’t meet him.
5. We eat to live.
6. In spite of his hard work, he failed.

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7. Amaka was too poor to buy a good present for her mother.
8. You must run to catch the train.
9. Is this the way to do it?
10. He stood up so that he could see better.

EXERCISE 70.
Change the simple sentences into compound sentences:
1. On hearing the teacher’s foot steps, the boys kept silent.
2. Hearing a noise, I turned round.
3. Having gone to the college, I met the principal.
4. In spite of her hard work, she failed.
5. In spite of the rain, they went out.
6. In spite of my advice, she gave up her studies.
7. Besides stealing the jewels, he also. murdered her.
8. Besides scolding him, he also beat her.
9. Owing to illness, she could not attend the meeting.
10. Owing to ill health, he has postponed his trip to Lagos

EXERCISE 71.
Change the simple sentences into complex and compound sentences:
1. He admitted his guilt.
2. I hoped to succeed.
3. We eat to live.
4. You should work hard to get a first class.
5. She failed to prove her innocence.
6. She did it in my absence.
7. I don’t know the time of her arrival.
8. She was too weak to speak.
9. I was sorry to hear the news.

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SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Every sentence has two main parts namely subject and predicate. A subject contains a
noun or a pronoun and the predicate contains a verb. So it can be said that the naming
part is the subject and the telling part is the predicate.

A subject is divided into:

1. Subject 2. Predicate
Subject: The name of the person or thing we speak about is called the Subject.
Predicate: what is said about the subject is called the prediction
Subject Predicate
Bukola is very beautiful.
Man is a social animal.
He went to Abuja yesterday.
The sun rises in the east.
Ibadan is my birth place.

Note: The Subject is omitted in an Imperative Sentence.

Ex: Write your name. [You is left out]
Thank you. [I is left out]

EXERCISE 72.
Separate the subject and predicate in the following sentences
1. Nature is the best physician.
2. Man is a social animal by nature.
3. The earth revolves round the sun.
4. The sun rises in the east.
5. All roads lead to Rome.
6. Rome was not built in a day
7. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
8. Stone walls do not make a prison.

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9. A guilty conscience needs no excuse.
10. Prevention is better than cure.
11. Ayo Thomas is a short-story writer.
12. Mother Theresa is a great social worker.
13. Amaka is my best friend.
14. We should be kind to the poor.

EXERCISE 73.
Match the subjects with the predicates in the following sentences:
1. Christopher Columbus rises in the east.
2. Nature discovered America.
3. The Sun is the best physician.
4. Open rebuke is the best sauce.
5. God helps is better than secret love.
6. Hunger those who help themselves.
7. Habit begins at home.
8. Charity is second nature.
9. Brevity is better than cure.
10. Prevention is the soul of wit.

EXERCISE 74.
Fill in that blanks with suitable predicates:
1. Well begun _________
2. A bird is hand _________
3. A friend in need _________
4. The National Museum _________
5. All that glitters __________
6. A burnt child

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A. SUBJECT
We have already noted that a sentence is a group of words which gives complete
meaning and a sentence contains a subject and predicate.

The subject in a sentence may consist of one word or several words. But the
subject must have a noun or a pronoun. The chief word in the subject is called
the subject word or simple subject.

Subject Word or Simple Subject: A noun or a word or a group of words that does
the work of a noun is called the Subject Word.
1. Words used as subjects
a. Noun
Man is a social animal.
b. Pronoun
We returned home in the evening.
c. An adjective used as a noun
The old should be respected.
d. To infinitive
To write letters is very difficult.
e. Gerund
Teaching is a noble profession.
f. Phrase
A friend in need is a friend indeed.

The subject word must be qualified by an adjective or an equivalent word and we

call it an attribute or enlargement.

Several types of words can be used as an attribute or enlargement.

B. ENLARGEMENT OR ATTRIBUTE
A word or a group of words which does the work of an adjective or an
adjective equivalent is known as an enlargement or attribute.
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1. Words used as attributes
a. Article
A girl stood at the gate.
b. Adjective
Foolish people can believe everything.
c. A noun in possessive case or possessive adjective
Bukola ‘s face is pretty.
My book is on the table.
d. A noun or phrase in apposition
Mother Theresa, a great social worker, was a kind woman.
e. An emphatic pronoun
She herself invited me to dinner.
f. A participle used as an adjective
Barking dogs seldom bite.
g. A prepositional phrase
Birds of the same feather flock together.
h. To infinitive
My desire to marry Bukola is a strong one.
i. An adjectival phrase
The Manager, considerate as ever, granted me leave.

C. PREDICATE
The essential word in the predicate is a verb and it is often modified by an
adverb or an adverb equivalent which is called the extension of the verb or
adverbial qualification.
1. Extension of the Verb or Adverbial Qualification: A word or a
group of words which does the work of an adverb or an adverb
equivalent is called the Extension or Adverbial Qualification.

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2. Words used as Adverbial Qualification
a. Adverb
He spoke very clearly
b. Adverbial Phrase
He ate the biscuits one by one.
c. Present and Past Participles used as adverbs
Bukola went away smiling.
She looked worried.
d. ‘To’ infinitive
He began to work.
e. An adverbial object
They returned home.
f. An absolute phrase
The rain, having stopped, we continued our work.

D. OBJECT
When a verb in the predicate is a transitive verb, it must have an object to
give complete meaning.

Object: A word or a group of words which is used after a transitive verb is

called an object.
1. Words used as Objects
a. Noun
I wrote a letter.
b. Pronoun
I liked him.
c. An adjective used as a noun
We must love the helpless.
d. To’ infinitive
I wanted to go.
f. Gerund

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I love teaching.
g. A phrase
1 requested him to look after the child.

2. Kinds of Objects: There are two types of objects, namely:

a. Direct Object
b. Indirect Object
a. Direct Object: The thing is the Direct Object.
Ex: I wrote a letter
We saw a snake.
b. Indirect Object: The person to whom something is given or
for whom something is done is called the Indirect Object.
Ex: I gave him a book.
I wrote her a letter.

E. COMPLEMENT
When the predicate contains verbs of incomplete predication, it requires a
word to complete the meaning. So the word which completes the meaning
of the verb is called a complement. The main verbs of incomplete
predication are be, seem, appear, look, become, grow, feel.

Complement: A word required to complete the meaning of an intransitive

verb is called a complement.
1. Words used as complement
a. Noun
Amaka is a teacher
b. Adjective
Bukola looks attractive.
c. Pronoun
The problem is this.
d. Present Participle

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The book appears interesting.
e. To’ Infinitive
The train is to start.
f. Adverb
Water is everywhere.
g. Phrase
My father is in the room.

2. Kinds of Complements: There are two types of complements

namely:
a. Subject Complement
b. Object Complement
a. Subject Complement: A complement which is used to refer
to or describe the subject is called a Subject Complement.
Ex: He looked tired.
Damilola is my friend.
b. Object Complement: A complement which is used to refer to
or describe the object is called an Object Complement.
Ex: They named the girl A bike.
We elected him our President.
I considered Bukola a beauty queen.

EXERCISE 75.
Fill in the blanks with suitable objects:
1. know ______
2. My sister enjoys _____—
3. She wrote _______
4. He typed _______
5. 1 filled in _______
6. Okoro built _______
7. Columbus discovered _______

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8. They helped _______
9. He explained _______
10. She expressed ________
11. I want to know ______
12. I can speak ________
13. Children love _______
14. 1 hate ________
15. I expected ________
16. We intend _______
17. She planned _______
18. He killed _______
19. They insulted _______

EXERCISE 76.
Fill in the blanks with complement:
1. Lola looks _______
2. She is a ______
3. I He seems ________
4. The milk turned _______
5. They sky appeared _______
6. My mother grew _______
7. He was ______
8. My desire in life is ________
9. What I want to tell you is _______
10. My dream about marriage is _______
11. The best thing in life is ________
12. The last person in the interview is
13. We were ________
14. She became _______
15. I feel _______

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EXERCISE 77.
Fill in the blanks with object complements:
1. I consider Emeka _______
2. We believe her ________
3. Nigerians call Azikiwe
4. They named her daughter
5. The court declared him
6. I found the book _______
7. We thought her ideas
8. 1 felt my hand _______
9. People elected him
10. They chose him _______
11. The judge found him _______
12. He declared himself _______
13. He appointed her _______
14. They believed him _______

TENSE
Tense: Tense is a term used in grammar to indicate the time of the action or event.
In any language, tense is divided into three classes namely:
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense
1. Present Tense: When a verb is used to show that an action takes place at
present, it is known as the Present Tense.
Ex: He speaks English well.
She writes very beautifully.
We are fond of music.
They are afraid of snakes.
It rains today.
I like Nigerians.
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2. Past Tense: When a verb is used to show that an action was completed, it
is known as the Past Tense.
Ex: He went to Abuja yesterday.
Obi died four years ago.
We were in Abuja last year.
They stayed in a hotel for a week.
It was hot yesterday.
I spoke to her for two hours.

3. Future Tense: When a verb is used to show that an will take place in
future, it is known as the Future Tense.
Ex: He will go to Jos tomorrow.
Dorothy will be twenty years old next year.
We shall marry this year.
They will send us a telegram.
It will rain tomorrow.
I shall teach you lgbo.

Each of the above tenses are again divided into four classes, namely,
1. Present Tense
(a) Simple Present Tense
(b) Present Continuous Tense
(c) Present Perfect Tense
(d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2. Past Tense
(a) Simple Past Tense
(b) Past Continuous Tense
(c) Past Perfect Tense
(d) Past Perfect Continuous Tense

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3. Future Tense
(a) Simple Future Tense
(b) Future Continuous Tense
(c) Future Perfect Tense
(d) Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Let us now discuss how various tenses are formed and used.

A. THE FORMATION OF VARIOUS TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW THE
PRESENT TENSE IT IS KNOWN AS THE SIMPLE TENSE

FORMATION OF THE TENSE: THIS TENSE IS FORMED WITH THE BASE

FORM OF THE VERB
VERB BASE FORM FIRST QUESTION FORM
SUBJECT FORM OF THE VERB DO/DOES SUBJECT VERB BASE FORM
HE SPEAK ENGLISH WELL DOES HE SPEAK ENGLISH WELL?
WRITE VERY
SHE WRITE VERY BEAUTIFULLY DOES SHE BEAUTIFULLY?
WE LIKE TALKING DO WE LIKE TALKING?
YOU STOP HER DO YOU STOP HERE?
THEY BELIEVE IN GOD DO THEY BELIEVE IN GOD?
I HOPE TO SEE YOU AGAIN DO I HOPE TO SEE YOU AGAIN?

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2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: WHEN A TENSE ES USED TO
SHOW WHAT IS REALLY HAPPENING NOW,
IT IS KNOWN AS THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
PRESENT QUESTION FORM
PARTICIPLE(VERB + PRESENT
SUBJECT AM/IS/ARE ING) AM/IS/ARE SUBJECT PARTICIPLE
I AM WRITING A LETTER AM I WRITING A LETTER?
SHE IS READING A NOVEL IS SHE READING A NOVEL?
WATCHING WATCHING
HE IS TELEVISION IS HE TELEVISION?
STUDYING
YOU ARE STUDYING MEDICINE ARE YOU MEDICINE?
THEY ARE LEARNING MUSIC ARE THEY LEARNING MUSIC?
IT IS RAINING HEAVILY IS IT RAINING HEAVILY

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW THAT AN

ACTION HAS JUST BEEN COMPLETED OR AN ACTION HAS FINISHED AT
THE MOMENT OF SPEAKING, IT IS KNOWN AS THE PRESENT PERFECT
TENSE.
PRESENT QUESTION FORM
PARTICIPLE VERB
SUBJECT HAVE/HAS 3RD FORM HAVE/HAS SUBJECT PAST PARTICIPLE
I HAVE READ A NOVEL HAVE I READ A NOVEL?
WE HAVE WAITED FOR HER HAVE WE WAITED FOR HER?
DISCONTINUED YOUR DISCONTINUED YOUR
YOU HAVE STUDIES HAVE YOU STUDIES?
HE HAS STOPPED HIS WORK HAS HE STOPPED HIS WORK?
SHE HAS WRITTEN A LETTER HAS SHE WRITTEN A LETTER:?
THEY HAVE BUILT THE HOUSE HAVE THEY BUILT THE HOUSE?
IT HAS RAINED HEAVILY HAS IT RAINED HEAVILY?

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4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED
TO SHOW THAT AN ACTION HAS BEEN TAKING PLACE SINCE A
POINT OF TIME IN THE PAST AND IN PROGRESS UP TILL NOW, IT IS
KNOWN AS PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.
HAVE QUESTION FORM
BEEN/HAS PRESENT PARTICIPLE HAVE
SUBJECT BEEN (VERB + ING) /HAS BEEN SUBJECT PRESENT PARTICIPLE
I HAVE BEEN READING A NOVEL HAVE BEEN I READING A NOVEL?
WE HAVE BEEN WAITING FOR HER HAVE BEEN WE WAITING FOR HER?
YOU HAVE BEEN SINGING A SONG HAVE BEEN YOU SINGING A SONG?
HE HAS BEEN LEARNING ENLGISH HAS BEEN HE LEARNING ENLGISH?
SHE HAS BEEN WRITTING A LETTER HAS BEEN SHE WRITTING A LETTER?
THEY HAVE BEEN BUILDING THE HOUSE HAVE BEEN THEY BUILDING THE HOUSE?
IT HAS BEEN RAINING HEAVILY HAS BEEN IT RAINING HEAVILY?

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: WHEN A VERB SHOWS THT AN ACTION WAS

COMPLETED IN THE PAST, IT IS KNOWN AS SIMPLE PAST TENSE
QUESTION FORM
VERB SECOND FORM (PAST VERB BASE FORM
SUBJECT TENSE VERB) DID SUBJECT (PRESENT)
I READ A NOVEL DID I READ A NOVEL?
WE WAITED FOR HER DID WE WAITED FOR HER?
YOU SANG A SONG DID YOU SANG A SONG?
HE LEARNT ENGLISH DID HE LEARNT ENGLISH?
SHE WROTE A LETTER DID SHE WROTE A LETTER?
THEY BUILT THE HOUSE DID THEY BUILT THE HOUSE?
IT RAINED HEAVILY DID IT RAINED HEAVILY?

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2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW
THAT AN ACTION WAS IN PROGRESS OR INCOMPLETE IN THE PAST,
IT IS KNOWN AS PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE QUESTION FORM
SUBJECT WAS/WERE VERB + ING FORM WAS/WERE SUBJECT PRESENT PARTICIPLE
I WAS READING A NOVEL WAS I READING A NOVEL?
WE WERE WAITING FOR HER WERE WE WAITING FOR HER?
YOU WERE SINGING A SONG WERE YOU SINGING A SONG?
HE WAS LEARNING ENLGISH WAS HE LEARNING ENLGISH?
SHE WAS WRITTING A LETTER WAS SHE WRITTING A LETTER?
THEY WERE BUILDING THE HOUSE WERE THEY BUILDING THE HOUSE?
IT WAS RAINING HEAVILY WAS IT RAINING HEAVILY?

3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW THAT

AN ACTION HAD COMPLETED EARLIER BEFORE ANOTHER ACTION
BEGAN. IT IS KNOWN AS PAST PERFECT TENSE
QUESTION FORM
SUBJECT HAD PAST PARTICIPLE HAD SUBJECT PAST PARTICIPLE
I HAD READ A NOVEL HAD I READ A NOVEL?
WE HAD WAITED FOR HER HAD WE WAITED FOR HER?
YOU HAD SUNG A SONG HAD YOU SUNG A SONG?
HE HAD LEARNT ENGLISH HAD HE LEARNT ENGLISH?
SHE HAD WRITTEN A LETTER HAD SHE WRITTEN A LETTER?
THEY HAD BUILT THE HOUSE HAD THEY BUILT THE HOUSE?
IT HAD RAINED HEAVILY HAD IT RAINED HEAVILY?

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4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO
SHOWTHAT AN ACTION HAD BEEN IN PROGRESS UPTO WHEN
ANOTHER ACTION BEGAN

PRESENT QUESTION FORM

HAD PARTICIPLE SUBJEC
SUBJECT BEEN (VERB + ING) HAD T BEEN PRESENT PARTICIPLE
I HAD BEEN READING A NOVEL HAD I BEEN READING A NOVEL?
WE HAD BEEN WAITING FOR HER HAD WE BEEN WAITING FOR HER?
YOU HAD BEEN SINGING A SONG HAD YOU BEEN SINGING A SONG?
LEARNING
HE HAD BEEN ENLGISH HAD HE BEEN LEARNING ENLGISH?
WRITTING A
SHE HAD BEEN LETTER HAD SHE BEEN WRITTING A LETTER?
BUILDING THE
THEY HAD BEEN HOUSE HAD THEY BEEN BUILDING THE HOUSE?

1. SIMPLE FUTURE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW THAT SOME

ACTION WILL TAKE PLACE IN FUTURE, IT IS KNOWN AS SIMPLE
FUTURE TENSE
BASE FORM OF QUESTION FORM
THE VERB (VERB
SUBJECT SHALL/WILL FIRST FORM) SHALL/WILL SUBJECT VERB BASE FORM
I SHALL READ A NOVEL SHALL I READ A NOVEL?
WE SHALL WAIT FOR HER SHALL WE WAIT FOR HER?
YOU WILL SING A SONG WILL YOU SING A SONG?
HE WILL LEARN ENGLISH WILL HE LEARN ENGLISH?
SHE WILL WRITE A LETTER WILL SHE WRITE A LETTER?
THEY WILL BUILT THE HOUSE WILL THEY BUILT THE HOUSE?
IT WILL RAIN HEAVILY WILL IT RAIN HEAVILY?

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2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW
THAT SOME ACTION WILL BE IN PROGRESS N FUTURE, IT IS
KNOWN AS FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
QUESTION FORM
SHALL/WILL PRESENT PRESENT
SUBJECT BE PARTICIPLE SHALL/WILL SUBJECT BE PARTICIPLE
I SHALL BE READING A NOVEL SHALL I BE READING A NOVEL?
WE SHALL BE WAITING FOR HER SHALL WE BE WAITING FOR HER?
YOU WILL BE SINGING A SONG WILL YOU BE SINGING A SONG?
HE WILL BE LEARNING ENLGISH WILL HE BE LEARNING ENLGISH?
SHE WILL BE WRITTING A LETTER WILL SHE BE WRITTING A LETTER?
BUILDING THE BUILDING THE
THEY WILL BE HOUSE WILL THEY BE HOUSE?
IT WILL BE RAINING HEAVILY WILL IT BE RAINING HEAVILY?

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: WHEN A TENSE IS USED TO SHOW THAT

SOME ACTION WILL BE FINISHED IN FUTURE, IT IS KNOWN AS
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

QUESTION FORM
SHALL/WILL SHALL
SUBJECT HAVE PAST PARTICIPLE /WILL SUBJECT HAVE PAST PARTICIPLE
I SHALL HAVE READ THE NOVEL SHALL I HAVE READ THE NOVEL?
WE SHALL HAVE SEEN THE FIRM SHALL WE HAVE SEEN THE FIRM?
YOU WILL HAVE SUNG A SONG WILL YOU HAVE SUNG A SONG?
HE WILL HAVE LEARNT ENLGISH WILL HE HAVE LEARNT ENLGISH?
SHE WILL HAVE WRITTEN A LETTER WILL SHE HAVE WRITTEN A LETTER?
THEY WILL HAVE BUILT THE HOUSE WILL THEY HAVE BUILT THE HOUSE?
IT WILL HAVE RAINED HEAVILY WILL IT HAVE RAINED HEAVILY?

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B. THE USE OF VARIOUS TENSES
The Use of Simple Present Tense

1. To express a habitual action

Ex: Bukola gets up early in the morning.
Lanre returns from college at six.
My father loves taking tea every morning.

2. To express general truths

Ex: The earth moves round the sun.
Honesty is the best policy.
The sun rises in the east.

3. In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there

Ex: Here comes Amaka!
There the bus stops!
Look! how Bayo sings!

4. To express planned activities

Ex: The President visits America next Sunday.
My uncle arrives tomorrow.

5. To introduce quotations
Ex: Shakespeare says “Love is not a time’s fool”.
Keats says “A thing of beauty is a joy forever”.

The Use of Present Continuous Tense

1. For an action going on at the time of speaking
Ex: Bukola is cooking now.
Okon is writing a letter at present.
We are sitting in the garden.
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2. For a temporary action
Ex: I am reading Ben Nwaka’s “The Guide”.
Bukola is learning highlife dance.
Lanre is acting in the film.
Victoria is writing a book for children.

3. For a future planned action

Ex: We are visiting Jos this week.
Uche is getting married this April.
Chidi is singing at the concert this Sunday.

The Use of Present Perfect Tense

1. For just completed actions
Ex: My brother has just gone out.
Chika has recently been married.
I have already spent the money on books.

2. To express past actions whose time is not specific

Ex: Have you ever been photographed?
I have never seen her before.
I have always waited for Bukola.

3. For past events whose result is still felt

Ex: She has watered the garden. (Her clothes are wet now)
We have walked a long distance. (We are now very tired)
They have built a new house. (So they don’t need to stay in a rented house)

4. For an action started in the past .and continued upto now

Ex: I have not seen Bukola for a long time.
Bukola has worked in the college for ten years. (She is still working in the
college)

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The use of Present perfect Continuous Tense
1. For an action which began at sometime in the past and b still going on
Ex: I have been writing the novel for five months. (I am still writing the novel)
She has been learning English since last year. (She is still learning)
We have been playing chess since 4pm. (We are still playing)

The Use of Simple Past Tense

1. For a past action with past time adverbs
Ex: Bukola wrote me a letter yesterday.
I saw Uche long ago.
My father died last year
He went to Abuja in 1990.

2. For a past discontinued habit

Ex: He visited Akure frequently. (He is not in the habit of isiting Akure now)
She usually sang songs in the evening. (She is not singing now)
Bukola always talked about her beauty. (she has stopped talking about it now)

The Use of Past Continuous Tense

1. For an action going on at sometime in the past
Ex: We were watching television yesterday evening.
I was sleeping in the afternoon.
My uncle came when I was reading the novel.

2. For a persistent habit in the past

Ex: He was always talking about his greatness.
She was always telling us about her husband.
Amina was always thinking about her failure in the exam

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The use of past perfect
1. To express one of the two past actions which had been completed earlier
Ex: When we reached the theatre, the booking counter I been closed.
When I went to the airport, the plane had taken off.
When they entered the classroom, the lecturer had started the lesson.

The Use of Past Perfect Continuous Tense

1. For an action which began and had been in progrs before another action
started
Ex: When I went to Abuja in 1990, Anthonia had been. staying there for five
years.
When I returned home, my sister had been reading the nova for three hours.
When our father came, we had been sleeping for a long time.

The Use of Simple Future

1. For future actions
Ex: I shall meet you tomorrow
We shall begin the work from Monday.
She will stay with us for another week.

The Use of Future Continuous Tense

1. For an action going on in future
Ex: When I go home she will be waiting for me.
When she gets home, her husband will be getting angry with her.
When I return home in the evening, Bukola will be sitting in the garden.

2. For future planned actions

Ex: Shehu will be opening a nursing home next week.
They will be selling tickets for the charity show next week.
We will be getting married this July.

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The Use of Future Perfect Tense
1. For a future completed action
Ex: I shall have written the book by tomorrow
They will have reached home by now
We will have been married when you come again

The Use of Future Perfect Continuous Tense

1. For an action going on in future and it will continue to a certain time in
future
Ex: When she completes her degree, she will have been doing her research in
the university for two years.
They will have been building the house for five years by next year.
By next July, she will have been working in the bank for five years.

C. COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF TENSES

1. Present Continuous Tense should not be used in place of Present Perfect
Continuous Tense
Ex: I am working in the college for the last five years. [Incorrect]
1 have been working in the college for the last five years. [Correct]
Bukola is staying in Akure since 1990. [Incorrect]
Bukola has been staying in Akure since 1990. [Correct]

2. Present Perfect should not be used for past actions

Ex: I have visited Jos last year. [Incorrect]
I visited Jos last year. [Correct]
My father has died three years ago. (Incorrect)
My father died three years ago (correct)

3. For a future completed action

Ex: I shall have written the book by tomorrow.
They will have reached home by now.
We will have been married when you come again.
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3. Simple Future should not be used in imperative sentences. In such cases,
only simple present must be used
Ex: You must see that the amount shall be paid soon. [Incorrect]
You must see that the amount is paid soon. [Correct]
Take care that you will not be late. [Incorrect]
Take care that you are not late. [Correct)

4. When there is a main clause with a Simple Future, the subordinate clause
must be in the Simple Present only
Ex: 1 shall tell you about it, when I will know the truth. [Incorrect]
I shall tell you about it, when I know the truth. [Correct]
If you will laugh at her, she will be angry. [Incorrect]
If you laugh at her, she will be angry. [Correct]

5. Past Perfect should not be used for Simple Past Tense

Ex: I had been to Canada recently. [Incorrect]
I went to Canada recently. [Correct]
I had consulted the doctor last week. [Incorrect]
I consulted the doctor last week. [Correct]
We had started a school for children last year. [Incorrect]
We started a school for children last year. [Correct]

6. Simple Past should not be used for Past Perfect or the Past Continuous
Tense for the Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
Ex: Bukola said that she was working in the hospital for I five years. [incorrect]
Bukola said that she had been working in the hospital for five years. [Correct]
Bukola complained that she was badly treated. [Incorrect]
Bukola complained that she had been badly treated. [Correct)

-
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AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT
1. When the subject is in the third person and singular number the verb in the
present tense takes ‘s’ or ‘es’.
Ex: Victoria goes to office at ten in the morning.
Uzoma teaches English at the college.

2. If the subject is in the third person plural number, the base I form of the verb is
used.
Ex: They go to Abuja.
We speak English.

3. But when the subject is in the first person singular and second person singular
and plural, third person plural the base form of the verb is used.
Ex: I go to Akure.
We go to Akure.
You go to Akure.
They go to Akure.

Note: This rule is applied only to present tense but in past tense either ‘s’ or ‘es’
is not added. The verb remains unchanged spite of the differences in person and
number in the past tense.
Ex: I drank milk.
We drank milk.
You drank milk.
They drank milk.
He drank milk.
She drank milk.
It rained.

4. In respect of helping verbs, the third person singular verb ‘is’ and the third person
plural is ‘are’.
Ex: He is clever.
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She is clever.
They are Nigerians.

Note: In respect of past tense, the third person singular ‘ is ‘was’ and the third
person plural verb is ‘were’.
Ex: He was in the room.
She was in the room.
They were in the room.

THE VERB ‘BE’ AND ITS FORMS

PERSON SINGULAR NUMBER PLURAL NUMBER
PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST
FIRST PERSON I AM WAS WE ARE WERE
SECOND
PERSON YOU ARE WERE YOU ARE YOU WERE
THIRD PERSON HE/SHE/IT IS WAS THEY ARE THEY WERE

5. The verb must agree in number and person with its real subject
Ex: One of my sister has gone to Abuja
Each of my brothers was educated
Everyone of he students has applied for scholarship

6. Two or more singular nouns connected by ‘and’ must be used with a plural verb.
Ex: Smoking and drinking are injurious to health.
Amaka and Funke are sisters.
He and 1 were in Abuja last year.

7. Two or more singular nouns connected by ‘and’ expressing one idea must be
followed by a singular verb.
Ex: Knowledge and wisdom makes a man great.
Slow and steady wins the race.
The long and short of the matter is that Amaka is very beautiful and attractive.
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8. Two nouns connected by ‘and’ referring to the same person must be used with a
singular verb.
Ex: My aunt and guardian wants me to apply for job. The author and editor has
invited me to dinner.
The teacher and principal of the college is my father’s classmate.

Note: If the two nouns refer to two different persons, the articles and possessive
pronouns must be used before each noun and the verb must be plural.
Ex: My aunt and my guardian want me to apply for job. The author and the editor
have invited me to dinner.

9. Two singular nouns connected by ‘and’ which are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every’
must be used with a singular verb.
Ex: Each boy and girl has got admission into the college.
Every man and woman has to contribute to our society and country.

10. Two singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘either—or’, ‘neither— nor’ must be used
with a singular verb. Ex: Neither Amaka nor Victoria has agreed to accept the
post.
No salary or bonus was given to the workers in the factory.
Either my sister or my brother has failed in the interview.

Note: But when one of the subjects is plural, the plural subject should be placed
last and it should be followed by a plural verb.
Ex: Neither my friend nor his sisters are interested in watching television.
Either Eno or her sisters are kind and considerate to me. Neither the Minister nor
his colleagues have understood the seriousness of the problem.

11. When two singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’ differ in person, the verb
should agree in person with the subject nearest to it.

36
Ex: Neither Bolaji nor I have visited the museum. Neither you nor Amaka seems
to be able to speak in English correctly.
Either you or Victoria has to attend the meeting.

12. A collective noun must be used with a singular verb when the group is thought of
as a single unit, but when the individuals are considered separately, it must be
used with a plural verb.
Ex: The ship ‘s crew has tried to save the passengers from drowning when the
ship was about to sink.
Then the ship arrived the port the crew were welcomed by the Nigerian Navy.

13. Nouns which are plural in form but singular in meaning must be used with a
singular verb.
Ex: The news is broadcast on Radio Nigeria.
The wages of sin is death.
Politics is a social science.
The United Nations is working for world peace.
Gulliver ‘s travels is an interesting book.

EXERCISE 24.
Correct the following sentences:
1. Nigerians believes in non-violence.
2. The children is playing in the ground.
3. Amaka go to office at 8 in the morning.
4. Bayo do not like watching television.
5. You does not realize the importance of money.
6. I does not know anything about computers.
7. The earth move round the sun
8. Her feet is very long and smooth.
9. Your teeth is white and shining.
10. They has no friends in Abuja.

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EXERCISE 25.
Fill in the blanks with the correct verb forms in the following sentences:
1. My teeth _______ dirty. [are, is]
2. Where _______ my spectacles? [are, is]
3. Whose cattle _______ these? [is, are]
4. The sheep ______ grazing in the field. [is, are]
5. My parents ______ educated. [was, were]
6. The crowd ______ large. [is, are]
7. The army ______ marching in the streets. [was, were]
8. I _______ a brother and six sisters. [has, have]
9. We _______ lived here for 3 years. [has, have]
10. You ______ posted the letter. [has, have]
11. He ______ a handsome face. [have, has]
12. She ______ a beautiful daughter. [has, have]

EXERCISE 26.
Pick out the verbs in two parts in the following sentences:
1. The boy is running.
2. She will write a letter.
3. He has written me already.
4. What is he doing?
5. They will speak English.
6. George has shut the door.
7. Nonso is climbing a tree.
8. The teacher will give us a letter.
9. The camel can carry a big load.
10. The children are playing.

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NON-FINITE VERB
There are two kinds of verbs in English, namely:
1. Finite Verb
2. Non Finite Verb
1. Finite Verb: A verb which shows time or a verb which is limited by number,
person, gender of the subject is known as a Finite Verb.
Ex: Victoria writes letters.
They write letters.
We have written letters.
I shall write letters.
In the examples, the verb ‘write’ has been changed according to the
number, person, and tense of the subject. So the various forms of the verb
‘write’ are examples of Finite Verbs.
Note: All lexical verbs including ‘be’ and its forms are Finite Verbs.

2. Non Finite Verb: A verb which does not show time or a verb which is not
limited by number, person and tense of the subject is known as a Non
Finite verb.
Ex: Amaka tries to sing.
We by to sing.
They will try to sing.
I have tried to sing.

In the examples the verb ‘sing’ has remained unchanged in spite of the changes
in number, person and sense of the subject and therefore the verb ‘sing’ is a
Non-Finite Verb. But the verb ‘try’ has changed according to the changes in the
person, number and tense of the subject. Hence it is a Finite Verb.

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KINDS OF NON-FINITE VERBS
There are three kinds of Non-Finite Verbs in English, namely:
1. Infinitive 2. Gerund 3. Participle
1. Infinitive: It is formed by placing ‘to’ before the root verb.
Ex:
Root verb Infinitive
write to write
speak to speak
love to love
give to give
play to play

2 Gerund: It is formed by adding “ing” to the root verb.

Ex:
Root verb Gerund
write writing
speak speaking
love loving
give giving
play playing

3. Participle: It is formed by adding “ing” to the root verb.

Note: Present Participle is different from Past Participle.
Ex:
Root verb Participle
Read reading
Smoke smoking
Wait waiting
make making
laugh laughing

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Note: The gerund and the Present Participle, have the same form but
gerund is a verbal noun and the Present Participle is a verbal adjective.
Ex: Reading increases our knowledge. [gerund]
Reading the newspaper, he sat in the chair. [participle]
In the first sentence, ‘reading’ is a gerund because it is the subject of the
verb ‘is’.
But in the second sentence, ‘reading the newspaper’ is a participle
because it qualifies the pronoun ‘he’ as an adjective.

EXERCISE 27.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences using the infinitive or the gerund of
the verbs given in brackets:
1. Where the angels fear ________ (tread), fools rush in.
2. Middle age is when you get enough exercise by ______ (avoid) people
who think you should have more.
3. There are certain tips of value to the motorist on cold mornings. Before
trying _______ (start) the car, check the bus time table.
4. Man (on the phone) to wife: Would you like _______ (see) the new film in
town, dear?
Wife: Yes, darling. You know I love _______ (see) films.
Husband: I’ve bought two tickets now
Wife: How nice! I’ll start ________ (get) ready at once.
Husband: Please do. The tickets are for tomorrow night.
5. Our son’s room was a mess. You couldn’t see the top of the furniture and
it was difficult _______ (walk) through without ________ (step) or records,
clothes or musical instruments. I told him that he had _______ (clean) the
room before his grand-parents arrived the next day.
He got busy and two hours later, the room was neat and tidy.

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After all the work, he decided _______ (go) to bed. In about. 15 minutes
he was back in the living room saying, “1 can’t sleep in a strange place.”
6. One of the virtues of _______ (be) very young is that y don’t let the fact
_______ (get) in the way of your Imagination
7. There is a difference between not _______ (think) of some one and
_______ (forget) him.
8. ______ (Be) wronged in nothing unless you continue
________(remember) it.
9. As a final incentive before _______ (give) up a difficult task, try ________
(imagine) it successfully accomplished by someone you violently dislike.
10 I enjoy _______ (sing) as I go about _______ (do) my daily chores. One
day, I was humming merrily when I noticed my eight-year-old _______
(stare) at me. “Mummy”, she exclaimed, “you need a new needle.”

THE INFINITIVE
Infinitive: word which is not limited by the person or number of the subject is known as
an Infinitive. It, in fact, is a kind of noun having certain features of noun. So it is also
treated as a verb noun.
Ex: To err is human.
I love to speak English.
She likes to swim.
Note: A Finite verb is limited by the person or number of the subject.
Ex: I love music.
She loves music.
They love music.

A. USES OF INFINITIVE
1. As the subject of a verb.
Ex: To advise others is easy.
To learn English is difficult.

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To please Amaka is hard.
Note: These sentences must be written with a preparatory subject ‘it’.
Ex: It is easy to advise others.
It is difficult to learn English.
It is hard to please Amaka.
2 As the object of a transitive verb
Ex: I. wish to become a poet.
He likes to read books.
We propose to visit Jos.
3. As the complement of a verb
Ex: Our greatest pleasure is to help the poor.
My intention is to marry her.
Her plan is to settle in Australia.
4 As the object of a preposition
Ex: I had no choice but to give up my hope.
We are about to begin our work.
5 As an object complement
Ex: We heard him speak to his father.
We saw her open the door.
I noticed Victoria smile at me.
6 To qualify a verb to express purpose
Ex: I wanted to marry Ifeoma.
We have come to see Victoria.
I read books to increase my knowledge.
7 To qualify an adjective
Ex: We are very happy to sit in the garden.
It is hard to please Amaka.
English is difficult to learn.
8 To qualify a noun
Ex: It is not the time to sleep.

43
I have the letters to post.
She has a child to look after.
9 To qualify a sentence
Ex: To tell the truth, we have no problem with you.
To explain bluntly, we are in need of money.
To tell you frankly, I am not in a position to help you.

B. USES OF BARE INFINITIVE

1. Bare Infinitive is used with the following verbs:
Ex:
bid let hear
watch make need
see help dare
Ex: I bade him go.
I watched Amaka talk.
Let him speak.
She made me understand life.
I helped her learn English.
I heard Victoria tell her friend about me.
You need not worry about it.
She dared not speak to her father.
Note: Dare and need as principal verbs are used with ‘to’ Infinitive.
Ex: Did he dare to jump in the river?
We need two days to finish the work.

2. With Auxiliary Verbs

Ex:
shall may do dare
should might did
will can must

44
would could need
Ex: I shall go there.
You should know that.
She will pay the money.
They would help me.
You may do it tomorrow.
You might tell me the truth.
You can wait here.
She could explain the poem to me.
He did it well.
He must return the money.

3. With Certain Phrases

Ex:
Had better sooner than
Had rather rather than
Would rather
Ex: You had better consult a good doctor.
You had rather speak to her about it.
I would rather work hard than rest.

4. With Certain Prepositions

Ex: except, but, than
Ex: Amaka does nothing except blame others.
I can do everything but understand her nature.
I would die rather than accept defeat.
Note: Bare Infinitives can be replaced by ‘to’ Infinitives.
Ex: I can teach. [I am able to teach]
She bade me wait. [She asked me to wait]
Let me tell you something. [Allow me to tell you something]

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I must respect her. [1 ought to respect her or I am forced to respect her]
I will punish her. [I am determined to punish her]

C. THE SPLIT INFINITIVE

It is generally wrong to split an Infinitive in the middle.
Ex: I expect Victoria to carefully read the letter. [wrong]
I expect Victoria to read the letter carefully. [right]
She tried to clearly explain the situation. [wrong]
She tried to explain clearly the situation. [right]
Note: The adverb can be used either before to or after the Infinitive

D. THE FORMS OF THE INFINITIVE

TENSE ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
SIMPLE PRESENT TO + VERB TO BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [VERB]
TO WRITE TO BE WRITEN
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TOBE+ PRESENT
PARTICIPLE
TO BE WRITING
PRESENT PERFECT TO HAVE+ PAST TO HAVE BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE
PARTICIPLE TO HAVE BEEN WRITTEN
TO HAVE WRITEN
PRESENT TO HAVE BEEN +
PERFECT PRESENT
CONTINUOUS PARTICIPLE
TO HAVE BEEN
WRITING

EXERCISE 28
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using inJIni1iv
1. I have a lot of work.
I must do it now

46
2. He has three daughters.
He must look after them.
3. I have some more letters.
I should write them tonight.
4. The postman must deliver the letters.
It is his duty.
5. I must become a writer.
It is my aim in life.
6. I must know her name.
I don’t know how I should know it.
7. She may be waiting for a friend.
She looks expectant.
8. I should help the poor.
That was my only ambition.
9. She was my wife.
Everyone knows it.
10. My wife must be educated.
I prefer it.
11. He must give up smoking.
I advised him about it.
12. She must tell me the truth.
I told her so.
13. He recovered from his illness. I knew this.
I felt very happy for that.
14. Scientists should devise new things.
It is their primary duty
15. Type this letter.
It is your duty.

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CONCEPT OF LOGICAL PAINTING

Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which means word, reason, study or
discuss. Logic is a proper or reasonable way of thinking about something.

Logic maybe defined as the science of reasoning however, this is not to suggest that
logic is an empirical science like physics, biology or psychology. In saying that logic is
the science of reasoning we do not mean that it is concerned with the actual mental (or
physical) process employed by thinking entity when it is reasoning. Therefore, logic is
“the study of correct reasoning especially regarding making inferences.

Basic Principles of Logic

Reasoning is a special mental activity called inferring, what can as well be called
making inference. To infer therefore is to draw a logical conclusion form premises or
environment of usage.

Example you see smoke and infer (conclude) that there is fire.

If you count 19 persons in a group that originally had 20, you infer that someone is
missing.

Note that there is a difference between infer and imply.

We infer the fire on the basis of the smoke. There must be fire before eventually the
smoke will come in other words it is a universal truth that there is no smoke without fire.

Inferences are made on the basis of various sorts of things –data, findings, information,
states of affairs.

Logic correspondingly treats inferences in terms of collections of statements, which are

called.

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Arguments

An argument is a collection of statements, one of which is designated as the premises.

Usually, the premises of an argument are intended to support (justify) the conclusion of
the argument. Before giving some concrete examples of argument it might be best to
clarify a term in the definition.

The word ‘statement’ is intended to mean declarative sentence. In addition to

declarative there are also interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences. The
sentences that make up an argument are all declarative sentences that is, they are all
statements. A statement is a declarative sentence which is to say that a sentence is
capable of being true or false.

e.g. of statements

it is raining

I am hungry

On the other hand, the following are examples of sentences which are not statements.

e.g. are you hungry?

Shut the door, please!

Where are they?

Come here fast

Even though statement is capable of being true or false, a question or a command even
an exclamation is not capable of being true or false.

Now from the previous example

1. There is smoke (premise/environment)

Therefore, there is fire (conclusion)

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Hence, the argument consists of two statement “there is smoke’ and ‘there is
fire’. The word “therefore is not strictly speaking part of the argument rather it
serves as a medium to bring in the conclusion (which is “there is fire). In this
argument therefore there is only one premise.

2. Make hay while the sun shines

Here again, the argument consists of two statements

‘Make hay’ and ‘the sunshine”. The conjunction ‘while’ is not part of the argument
rather it brings the first statement ‘make hay’ and the conclusion ‘the sunshine’
together. In the argument therefore there is only one premise which is ‘make
hay’.

Example 3: There are 20 persons originally (premise)

There are 19 persons currently present (premise)

Therefore, someone is missing (conclusion)

Here, the argument consists of three statements ‘there are 20 persons originally.
That are 19 persons currently and ‘someone is missing! Once again, therefore
set of the conclusion from the premises.

In principle, any collection of statement can be treated as an argument simply by

designating which statement in particular is the conclusion. However, not every
collection of statement is intended to be an argument.

Criteria for identifying an argument

1. In an argument, the conclusion is usually marked with a conclusion

marker. Examples of conclusion markers are ‘therefore’, ‘consequently’
‘hence’, ’while’, thus’, ‘so etc. usually, these words indicate that what
follows in the conclusion of an argument.
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2. Arguments can also be identified with the following words. ‘for’, ‘because’
and ‘since’.

Example

Using the word ‘for’, the smoke-fire argument can be rephrased as follows: “there
is fire for there is smoke’.

In every argument, the premises are always intended to support (justifying) the
conclusion.

Principle of Logic to Distinguish Fact from Opinion

What is a fact?

A fact is something which can be verified with an evidence. Example: the River Niger
and Benue has its confluence at Lokoja. What is an opinion? An opinion is based on
belief and viewpoint. Opinions are often personal interpretations and cannot be verified
with evidence. Example Harmattan breeze is colder than that of rainy season. Opinions
are often proceeded with terms such as I think or with objectives, comparatives and
superlatives such as good, better the best.

Example

I think Ada’s behaviour is the best out of them all.

Uche had the highest score in the just released result.

Ejiro is the most beautiful of them all.

Differences between Fact and Opinion

The difference between fact and Opinion are:

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1. Fact is described as statement that can be verified or proved to be true. Opinion
is a mere belief about something.

2. Facts relies on observation or research while opinion is based on assumption.

3. Fact is an objective reality whereas opinion is a subjective statement.

4. Fact can be verified with the help of evidence or statistics. Opinion is not
supported by any evidence.

5. Facts explain what actually happened. Opinion represents a perception about

something.

6. One important feature of fact is that it is universal and does not differ from person
to person. But every human being has a different opinion on a particular subject.

Conclusively, facts are always one step ahead of opinion as facts can be proved to be
right or accurate, whereas opinion may also be right but they cannot be proved true.

Exercise

1. Identify the sentence that states an opinion from the passage below. And state
your reason.

Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States. He grew up in a log
cabin in the state of Kentucky. He is the president responsible for Emancipation
proclamation, the document abolishing slavery. He gave many speeches as
president and was the most eloquent president. He was assassinated on April
15, 1865.

2. Make a list of ten opinion statements and ten fact statements.

3. Tick x to fact statements and  to opinion statements.

i. Dog’s fur is pretty.

ii. Covid-19 was first discovered in Wuhan.

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iii. Dogs have fur.

iv. Chilled coke is the best.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and
inductive approaches or reason.

Inductive reasoning is the act of using specific scenarios and making generalized
conclusion form them. Inductive reasoning can also be referred to as “cause-and-effect
reasoning’, it can also be thought as a “bottom up” approach.

Example

You might observe that your older sister is fair, your friend’s older sister is fair, and your
mom’s older sister is fair. Inductive reasoning would say that therefore, all older sisters
are fair.

Deductive Reasoning

This is the act of making a generalized statement and backing it up with specific
scenarios or information. It can be thought as a “top down’ approach to drawing
approach to drawing conclusion.

If A = N and N= C, B = C. then A must equal C.

Inductive and deductive reasoning are essentially opposite ways to arrive at a

conclusion or proposition. The main difference between the two reasoning is that while
inductive reasoning begins with an observation, supports it with patterns and then
arrives at a hypothesis or theory. Deductive reasoning begins with theory, supports it
with observation and eventually arrives at a confirmation.

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Difference between Inductive/Deductive reasoning

Cogent
Strong
Inductive Uncogent
Weak
Uncogent
Argument
Sound
Valid
Argument Unsound
Unvalid
Unsound
Basis for Deductive Inductive
comparison

1 Definition Is the form of valid reasoning, This arrives at a conclusion

to deduce new information or by the process of
conclusion form known related generalization using specific
facts and information facts or data.

2. Approach This follows a top-down Follows a bottom-up

approach. approach.

3. Starts from This starts form premise Starts from conclusion.

4. Validity Deductive reasoning The truth of the premise

conclusion must be true fit he does not guarantee the truth
premise are true. of conclusion.

5. Argument Here argument may be valid Here argument may be weak

or invalid. or strong.

6. Structure Deductive reasoning reaches Inductive reasoning reaches

from general facts to specific form specific facts to general
factors facts.

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Examples of Inductive reasoning.

1. The left-handed people I know use left-handed scissors; therefore, are left-
handed people use left-handed scissors.
2. Since 95% of the left-handers I’ve seen around the world use left-handed
scissors, 95% of left-handers around the world use left-handed scissors.
3. In summer, there are ducks on our pond. Therefore, summer will bring ducks to
our pond.
4. Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust
in the distance. A new windstorm is coming from the north.
5. Every time you eat peanuts, you start to couch, you are allergic to peanut.

Essay and its types

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many
different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative,
expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making
clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and
writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common
type.

Essay type Skills tested Example prompt

 Forming an opinion via

Has the rise of the internet had a
research
Argumentative positive or negative impact on
 Building an evidence-based education?
argument
Expository  Knowledge of a topic Explain how the invention of the
printing press changed European
 Communicating information

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Essay type Skills tested Example prompt

clearly society in the 15th century.

 Creative language use

Write about an experience where you
Narrative
 Presenting a compelling learned something about yourself.
narrative
 Creative language use Describe an object that has
Descriptive
sentimental value for you.
 Describing sensory details

Argumentative essays
An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a
strong thesis statement—a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince
the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations) and analysis.
Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a
topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write
will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

 The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
 The body presents your evidence and arguments
 The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the
effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

Argumentative essay example paragraph

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their
writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast
majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article

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in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can
discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013).
Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among
their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources
requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but
Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles
often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where
citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be
used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and
check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching
with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with
the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive
side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

Expository essays
An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require
an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.
Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and
convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions
at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general
background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the
information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing
press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

Expository essay example paragraph

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The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically.
Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in
the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony,
whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new
technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale
than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large
number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades.
Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other
things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

Narrative essays
A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal
experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you
have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured

way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing.
Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative
essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it
should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the
story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write
about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its
structure.

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Narrative essay example
Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the
humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious
than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But
recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible
than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students
and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined
something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But
what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-
haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into
pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level.
To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas
we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right
answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not
just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I
can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me
—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

Descriptive essays
A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative
essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are
more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or
object, rather than telling a whole story.
Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word
choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

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A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by
introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it.
The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an
original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to
spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

Descriptive essay example

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The
garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and
I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise:
the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in
the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above.
From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours.
He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts
for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The
fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every
stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place
better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its
details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the
movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is
more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world
contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Textual analysis essays
Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to
read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present
information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain
effects.

Rhetorical analysis
A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political
cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how
they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background

information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the
conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader
concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a
Dream” speech. Mouse over it to learn more.

Rhetorical analysis example paragraph

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous
“dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He
refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark
and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.”
The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal;
after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s
ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of
change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an
audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but
what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our
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nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in
tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The
power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter
future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis
A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or
novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the
text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of
the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative
language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and
provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with
quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes
what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on
Frankenstein, to learn more.

Literary analysis example introduction

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers
of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading,
protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of
modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from
providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to
portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he
initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative
Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel
figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive

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portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception
of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing
Frankenstein as the creature views him.

WHAT IS LITERATURE?

Literature can be described as a piece of writing that can be valued as works of art
especially novels, plays and poems. Literature can as well be seen as writing in which
expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal
interest .Literature in the right sense has many definition ,there is no one to one
definition therefore literature means different things to different people, depending on
the angle from which a writer looks at it.

Literature can therefore be described as any work or writing that has an ending value
and of universal interest touching on themes, such as religion, politics, government,
romance, science etc. Literature makes use of Language, Form and Imagination as
special tools.

Difference between English Literature and Literature in English

English literature are works written in English by writers who are English in origin or
adoption. It deals with the way of life of English people ,their ideologies, customs and
experiences.

Literature in English are works of writers who are not English by birth, but writhe their
works using English as second language users. Example ,Things Fall Apart by Achebe
is a literature in English because it is written by a writer who is not English by birth or
origin.

Types of Literature

There are two types of literature

1 Oral Literature
2 Written Literature
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Oral literature: Oral literature tells a story of a person .It is often transferred from
generation to generation orally, it can be sung, spoken or chanted. They include
Folklore, Ballad, Myths and Fables. Oral literature therefore is the vehicle of
transmission of the culture, beliefs ,thoughts and custom of a given community from one
generation to another. The most common form of oral literature is ballad.

Ballad: this often created based on the event or place rather than telling about an
individual .Ballads are found in most cultures of the world, and they are often based on
particular themes and traits associated

Myth: myths deals with past events relating to the creation of heaven and earth. It
explains life and death and the great forces of nature.

Riddle: these are metaphorical expression on the basic concern and interest of a
people. It is a question or statement intentionally phrased so as to require ingenuity in
ascertaining its answer or meaning.

Folklore: these are used for entertainment and teaching of morals .They deal with
situations with which the listeners are familiar with or a recall of ancient custom like
birth and marriage customs.

Proverbs: These are methods used by old people to express themselves tactfully and
concisely while giving warnings, moral lessons and advice.

Written Literature

This is a type of literature written down or passed down across in a written form. The
emergence of Western education played a vital role in written literature .

Differences Between Oral and Written Literature

1 Oral literature is passed down from generation to generation verbally. While

written literature can be fiction or nonfiction there is no proof of any written text
especially fictions.
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2 Oral and written literatures differ in their authorship and audience.
In oral cultures the memory of authorship, though never entirely absent, is of little
general importance—occasionally with songs but not with myths, folktales, and,
rarely, epics.
3 Oral literature is stories which were designed to be told from one person to the
next. Written literature is designed to be written down, from the outset.
4 Oral literature is done through words and speaking, whereas written is through
the written word.

Written literature can be in the form of short stories, novels and prose whereas
oral literature can be described as poems and bards.

Importance of Literature

1 We study literature for entertainment

2 The study of literature improves ones writing skills.
3 It improves ones communications skills.
4 It encourages critical thinking.
5 It teaches readers about their origin.
6 Encourages empathy
7 It keeps the brain active and healthy
8 It improves concentration and focus
9 It is a powerful stress reliever.

Class Activity

Instruction: with detailed explanation and examples answer the following questions.

1 Define literature
2 Differentiate between oral and written literature.
3 List and explain five reasons why we study literature.
4 There is no one definition of literature .Discuss
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Genres of Literature
Literature is divided into three branches .They include Prose, Poetry and Drama
.
PROSE: A prose is a short or long story that is neither written in acts and scenes nor
verses, rather it is written in chapters. A prose can be factual (nonfiction) or non factual
(fiction). In order words a prose is a novel. A person that writes a novel or prose is
referred to as a novelist or an author.

Characteristics of Prose

1 Prose is written in chapters and paragraphs.

2 Prose deals with intellect
3 Because it is not musical or sung, it does not contain rhyming schemes.
4 Prose is written to inform or instruct.
5 Prose can be fictional or non fictional
6 There is no one place to read a prose, it can be read anywhere.

Some terms use in prose writing.

1 Plot: This is arrangement of the sequence of events in a story.

2 Diction: The writer’s choice of words.
3 Theme: the central idea or the main idea which the story revolves around.
4 Flashback: A method used by the author or novelist to bring into focus activities
that have taken place in the past and their relationship with the present.
5 Point of view: This the angle from which the story is told.
6 Characters: People involved I the story.
7 Protagonist: The main Character in the novel.
8 Antagonist: the character that always opposes the main character.
9 Mood: the state of mind of the author as well as the reader.
10 Tone: The way the writers thought and feelings are conveyed
11 Biography: a story of someone written by another person.
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12 Author biography: Story of someone written by that same person.

Prose can vary depending on the style of the author and purpose. There are three
distinctive types of prose that writers use. They include

Non fictional prose: This is a true life story. It may be what happened to the writer or
somebody that the writer knows. Example of non fictional literature is Diary, Author
biography, Biographies, Newspapers, Articles, Textbooks etc.

Fictional Prose: This is a make believe story, it is not real. A work of fiction is created in
the imagination of its author. Fiction can inspire us ,intrigue us ,scare us and engage us
in new ideas .It can help us see ourselves and world in a different way.

Heroic Prose: this is a literary work that is either written down or preserved through oral
tradition but is meant to be recited. Heroic prose is usually Legend or fable.

Examples of prose

Things Fall Apart by Achebe, C.

Purple Hibiscus by Adichie, C.

The joys of Motherhood by Emecheta ,B.

Parameters of
Comparison Fiction Nonfiction

It is a subjective form of writing, It is an objective form of writing,

meaning it is based on personal which means it is based on evidence
Type of writing opinions and emotions of the writer. and facts.

When something is written using

When something is written in fiction, it nonfiction, it is all based on real-life
means that it is based on the writer’s and authentic events that have
Definition imagination and creative license. transpired in the world.

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Parameters of
Comparison Fiction Nonfiction

Written work based on fiction is

generally for entertainment and Works based on nonfiction convey
pleasure, or to convey information in meaningful information or events that
Purpose an ironic sense. have made some impact in the world.

The writer has no creative limits, so

their work can be inspired by real-life The writer must make sure that all the
events which are moulded with their information mentioned is genuine,
Information used imagination. and nothing is made up.

The writer must make sure that the

The writer holds no responsibility here information conveyed is factual, as
Responsibility to and just wishes to push the reader’s they hold all responsibility and
reader creative boundary ad limits. liability.

Journal articles, Blog accounts,

Written works such as poems, short newspapers legal documents are all
Examples stories, novels, plays. works of nonfiction.

Poetry
Poetry is an imaginative work of art expressed with strong feelings and emotions.
Usually it contains rhymes and rhythms. It is also the beautiful arrangement of words in
lines. Forms of poetry include poems, song, recitations, hymns and rhymes.

Basic Elements of Poetry.

The basic element of poetry is imagery, sound and rhythm.

Rhythm: this is the metrical flow of sounds in lines and stanzas of poems.

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Sound: this is the musical quality produced by the use of alliterations, assonance,
consonance, rhythm and repetition.

Imagery: this is not only painting mental pictures but also sounds and other sense
impression. To be able to achieve this, the poet makes use of figurative expressions
using figures of speech, sounds , contrast etc. But the commonly used figures of
speech used by poets are simile and metaphor.

Characteristics of poetry
1 Poetry is written in stanzas
2 Deals with imaginations and emotions
3 Usually musical and rhyme patterned
4 Usually technical
5 Expresses emotion
6 Uses figurative expressions.’

Language of poetry
The following are terms used in poetry.

1 Stanza: This is the grouping of certain lines in a poem that form a definite pattern
Stanza therefore is how a poem is divided into group of lines .Stanza determine
the poem type.

Types of stanzas

Couplet: two line stanza with similar end rhyme .

Triplet: three line stanza

Quatrain: four line stanza with alternate rhythm.

Quintet: five line stanza

Sestet: six line stanza

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Septet: seven line stanza

Octave: Eight line stanza

Meter: the pattern or rhythmical arrangement of stress ed and unstressed syllable in

line of poetry.

Foot: the metric unit in a line of verse .It is composed of one stressed and one
unstressed syllable.

Monometer: a line containing one foot.’

Diameter : two feet line

Trimeter: three feet line.

Tetrameter: Four feet line

Pentameter: Five feet line

Hexameter: Six feet line

Heptameter: seven feet line

Octameter: Eight feet line

Lineation : Arrangement of a poem in lines.

Figurative Expressions
Figurative expression refers to use of words in a distinctive manner to achieve special
effect and meaning. The most commonly used figures of speech are Metaphor, Simile,
Personification ,Irony, Hyperbole ,Euphemism ,Paradox ,Sarcasm and so on.

Metaphor: This is a direct comparison. A metaphor (from the Greek “metaphorá”) is a

figure of speech that directly compares one thing to another for rhetorical effect.
A metaphor states that one thing is another thing It equates those two things not

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because they actually are the same, but for the sake of comparison or symbolism .If you
take a metaphor literally, it will probably sound very strange (are there actually any
sheep, black or otherwise, in your family?) Metaphors are used in poetry, literature, and
anytime someone wants to add some color to their language

Examples of metaphor
1 Laughter is the music of the soul’
2 The world is a stage
3 Life is a rollercoaster
4 Kasheem is a pig.

Simile: This is a comparative term that uses ‘like’ and ‘as’ .The poet often uses it to
explain to the reader that he/she is using a conscious comparison between two
dissimilar things.

Example
1 A man of words and not of deeds is like a garden full of weed.
2 Uche was as brave as a lion during the union’s struggle.
3 She is as funny as a barrel of monkeys.
4 Her butt is as flat as pancake.

Key Differences between Simile and Metaphor

The difference between simile and metaphor can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:
1. A simile is a figurative statement, wherein two, unlike objects, are compared, by
means of words as and like. Conversely, a metaphor is a figure of speech which
can be a word or phrase for one thing that points out another, to express that
they are similar.
2. A simile is a metaphor, but vice versa is not true, because, a simile is a type of
metaphor. As against, a metaphor is a kind of non-literal language.

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3. In the case of simile, we make use of connectives such as ‘like’ and ‘as’ to
indicate that the subject is similar to something. On the other hand, metaphors do
not use the connectives as it indicates that the subject is something else.
4. Similes contain a direct comparison of two things, metaphor impliedly compare
two objects.

Examples
Simile
Raman is as tall as a Giraffe.
The man laughs like a donkey.

He argues like a lawyer.

Metaphor

My brother is Doremon.

Amir is a live encyclopedia.

She was the heroine of the movie.

Personification: Here, animate attribute is given to inanimate objects.

Example
1 The sky is crying
2 Lighting danced across the sky.
3 The wind hauled in the night.
4 Abdul heard the last piece of pie calling his name.
5 My alarm clock yells at me to get out of bed every morning.

Euphemism : this is a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one

considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or

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embarrassing. A euphemism is also a polite expression used in place of words or
phrases that might otherwise be considered harsh or unpleasant.

Examples
1 Nkechi has passed on.
2 My grand mother has passed on to the other side.
3 The company has decided to down size its workers population.

Irony: this is the figure of speech that say the opposite of what we mean but I such a
way that the real meaning is understood.

Example
1 Our school team is very strong indeed .We lost the matches and won only one.
2 Nobody heard him, the dead man, but still he lay moaning.

Oxymoron: In this figure of speech, two contradicting words are placed side by side .

Example
1 He showed me a cruel kindness
2 The play was a tragic comedy
3 I saw a comedian last night he was seriously funny.
4 It was an open secret.

SOUND DEVICES
Alliterations: Alliteration is a poetic technique or literary stylistic device where a series
of words in a sentence have the same first consonant sound. In other
words: alliteration is when the beginning sound of words is repeated in close
succession. For example: Peter Piped Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers. It is therefore
the repetition of consonant sounds which are often found at the beginning of words.
In alliteration, words that begin with the same sound are placed close
together. Although alliteration often involves repetition of letters, most importantly, it is
a repetition of sounds.

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Example
Phillip’s feet
Is alliteration because the sounds are the same. On the other hand:

Cheerful cop
It might begin with the same letters, but it is not alliteration because the sounds are not
the same.
The word alliteration comes from the Latin word latira, meaning “letters of the alphabet.”

Alliteration is a useful sound device found in many types of literature but mostly in
poetry. Certain sounds can affect the mood of a poem. Alliteration can be used to give a
poem a calm, smooth feeling or a loud, harsh feeling. For example, the phrase “Singing
songs of the seaside” utilizes the “s” sound. This gives the phrase a soft and smooth
sound. Meanwhile, the phrase “Keep that crazy cat out!” uses a hard “k” sound. This
gives the phrase a harsh sound and adds a threatening tone.

Consonance: This repetition of same consonant sound either in the middle or at the
end of words. The focus, in the use of consonance, is on the sound made by
consonants and not necessarily the letters themselves. In addition, alike consonant
sounds can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of words, and consonance is
created when these words appear in quick succession.

Consonance is frequently used as a poetic device. This allows poets to arrange words
in an interesting way that can intensify artistic language and appeal to readers and
listeners. For example, Edgar Allan Poe effectively utilizes consonance in is poem “The
Raven.”
But the Raven still beguiling all my fancy into smiling

Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird, and bust and door,

Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to liking

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Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore

What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt and ominous bird of yore

Meant I croaking “Nevermore”

Consonance is featured throughout this stanza; however, it is utilized heavily in the fifth
line with “grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt.” This repetition of the hard “g” sound calls
attention to the words used to describe the raven and results in the reader pausing over
this string of adjectives to understand the image they portray and its meaning.

Other examples of consonance are found in tongue twisters.

Betty Botter bought some butter

But she said the butter’s bitter

If I put it in my batter, it will make my batter bitter

But a bit of better butter will make my batter better

So ‘twas better Betty Botter bought a bit of better butter

If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers

where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?

She sells seashells on the seashore.

The shells she sells are seashells, I’m sure.

And if she sells seashells on the seashore,

Then I’m sure she sells seashore shells.

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Assonance: Assonance is a literary device in which the repetition of similar vowel
sounds takes place in two or more words in proximity to each other within a line of
poetry or prose. Assonance most often refers to the repetition of internal vowel sounds
in words that do not end the same. For example, “he fell asleep under the cherry tree” is
a phrase that features assonance with the repetition of the long “e” vowel, despite the
fact that the words containing this vowel do not end in perfect rhymes. This allows
writers the means of emphasizing important words in a phrase or line, as well as
creating a sense of rhythm, enhancing mood, and offering a lyrical effect of words and
sounds.

Difference between Assonance and Alliteration

Assonance and alliteration are often confused with each other when it comes to literary
devices. They are similar in the sense that they rely on repetition of sound in words that
are either adjacent or in close proximity to each other. However, assonance refers to
the repetition of vowel sounds. Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter or sound at
the beginning of words.

An example of alliteration would be the title of a poem by Shel Silverstein: Sarah

Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not Take the Garbage Out. The first four words of this title
repeat the sound of the consonant “s,” even though the word Cynthia begins with a
different consonant. Like assonance, alliteration is repetition of sound for literary effect.
However, assonance is strictly limited to repeated vowel sounds.

Both assonance and alliteration can influence the rhythm of poetry and prose. In
addition, the repetition of sound for both assonance and alliteration must take place in
words that are near each other within a phrase or line. Otherwise, the effect is likely to
go unnoticed by the reader. When used properly as literary devices, they can enhance
the meaning of literature as well as the enjoyment and artful use of words and their
sounds.

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Examples of Assonance:
1. The light of the fire is a sight. (repetition of the long i sound)
2. Go slow over the road. (repetition of the long o sound)
3. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers (repetition of the short e and long i
sounds)
4. Sally sells sea shells beside the sea shore (repetition of the short e and long e
sounds)
5. Try as I might, the kite did not fly. (repetition of the long i sound)

Kinds of Poetry
Ode
The ode is one of the oldest types of poems there is, and it’s also very straightforward:
Any poem written in praise of something or someone can be an ode. You could write
an ode to the ocean, an ode to your pet, an ode to your good friend, favorite shoes, or
a delicious snack!A really great ode can change the way you think about something
you tend to take for granted like Ode to a nightingale.

Sonnet
The sonnet originated in Italy and derives its name from the Italian word “sonetto,”
which literally means “little sound” or “little song.” The English sonnet is a single
stanza, with 14 lines that consist of three quatrains (four rhyming lines) and a final
rhyming couplet. Traditionally, each line of this sonnet should be written in iambic
pentameter. Iambic pentameter is a basic rhythm that’s pleasing to the ear and closely
resembles the rhythm of everyday speech, or a heartbeat. Finally, the rhyme scheme
for each line is as follows: ABABCDCDEFEFGG.

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Epic Poems
An epic is a long and narrative poem that normally tells a story about a hero or an
adventure. Epics can be presented as oral or written stories. "The Iliad" and "The
Odyssey" are probably the most renowned epic poems.

Here's an excerpt from the epic poem, "The Song of Hiawatha" by Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow:
By the shore of Gitchie Gumee,
By the shining Big-Sea-Water,
At the doorway of his wigwam,
In the pleasant Summer morning,
Hiawatha stood and waited.

Ballad Poems
Ballad poems also tell a story, like epic poems do. However, ballad poetry is often
based on a legend or a folk tale. These poems may take the form of songs, or they may
contain a moral or a lesson.

Acrostic Poems
Acrostic poems, also known as name poems, spell out names or words with the first
letter in each line. While the author is doing this, they're describing someone or
something they deem important. Here are two examples to illustrate the poetic form.
"Alexis" by Nicholas Gordon focuses on an intriguing woman he may or may not know:
Alexis seems quite shy and somewhat frail,
Leaning, like a tree averse to light,
Evasively away from her delight.

X-rays, though, reveal a sylvan sprite,

Intense as a bright bird behind her veil,

Singing to the moon throughout the night.

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"A Cry For Help" by 12-year-old Samar Alkhudairi is an example of an acrostic poem
that tackles the tough issue of bullying:

Brutal beatings beyond the feeling of pain

Understanding this hurt might get me closer to being sane

Love is a myth

Life has become like a work of Stephen King

You don't know what it's like

I am treated like just some "thing"

Never to be kissed, comforted, or loved

Going the rest of my life never to be hugged

Drama
A drama is a type of literature that is written for the purpose of being performed in front
of an audience. This type of writing is written in the form of a script, and the story is told
through the lines of the characters played by actors.

Types of Drama
Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a
happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their audience
laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and witty remarks.

Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and
death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to their
downfall.

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Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or
engages slapstick humor.

Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and appeals

directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are of a single
dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.

Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories through acting
and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story may be comedic,
though it may also involve serious subjects.

The Function of Drama

Dramas serve the function of entertainment for the audience. While reading a story is
powerful, watching the story be performed by actors adds a level of realism to the work.
In the age of binge watching, many people enjoy spending leisure time watching
dramas specifically in the forms of movies or television.

Dramatic Terms:
Anagnorisis/recognition: point in the play during which the tragic hero experiences a
kind of self-understanding; the discovery or recognition that leads to the peripeteia or
reversa

Antagonist: the character who opposes the protagonist.

Catharsis: a purgation of emotions. According to Aristotle, the end of tragedy is the

purgation of emotions through pity and terror.

Dramatic irony: the words or acts of a character may carry a meaning unperceived by
the character but understood by the audience. The irony resides in the contrast between
the meaning intended by the speaker and the different significance seen by others.

Foil: any character in a play who through contrast underscores the distinctive
characteristics of another, particularly the protagonist.
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Hubris: overweening pride or insolence that results in the misfortune of the protagonist
of a tragedy. Hubris leads the protagonist to break a moral law, attempt vainly to
transcend normal limitations, or ignore a divine warning with calamitous results.

Peripeteia/reversal: reversal of fortune for the protagonist--from failure to success or

success to failure.

Proscenium or proscenium stage: an arch that frames a box set and holds the
curtain, thus creating the invisible fourth wall through which the audience sees the
action of the play.

Protagonist: the chief character in a work

Stock character: conventional character types whom the audience recognizes

immediately. Examples: the country bumpkin, the shrewish wife, the braggart soldier

Thrust or apron stage: A stage that projects into the auditorium area, thus increasing
the space for action; a characteristic feature of Elizabethan theaters and many recent
ones.

Tragic hero: According to Aristotle, the protagonist or hero of a tragedy must be

brought from happiness to misery and should be a person who is better than ordinary
people--a king, for example. In "Tragedy and the Common Man," Arthur Miller argues
that the ordinary man can also be a tragic hero.

Unity of time, place, and action ("the unities"): limiting the time, place, and action of a
play to a single spot and a single action over the period of 24 hours.

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Major Difference Between the genres.

PROSE DRAMA POETRY

Written in chapters Written in acts and scenes Written in stanzas

Can be read anywhere and Can only be acted on the

at any time stage

Simple language is used for Language use depending Imaginative language is

easy understanding on the type of drama used

Makes use of rhythm.

EXERCISES
List the Characteristics of the three genres of literature.

Who is a protagonist?
Which literary form is written in ordinary, on metrical language and communicates facts
or options about reality?
With suitable examples differentiate the following literary device

A) Assonance
B) Consonance
C) Alliteration

What is a theme in literature?

The sun is smiling what figure of speech is it?

Terminologies of Poetry
Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds—particularly the sound
of a word’s initial consonant—for aural effect.

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Anapest: An anapest is a metrical foot of poetry that consists of two unstressed
syllables followed by one stressed syllable. Anapest is used in meter such as
anapestic tetrameter (four anapests per line of poetry).

Apostrophe: An apostrophe is a poetic phrase addressed to a subject who is either

dead or absent, or to an inanimate object or abstract idea.

Assonance: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds for aural effect.

Ballad: A ballad (or ballade) is a form of narrative verse that can be either poetic or
musical. It typically follows a pattern of rhymed quatrains. From John Keats to Samuel
Taylor Coleridge to Bob Dylan, ballads represent a melodious form of storytelling.

Blank verse: Blank verse is poetry written with a precise meter—almost always
iambic pentameter—that does not rhyme. William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe,
and John Milton are among the most famous purveyors of unrhymed blank verse.

Couplet: Couplet-based poetry contains pairs of rhyming lines.

Dactyl: A dactyl is a metrical foot of poetry consisting of one stressed syllable followed
by two unstressed syllables. It is used in poetic meters such as dactylic hexameter (six
dactyl feet per line).

Elegy: An elegy is a poem that reflects upon death or loss. Traditionally, it contains
themes of mourning, loss, and reflection. However, it can also explore themes of
redemption and consolation.

Epic: An epic poem is a lengthy, narrative work of poetry. These long poems typically
detail extraordinary feats and adventures of characters from a distant past. The word
“epic” comes from the ancient Greek term “epos,” which means “story, word, poem

Free verse: Free verse poetry lacks a consistent rhyme scheme, metrical pattern, or
musical form. While free verse poems are not devoid of structure, they allow

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enormous leeway for poets, particularly when compared to more metrically strict forms
like blank verse. Much of contemporary free verse traces its influences back to Walt
Whitman’s Leaves of Grass anthology.

Heroic couplet: A heroic couplet is a pair of rhyming iambic pentameters, common in

the poetry of Geoffrey Chaucer and Alexander Pope. Note that these rhymes occur at
the end of a line; an internal rhyme cannot produce a heroic couplet.

Hyperbole: Hyperbole is a form of dramatic exaggeration used in poetry and prose

alike.

Iambic pentameter: Iambic pentameter is a form of poetic meter where each line of
poetry contains five metrical feet known as iambs—two syllable groupings where the
second syllable is emphasized. Iambic pentameter is the basis of free verse poetry
and is best known via the works of William Shakespeare and John Milton.

Limerick: A limerick is a five-line poem that consists of a single stanza, an AABBA

rhyme scheme, and whose subject is a short, pithy tale or description. Most limericks
are comedic, some are downright crude—and nearly all are trivial in nature.

Litotes: A figure of speech that makes a statement by articulating the negative of its
contrary is a litotes. For instance the phrase “you won't be disappointed” can be used
to mean “you will be pleased.”

Lyric: Lyric poetry refers to the broad category of poetry that concerns feelings and
emotion. This distinguishes the lyric poem from two other poetic categories: epic and
dramatic

Metonymy: Metonymy is a poetic and literary device where a name, term, or part of
an object is used to represent the object as a whole. For instance, calling a
businessperson a “suit” or a pundit a “talking head” would be metonymy.

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Narrative: Similar to an epic, a narrative poem tells a story. Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow’s “The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere” and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The
Rime of the Ancient Mariner” exemplify this form.

Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia describes a word that emulates the sound it is

describing. Examples include “woof” and “ping pong.”

Oxymoron: A phrase containing words that appear to be logically incompatible, such

as “jumbo shrimp” or “deafening silence” is an oxymoron.

Enjambment: This is a continuation of a poetic phrase beyond the end of a

line ,couplet or stanza.

Examples

We are running

To find what had happened

Beyond the hills.

The sun hovered above

The horizon, suspended between

Night and day.

We are dancing-it must have

Been a foxtrot or a waltz

Something romantic but

Requiring restraint.

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In all these lines of poetry , the one under explains the preceding line and these are
good examples of enjambment.

POETIC ANALYSIS.

HOMELESS NOT HOPELESS BY SOLA OWONIBI

We are the natives of the street

Holed up under bridges

We are major fragments of the globe

Necessary part of existence

As the day chameleons to night

You slump in the warmth of your beds

We also embrace the cozy

Cardboard beds laid on stinks

As same night injects us with cool breeze

And endurance

We sleep and dream

And hold conferences with

Indigenes of the elusive world

When it’s day, in bundle

We park our belongings

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And move on with our days

Standing, kneeling and bending

To beg for alms just for

The day

Necessary part of your society

Translator of your dreams

Carriers of your burdens

Angels, will open gates

To your blessings

We are the lacks

That take your lack

We are the homeless, not hopeless

This makes us richer at hereafter

When death opens the gate

To the second phase.

TEXTUAL INTERPRETATION
Summary of the poem
This is a poem that reminds us of the condition of beggars in our society. Because they
have no houses, they sleep under the bridge on hard papers in smelling environments.
They are often harassed at night by thieves who take away their alms given by rich men
who think that these arms will open heaven gates for them. As day breaks, they
continue begging for alms. These homeless are also human beings who hope for a
better tomorrow.
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THEMES IN THE POEM
1 Theme of Endurance in the Face of Hardship: This is one of the messages the
poet is passing across to the reader in this poem. Despite the poor men’s
devastating state, they still endure, believing that one day their suffering will
come to an end. Even though they are exposed to cold weather at night but they
still endure it. Lines 11-12 ‘as the night injects us with cold breeze and
endurance’.
2 Life’s imbalance nature: This theme is evinced in a situation where a group of
people sleep on the comfort of their beds in their homes ,another group of people
in the same community sleep on the bare floor in cardboard papers in the streets
that stinks. Lines 5-11.
3 Hope amidst hopelessness: The beggars do not have homes to lay their heads
but they hope of their mansions in heaven someday as they assert “we are
homeless not hopeless. This makes us rile at hereafter, when death opens the
gate to the second phase” Stanza 4.
4 The Dignity of the self: the beggars in this poem the beggars are poor but they
did not see themselves as failures or irrelevant people in the society. Rather they
see themselves as valuable to the survival of the rich. They reinstate their beliefs
in lines 3-4 “we are part of the existence, major fragments of the globe”.

DICTION
The language of this poem is simple and self explanatory .It is the language of the poor
and not of the rich .This makes the poem more comprehensive.

Structure of The Poem

The poem is divided into three parts they include:
1 Introduces the beggars
2 Show the experiences under the bridge
3 Concludes that they too are human beings and important in the society.

Mood
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The mood of this poem is sympathetic but hopeful.
Tone
The tone of the poem is that of suffering and assertion example “we are homeless ,not
hopeless”.

FIGURES OF SPEECH
Euphemism: the use of mild and pleasant words to describe harsh and unpleasant
situations. Example line 13-15

We sleep and dream

And have conferences with

The indigenes of the elusive world.

Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds in the line of poetry. Example we are homeless
not hopeless.

Metaphor: Seen in Angels, we open gates of your blessing. The poor here compares
the beggars to heaven. This is of because of the belief that alms given to them by rich
people opens heaven’s gate.

Irony: there is gross use of irony in this poem in that men who are ordinarily should
have a place of habitation permanently now have or live in mobile houses. ‘When it’s
day in bundle ,we pack our belongings and move “It is ironical that men who interpret
the dreams of others have their place under the bridge instead of a well furnished air
conditioned apartment as their reward for hard labour.

Personification: ‘The night injects us with cold breeze’. Night an abstract thing is given
the qualities of a man to inject ,to bring out the beauty of language in the poem.
Also ,’death opens the gate’ is personification because death does not have hands .

EXERCISES

1 What are the major complaints of the poor in the poem ‘Homeless Not Hopeless’.

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2 Discuss the poem ‘Homeless Not Hopeless’.
3 Discuss the themes in the poem.

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