Module 4 English

TOPIC 1 TEACHING TYPES AND FORMS OF SENTENCES

What is a sentence? Is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. When writing a sentence
you begin with a capital letter and end with a period or full stop, question mark or an exclamation mark.
The general pattern of sentence construction is that you must have a subject, verb and an object ( not a
strict pattern)

Examples:

1. Tanyaradzwa Twaya won a prize for her book.

2. Please fasten your seat belt.
3. Why did you stop running?
4. Watch out for the cat!

What is a sentence fragment? Is a group of words that looks like a sentence but does not express a
complete thought.

Examples:

1. After they pitched the tent. ( sentence fragment because it is not a complete thought. What
happened after they pitched the tent?)
2. After they pitched the tent, they built a campfire. (sentence because it is giving a complete
thought)
3. Sailing around the world.
4. Some marine biologists are sailing around the world.
5. His hike through the Grand Canyon,
6. Takunda enjoyed her hike through the Grand Canyon.

Every sentence has two parts the subject and predicate

What is the subject?

Is a word or group of words that tells whom or what the sentence is about. To find the subject , ask who
or what is doing something, or whom or what is being talked about. The subject may come at the
beginning , middle, or end of a sentence.

Examples:

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1. The pitcher struck Tinotenda out. ( who struck Tinotenda out? The pitcher did.)
2. After practicing for hours, Dadirai bowled two strikes. ( who bowled two strikes? Dadirai did.)
3. Hiding in the tall grass was a baby rabbit. (what was hiding? A baby rabbit was)

Complete subject and simple subject

The complete subject consists of all the words needed to tell whom or what a sentence is about.

The simple subject is the main word or words in the complete subject.

Examples:

1. The four new students arrived early. (complete subject is The four new students, simple subject
is students)
2. A round walnut table with five legs stood in the middle of the dining room.( complete subject is
A round walnut table with five legs, simple subject is table)

What is a predicate?

The predicate of a sentence is the part that says something about the subject. Like the subject the
predicate may be found anywhere in a sentence. The simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or
group of words in the complete predicate.

Examples:

1. The pilot broke the sound barrier. ( complete predicate broke the sound barrier, simple
predicate (verb) broke)
2. We should have visited the corona city in China. ( complete predicate should have visited the
corona city in China, simple predicate (verb) should have visited)

Finding the subject

In finding the subject, find the verb first and then ask yourself whom or what the verb is referring to.

Examples:

1. In colleges we will have more assignments. (the verb is will have. Who will have? We will have.
We is the subject of the sentence)
2. Can you untie this knot? ( Can untie is the verb. Who can untie? You can untie. You is the
subject of the sentence.)
3. Ahead of the explorers lay a vast wilderness. ( The verb is lay. What lay? The answer is
wilderness. Wilderness is the subject of the sentence)

Compound subjects

A compound subject consists of two or more connected subjects that have the same verb. The usual
connecting word is and or or.

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Examples:

1. Mulanje mountain and Chawe Inn remain favourite tourist attractions. ( The two parts of the
compound subject have the same verb remain.)
2. Among my hobbies are reading, snorkeling, and painting. (The three parts of the compound
subject have the same verb, are.)

Compound verbs

A compound verb consists of two or more connected verbs that have the same subject. A connecting
word- usually and, or, or but- is used to join the verbs.

Examples:

1. The basketball team played well but lost the game anyway.
2. The rain has fallen for days and is still falling in some areas.

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound verb. Notice in the following example
that both subjects carry out the action of both verbs.

Example:

1. A few vegetables and many flowers sprouted and grew in the rich soil. (The vegetables
sprouted and grew, and the flowers sprouted and grew).

Mention the types of sentences 2. Compound sentences

3. Complex sentences
1. Simple sentences
4. Compound complex sentences
Why is it important to teach types and forms of sentences?

1. Prepares learners effectively in order to achieve high literacy levels

2. Helps learners to make meaning of what they read

Briefly describe the simple sentence and provide some examples

- Is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate . It can express a thought as a
a. Statement - He went home yesterday
b. Question - Where are you going?
c. Command – Close the door
d. Exclamation - How I wish I could go with you!

A simple sentence also contains one c. I have read this book

independent clause e.g. d. My girlfriend sent me a lovely gift
e. They made him a star
a. The sun is shining
b. He is my father

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What is a compound sentence?

a. Is a double or multiple sentence. It is a sentence that contains two or more independent

clauses. The independent clauses are joined up by a comma or a coordinating conjunction
e.g.
b. The wind was blowing. The rain was falling = the wind was blowing and rain was falling
c. The tea was cold. He enjoyed drinking it = The tea was cold but he enjoyed drinking it
d. I picked up my suitcase. I put on my hat. I walked away = I picked my suitcase, put on my
hat and walked away.

Complex sentences

a. Are sentences which contains one main clause and one or more subordinates clauses ( a
subordinate clause is a sentence that cannot stand alone and cannot give a complete
thought even though it contains a finite verb. It depends on the rest of the sentence for its
complete meaning) e.g.
b. He decided to keep his appointment (main clause). Although he was ill (subordinate clause)
= Although he was ill, he decided to keep his appointment.
c. This is the man. (main clause). Whom you met yesterday (subordinate clause) = This is the
man whom you met yesterday.

Compound complex sentences

a. Are some sentences that contain two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate
clause. It is made up of more than one independent clause and one or more subordinate
clauses e.g.
b. Some of the farmers, who left the area, moved back to their homes, but several years
passed before the land become as fertile as before.

State the forms of sentences b. Question

c. Command
a. Statement
d. Exclamation
Statement / declarative

Is a form of sentence that expresses a fact, opinion or feeling e.g. Mzuzu is in Malawi, Fat people suffer
from high blood pressure . I feel like vomiting

Question / interrogative

Is a form of sentence which asks a question e.g. Which IPTE cohort are you?, Who is your class lecturer?

Exclamation

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Is a form of sentence that expresses shock, surprise or excitement and ends with an exclamation mark
e.g. What a good goal! Look out!

Command / imperative

Is a form of sentence that order someone to do something e.g. Close the window. Clap your hands

How to teach types and forms of sentences

1. Introduce the lesson by saying that there are different types and forms of sentences
2. Ask learners to explain or give an example of the types and forms of sentences mentioned or
listed
3. Go over the definitions or forms of sentences with learners.

State the games for teaching types and forms of sentences

a. Whole word games (four corners)

b. Independent work (using facial expression)
c. Using exit slips
d. Using reinforcement: real world applications on four sentences types and forms.

Activity 1 Identifying types of sentences

a. Read the passage identified below

b. Identify different types of sentences from the passage
c. Write down examples of your own sentences on each type of sentences
d. Discuss your work with others
One warm day a dog lay down under a tree. It was soon fast asleep. A wolf trotted out of the
woods and was about to eat him up. “Mr. Wolf,” cried the dog, “don’t you see how thin I am? I
am not fit for you to eat now. Why don’t you wait a few days? Then you will find that I will make
a better meal. My master is going to have a big dinner next week. Then there will be so much to
eat that I shall grow fat.”
“Well, if that is true,” said the wolf, “I think I will wait a little while. You may go now, and I will
eat you after that dinner.” In two weeks the wolf came back, but the dog was not under the tree.
He was asleep on the housetop.
“Come down and let me see how fat you are,” said the wolf.
The dog awoke and said, “Mr. Wolf, if you ever again see me asleep in the field, you may eat me.

Activity 2 identifying forms of sentences

a. Make a list of different forms of sentences

b. Discuss different forms of sentences
c. Make at least five examples on each form of sentences

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Activity 3 using different forms of sentences

a. Prepare a simple passage with different forms of sentences which you can use to teach primary
school learners
b. Display your work for observation and comments by other members

Module 4 TOPIC 2 TEACHING SENTENCE ANALYSIS

State the importance of sentence analysis

1. Help learners to understand what sentence analysis is all about at the earliest level
2. Equips teachers with knowledge and skills on how to handle analysis of sentences

What is a sentence? A sentences is a group of words with two main parts, a complete subject ( is a
noun or noun phrase , or a group of words acting as a noun plus any modifiers that tells who or what the
sentence is about) and a complete predicate ( a verb, or verb phrase plus any modifiers and
complements that tells what the complete subject of the sentence does or is). Together these two parts
expresses a complete thought. It is also defined as an utterance that expresses a complete thought.
Sentences have both denotative and connotative meanings.

Denotative meanings of words are shared descriptions of meanings that are known by everybody and
are unambiguous. Or they are dictionary meaning of words in a sentence as perceived by readers.
Examples are; 1. Chambo is a fish 2. Malawi is in Africa

Connotative meanings are meanings of words in a sentence or passage using the context or personal
suggestion. or are those that may not necessarily be shared by everybody. They are personal meanings
that carry emotional forces and shades of suggestions eg. The girl is a lioness meaning she is strong,
Nyasha is a star meaning she is intelligent.

What is sentence analysis?

It is the process of breaking a sentence into small parts of classes of speech by means of using simple
item identification and syntactical analysis.

Syntactical analysis; is the type of sentence analysis which deals with the syntactical presentation of
classes of speech. Coming up with successful meaning of words in a sentence depends on knowledge on
how to arrange different words in a most effective manner. Ordering or arrangement of words in a
sentence may bring different meanings or change the meaning of the sentence eg.

1. Tanyaradzwa only speaks English means Tanyaradzwa does not write or read English
2. Only Tanyaradzwa speaks English means Nobody else speaks English
3. Tayaradzwa speaks English only means Tanyaradzwa does not speak any other language apart
from English

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State the ways of identifying sentence patterns or ways of analyzing sentences

1. Using grammatical items 2. Using item identification 3.Using sentence analysis

Briefly discuss the use of grammatical items -This is done by using grammatical items such as subject,
verb, subject, complement eg.

1. S + V = the visitor came ( the visitor- subject, came – verb)

2. S + V + O = Tanyaradzwa plays soccer ( Tanyaradzwa- subject, plays- verb, soccer-object)
3. S + V + C = Tanyaradzwa is the queen ( Tanyaradzwa- subject, is- verb, the queen- complement)
4. S+V + IO + DO = The minister gave the students certificates( the minister – subject, gave- verb,
the students- Indirect Object, certificates- Direct Objects)
5. S + V + DO + C = Tanyaradzwa considered the educational visit successful (Tanyaradzwa-subject,
considered-verb, the educational visit – Direct Object, successful – complement)

What is a complement? Is a word or group of words that completes the meaning of the predicate in a
sentence.

Discuss the use of item identification -In item identification, sentences are analysed by looking at their
parts of speech and functions. For example the sentence; Tanyaradzwa is going to school alone.

Item Identification Function

Tanyaradzwa Noun Subject of the verb

Is Auxillary verb Helping the main verb

Going Verb Expressing action

To Preposition Showing directions

School Noun Object of the verb

Alone Adverb Modifying verb

Explain syntactical analysis .

A sentence is analysed by looking at the major parts such as subject and predicate. The subject can take
the form of a noun or noun phrase, which is composed of an article and a noun (head). The predicate
may include a verb phrase which has a predicator and the object. The predictor includes a verb phrase
which has a modifier, a mood indicator and a verb (head). The object may be a nounphrase consisting of
an article and the noun. The following is a diagrammatic presentation of the sentence;

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The thief must have stolen the bag.

Sentence

Subject Predicate

NP VP

Det Head Predicator Object

NP

Art N VP Det Head

Modifier Mood Head Art N

The thief must have stolen the bag

Define the following terms;

1. Mood- is the form of a verb that assumes to show the manner in which the action denoted by
the verb is used. Mood can express (a) a fact or action (indicative) eg. What is your name, He
was here yesterday (b) a command (imperative) eg. Take this letter and give it to Nyasha. Go
away (c) a doubt, wish ( subjective or supposition) eg. I wish I had gone with you, May your
dreams come true
2. Modifier- a word or group of words that gives additional information about another word

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3. Head- the word in a group of words that is its central part and that is used in the same way as
the whole group
4. Determiner – a word that limits the meaning of a noun,
5. Indefinite articles names someone or something not already mentioned or known about
6. Definite article mentions a particular thing.

TOPIC 3 TEACHING FUNCTIONAL WRITING

TYPES OF WRITING

What is the importance of learning the writing skills?

1. Develop writing skills

What is the procedure for teaching writing activities?

1. Oral preparation
Discuss all language items with the learners. This will help them to know what to do.
2. Individual/ pair/ group writing
Ask your learners to write an exercise. You are free to choose how many language items your
learners can write. This can be done within or outside the lesson.

Mention the different types of writing skills. 3. Informative

1. Creative 4. Descriptive
2. Narrative 5. Argumentative

What is functional writing? It is the type of writing that provides an individual with essential knowledge,
understanding and skills to enable one to work with confidence and independence in school at work and
life long experiences. It is the practice of expressing specific information to mirror real life experiences
eg. Making advertisements, posters, and notices, how to make and do something, giving advice, inviting
someone to something or telling what happened in a specific situation.

Mention the importance of functional writing

1. Expresses specific information about processes or procedures about something

2. Assists learners to express ideas effectively
3. Turns a complex concept into something that is more understanding to a reader

State the types of functional writing 3. Narrative writing

4. Creative writing
1. Informative/ Expository writing 5. Descriptive writing
2. Persuasive writing
Explain the different types of functional writing

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Informative / Expository writing

1. To inform means to tell. Informative writing is the type of writing that aims at providing
information by answering the Wh and H questions that are relevant to a given topic. A teacher
can ask learners to do various activities such as explaining how the task is done eg. How to wash
a car, how to draw an elephant, which information to use in advertisements, notices, posters
and banners, write about a book they have read. Informative writing- aims to provide
information in a way that will tell the reader what they need to know. The text answers the wh
and h questions (who, what, where, why, when, how) relevant to a given topic.

What are the elements of informative writing?

a. Ideas or content- one presents relevant ideas that are well focused. Main and supporting
ideas must be developed in proportion to their importance.

b. Organization-one must organize the writing in a way that enhances meaning or helps to
develop the central idea. Each developmental paragraph must address a specific area of the
content.

c. Voice- one’s enthusiasm and interest must bring the topic to life. One must control tone
appropriately and consistency to bring out the correct effect of the content.

d. Word choice- one must choose the correct words that suits the level of the learners in a
more powerful and interesting manner.

e. Sentence fluency-one’s writing must have a natural flow. You must vary your sentences to
convey meaning. As one writes should develop expressive reading in the readers.

Persuasive writing – is a type of functional writing that appeals to emotions and reasons. It is used in
advertisements to make readers think or feel a certain way about an idea or product. Teachers can
promote this by engaging learners in making advertisements. A type of writing that has power to
influence or convince others to believe or take what one wishes to do. For example, Buy Malawian
products, Buy one pick one etc

Narrative writing – a narrative writing tells a story. a spoken or written account of events. Narrative
develops by arranging in time the events that constitutes the story. One must organize the story into the
beginning, middle and end. It can also be written using a flashback technique.

Creative writing - It is the type of writing that demands the writer to be imaginative and creative. Its
main objective is to make the audience enjoy the final piece of writing. The main creative writing
includes short stories, plays, cartoons and poems.

Stages in creative writing are ; selecting a topic, creating a topic, drafting and proof reading and refining

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What are the stages involved in creative writing?
a. Selecting a topic- learners can select a topic of their own interest
b. Generating ideas- after selecting the topic learners must generate and organize ideas to be
included in the piece of writing

c. Proofreading- learners should check the written work and correct any errors and verify if
the ideas that were generated are well presented.

d. Editing – is when learners improve their piece of writing by refining it while checking for the
finest details such as spellings, punctuation and grammar.

The process of writing

1. Preparation for a writing – discuss and identify the type of writing. Purpose of writing, the key
words or phrase to include and style of writing to use
2. Things to think about when writing e.g flow of language, appropriateness of tense and point of
view (who is speaking)
3. What to do to reveal the draft – discuss proof reading, correct grammatical mistakes and check
for connection between ideas.
2. Descriptive writing- involves describing something, someone, or a place in a way that shows the
reader rather than tells. It uses concrete sensory details.it is also known as showing writing.

What are the two types of descriptive writing;

a. Objective descriptive writing- in which it reports accurately about the appearance of an

object.

b. Subjective or impressionistic description writing-is when one includes his/ her own
personal impressions when describing the object.

3. Argumentative writing-is using evidence and facts. It presents two sides of a single issue and
covers the most important arguments for and against.

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TOPIC 4 RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Define research – is searching for and gathering information usually to answer a particular question or
problem. It is a systematic investigation because it involves a process whose steps must be followed in
the proper order. It is the desire to find out how and why things happen in a certain way.

Importance of researchs

1. It increases or revises current knowledge by discovering new facts

2. It shapes how we behave in different situations
3. Keeps us abreast of new knowledge in order to teach more effectively
4. Informs stakeholders about pertinent problems

Mention what is included in the process of 3. Determining the information needed

research and how to obtain it
4. Organization of information
1. Identification of a problem or question
5. Interpretation of results
2. Clarification of the problem
State the different types of research 3. Problem oriented
4. Problem solving
1. Basic / fundamental / pure 5. Quantitative
2. Applied
6. Qualitative
Other categorize of research are; 2. Applied vs Fundamental research
3. Qualitative vs quantitative research
1. Descriptive vs Analytical research 4. Conceptual vs Empirical research

Briefly explain the types of research

Basic / fundamental / pure research is purely scientific in nature and is usually done in a laboratory on
human animal and place kingdom welfare to gain knowledge.

Applied research aims at improving a produce a progress of human welfare. It attempts to develop
generalizations about teaching and learning processes instrumental materials and behavior of learners
etc can be classified as problem oriented or problem solving research.

Problem oriented research is conducted to find out the exact nature of the problem that is to be solved.

Quantitative research – it aims at ensuring the quantity or amount of certain variables and making
comparisons between the variables. It mostly uses statistics or numbers.

Qualitative research – involves collecting , analyzing and interpreting information by observing what
people do and say by interviewing people or analyzing documents. There is more of descriptions than

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the use of statistics or numbers. It can also be classified into descriptive, analytical, conceptual and
empirical.

Descriptive research – it describes what exists and may help to uncover new facts and meanings. Its aim
is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs.

Conceptual research – focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the phenomenon
being studied. The researcher thinks of questions and tries to solve them. There are no experiments
done , the researcher only uses observations.

Empirical research – in this research knowledge is gained by means of direct and indirect observations
or experience.

Educational research – thus the method for understanding problems or issues in education
systematically through collection and analysis of information.

Types of educational research

teacher education, curriculum development, school climate, administrative leadership etc.

Importance of educational research

1. Helps to discover useful information in the teaching and learning process

2. Provides evidence to support existing knowledge in the field of education
3. Informs stakeholders in education about educational issues
4. Helps researchers to gain valuable knowledge and experiences in the area of study
5. Adds significance to the researcher’s knowledge if published.

What are the stages of educational research? 3. Data collection methods / strategies
4. Discussion of findings
1. Problem identification 5. Conclusion
2. Drawing research plan 6. Compiling a research report
Problem identification

1. Identify or isolate a problem area that you can investigate

2. Translate it into a research question
3. A research question guides the direction of one’s research and helps in planning for the research
questions. Examples of research questions are (a) Why do learners in Standard 6 fail to read in
English in your school (b) Why do girls fail to complete primary education in Malawi

Drawing a research plan - Thus coming up with the structure of the research. One should consider
methods of data collection, data analysis, and interpretation, resources.

Data collection - Consider the methodologies to use e.g. administering a questionnaire, interviews, or
simply make observations, instrument to be used.

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Ways of collecting data

1. Observation using observation checklist

2. Questionnaire using questionnaire guide
3. Interviews using interview guide
4. Document analysis using document e.g on absenteeism one can using class registers
5. Administering test using test items
6. Video recording of lesson activities for the teacher to watch himself / herself in action

Ways of analyzing data

Thus making sense out of the data gathered as it might be too much to communicate the essence of
what it reveals

Steps to follow when analyzing data

1. Organizing data
Organizing data involve reducing the volume of information, identifying significant patterns,
grouping the information and computing statistics. Data organizing may require the use of
tables, graphs or pie charts.
2. Description of data
Description of data involve describing the important aspects of the study including individuals
being studied and the setting

Examples of data analysis

The data was gathered after carrying a research on the effects of using flash cards on the reading of
Chichewa using the following research questions;

1. How will flash cards impact students’ abilities to pronounce or decode Chichewa words?
2. How will flash cards impact students’ abilities to spell Chichewa words?
3. How will flash cards impact students’ understanding of meanings of Chichewa words?

Table 1 Number of teachers according to the mode of training

Mode of training Number of teachers frequency Number of teachers in the

implementing control group
ODL 51 62
IPTE 100 94
MIITEP 55 51
MASTEP 6 5
ONE-YEAR training 12 8
TWO-YEAR training 10 6

Ways of data interpretation for the data in Table 1 above;

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Data interpretation involves explaining the findings, answering questions and attaching significance to
particular results. The example is given below;

The table shows that the respondents underwent six different modes of training. The findings revealed
that most of the teachers who took part in the study went through IPTE training mode, followed by ODL
training mode with 62 teachers from comparison schools and 51 teachers from implementing schools.
The MIITEP came third and the rest of the training modes had few participants.

Table 2 Comparison of mean scores for the experiment group

AVERAGE SCORE
Reading Meaning Spelling Whole Test
Pre-test 3.470588 0.794118 2.470588 6.735294
Post-test 4.705882 4.147059 2.823529 11.676471
Difference 1.235294 3.352941 0.352941 4.941177
Table 2 shows that the experiment group had gains in vocabulary on average, with a minimal gain in
spelling.

Table 3 Comparison of mean scores for the control group

AVERAGE SCORE
Reading Meaning Spelling Whole Test
Pre-test 1.941176 1.058824 1.205882 4.205882
Post-test 4.1470588 3.7647059 2.0294118 9.9411765
Difference 2.2058828 2.7058819 0.8235298 5.7532945
Table 3 shows that the control group had gains in vocabulary and word recognition on average with
minimal gain in spelling.

Data interpretation using the data gathered in the research

Question 1 How will flash cards impact students’ abilities to pronounce or decode Chichewa words?

The control group which was taught without using flash cards performed better than the experimental
group which was taught using flash cards. The control group had a mean differences of 2.2 in the
reading test in Table 3, whereas the experimental group had a mean difference of 1.2 in Table 2.
Therefore, flash cards have little impact on students’ abilities to pronounce or decode Chichewa word as
compared to teaching without flash cards in Malawi.

Question 2 How will flash cards impact students’ abilities to spell Chichewa words?

The control group had a mean difference of 0.8 whereas the experiment group had a mean difference of
0.35. This means that the control group performed better in the spelling part of the post-test than the

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experimental group. Therefore, flash cards have little impact on students’ abilities to spell Chichewa
words as compared to teaching spelling of words without using flash cards in Malawi.

Question 3 How will flash cards impact students’ understanding of meanings of Chichewa words?

It is only in the meaning test that the experimental group performed better than the control group. The
experimental group had a mean difference of 3.35, whereas the control group had a mean difference of
2.7. This means that using flash cards has more impact on students’ understanding of meanings of
Chichewa words as compared to teaching without using flash cards in Malawi.

Summary of results

In general , the results showed that flash cards have little effect on students’ abilities in learning
Chichewa vocabulary in Malawi. It is only in the teaching of meaning of Chichewa vocabulary that flash
cards proved to be effective. In spite of these findings, however, the mean difference between the
experimental and control group were minimal. This could mean that with slight changes to study, there
is a probability that flash cards could be more effective on Chichewa word recognition among third
grade students in Malawi.

Drawing conclusions and recommendations

After the interpretation of data there is need to come up with a conclusion. The conclusion highlights
the main topics of the study.

What is involved in making conclusions?

1. Looking at the research questions and answering them based on the data gathered
2. Making recommendations for new areas of future research and the recommendations must be
supported by the findings of the study

Compiling a research report

What is a research report? It is a document presenting a description of a research study.

Components of a research report 3. Methodology used ( how did you collect

the data)
1. Background of the research
4. Discussion of the findings
2. Literature review 5. Results of finding

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TOPIC 5 ACTION RESEARCH
What is action research?

It is the strategy for getting information about classroom successes and challenges with the aim of
improving classroom practices. Action research is also known as reflective research.

Importance of action research

1. Helps in identifying and solving classroom problems

2. Helps to determine if a procedure is working for you or whether you need to try something new
3. Improve one’s teaching and learning skills
4. Reflect on and improve classroom practice
5. Reduce monotony in teaching by changing language learning activities
6. Try out new strategies for teaching

The process of a research plan in action research includes

1. Problem statement 6. Data collection instruments

2. Research questions 7. Procedure of data collection
3. Definitions 8. Data analysis
4. Literature review 9. Presentation of results
5. Sampling 10. Discussion of results
Ways of collecting data in action research

1. Observation by the teacher, researcher, learners or other teachers.

2. Research logs filled in by the teachers, learners or other teachers.
3. Video recording of lesson activities for the teacher to watch himself/herself in action.

How to select a topic for action research

1. Get the topic for action research from the problem or question one wants to investigate on
2. Specify the research questions you want to answer e.g. Why learners have problems on word
recognition
a. The teacher should reflect on the method or approach he/she use in teaching word
recognition
b. If you use flash cards to teach word recognition, you might want to find out whether or not
flash cards are effective on word recognition.

Making a research plan

What is a research plan?

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It is a written plan for a research study that explains in detail what a researcher wants to do. A research
plan is also known as a research proposal ( a written outline for a study).

In the plan you explain in detail what you intend to do. Why? This helps others to learn about your
intended research and offer suggestions for improving the study.

What to include in a research plan?

1. Problem statement 7. Procedure of gathering data

2. Research questions 8. Data analysis
3. Definitions
4. Literature review
5. Sampling
6. Data collecting instruments

TOPIC 6 DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

Define the following terms:

(i) Dissemination - Is to cause information to go to many people.

(ii) Audience – are people who watch, read or listen to something.
(iii) Exhibition – is the display of something (eg research results) for public viewing.
(iv) Research conference – thus a meeting at which research results are shared or disseminated.
(v) Research report – is a document that describes a research study

What is dissemination of research findings?

Disseminating research is the process of getting one’s research findings to the target audience. The
audience could be fellow teachers, educational officials, parents and other stakeholders in education.

What are the most important areas to be included in the research report?

1. Background of the research

2. Methodology used (how you collected the data)
3. Results and discussion of the results ( interpretation of the results)

State the methods of disseminating research results

1. Research conferences 5. Drama

2. Journals 6. Videos
3. Magazines 7. Exhibitions
4. Internet
What are the factors to consider when choosing a method of disseminating research findings?

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1. Level of interest and understanding of the target audience
2. Time and availability
3. Choice of language in the presentation of research findings

Why is it important for teachers to learn how to disseminate research results?

It is important in order to make the audience respond accordingly.

TOPIC 7 PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

Define the following terms:

1. Assembly – a gathering for a common purpose.

2. Caucus – a meeting to examine issues.
3. Profession – an occupation requiring special education.
4. Professional communication – a polite exchange of thoughts and ideas or information at a
school between teachers and learners or other visitors through writing, speaking or use of
symbols.
5. Effective communication – rightful communication that helps teachers to achieve intended
purpose or goals.
6. Communication – process of passing information to others.
7. Hospitality – welcoming nature.

Importance of professional communication

1. It is the backbone in creating good relationships amongst teachers and learners at a school.
2. Helps teachers and learners to make wise educational decisions about teaching and learning.

How is communication done in schools or colleges?

It may be done through; assemblies or caucuses

1. School assemblies are important occasions where teachers and learners meet together to
share knowledge, skills and encourage best practices to bring about quality education eg H/T
gives brief, clear and simple reports on issues that have been investigated or incidents that
happen

School assemblies also communicate allocation of teachers, learner and teacher responsibilities,
sickness of a teacher or learner. It also emphasizing cleanliness of learners and surroundings,
and making internal school rules such as punctuality to school activities.

Importance of school assemblies

1. Improves the teaching and learning in an institution

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2. It provides opportunities for teachers and learners to share ethical ideas and emphasize
different virtues that may have an effect on the smooth running of school.

What prompts meaningful school assembly?

a. Thus having profound knowledge on how to conduct school assemblies such as proper planning
which may include making priorities on what to communicate, how to conduct it, setting the
purpose, allocating time and resources needed
b. Organizing a speech that is brief and clear with simple language and keeps record of what has
been communicated in the assembly record book.

2. Caucuses – this includes allocation of teachers, responsibilities, sickness and emphasis on

cleanliness of teachers and code of ethics. These situations allow teachers to identify practices
that improves student learning through common planning of school or college activities and
programs.
Caucuses can be formal or informal depending on the circumstance that surrounds the event.
Formal caucuses – are procedural meetings where teachers discuss various issues that affect the
school, this includes staff meetings.
Characteristics of formal caucuses are;
a. Have defined agenda that might address school discipline, planning teaching records,
continuous professional development activities
b. Give information based on circulars from the ministry
c. Depends on proper planning, collaboration and active involvement of all teachers in
discussing the agenda
d. Communicate the agenda to the staff well in advance and specify the date, venue and time
of the meeting.

Mention the other ways of improving educational standards of any institution

1. Visits in and out of schools or colleges. H/T and teachers should establish effective
communication with other school or college professionals through use of collaborative
formal language.
2. Active involvement of learners in welcoming visitors to their school or college
3. Having appropriate knowledge on use of English language for effective professional
communication.

Importance of staff caucuses

1. Promotes quality educational standards

2. Develops and sustains organizational culture to improve school practices eg through staff
caucuses, teachers reflect and examine instructional methods and appropriate resources to
use during teaching and learning

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3. Helps in discussing how to improve student academic performance and encourage
innovations through continuous professional development.

TOPIC 8 WRITING FOR PROFESSIONAL NEEDS

What is professional writing? It is a style of written communication used in a workplace environment
that allows professionals to make informed decisions. It has a formal or serious tone and it differs from
other written texts.

State the types of professional writing

1. Business letters 3. Agenda, minutes, reports

2. Memos 4. Curriculum vitae
What is the general purpose of professional writing?

Thus to convey information to readers within a workplace contexts

What is the specific function of professional writing?

1. To encourage action,
2. To instruct
3. To persuade
4. To inform or affirm shared goal

Business letter – it is also known as a formal or official letter. A business letter is written on official
matters.

Business letter

 Types of letters
(a) Formal or business letters or official letters
(b) Informal letters or friendly letters
 Differences between formal and informal letters
(a) A formal letter has two addresses, an informal letter has one.
(b) A formal letter opens with ‘Dear Sir/ Madam, an informal has no particular style of opening.
(c) A formal letter usually has a title immediately below ‘Dear Sir/ Madam’; an informal letter does
not include a title.
(d) In an informal letter, the writer is restricted by the title, in an informal letter the writer is not
restricted by the title.
(e) A formal letter ends with ‘yours faithfully’ or ‘yours sincerely’ after establishing a continuous
correspondence with the same person or organization. An informal letter has no particular
style of ending it.

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Paragraph writing - -Let students note that a paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with the same
central or main idea. A letter has several paragraphs which make the introduction,
body and conclusion as follows:

Introduction - This should say what you want i.e., the purpose of writing the letter and / or
acknowledgement of a previous letter if one has been received.

Body of letter - This should convey to the addressee the most important part: the information,
problems, questions, requests you have in mind.

Conclusion - This can be used to re- emphasize, sum up the letter or express a desire for a reply.

Punctuation - Let student s note that the use of punctuation marks when writing addresses and the
letter by showing them models of both formal and informal letters. Also include examples
of formats 1and 2 of the official or formal letter.

Characteristics of a business letter

(1) Address ( not to be written in capital letters)

A business letter has two addresses;

 The sender’s address – This is the address of the person writing the letter
 The addressee’s address – This is the address of the person or organization to which the letter is
written. The sender’s address can be indented or blocked. But the addressee’s address is
blocked. Note: Sometimes a business letter includes:
cc : which means copy to another official or office for information
through : means directed through and seen by. The one whom the letter is directed
through may give comments on the letter.
(a) Date - This indicates when the letter was written. To separate the date from the address, it is
usually recommended to skip a line.
(b) Title – A business letter should have a title which is capitalized and underlined when
handwritten, but just bold when typed.
(c) The salutation – a business letter has a particular way of opening. This may be “Dear Sir or Dear
Madam” if you don’t know the person’s name. ‘Dear Mr. Jones’ if you know the person by
name.
(d) The introduction – This comes immediately after the salutation. This is where the sender briefly
writes the purpose of the letter and or acknowledgement of receipt of a previous letter. It is
important to know the appropriate language for responding to a letter, apologizing or making
requests
(e) Body of the letter – This part conveys to the addressee the information, problems, questions or
requests of the writer. In the body, topic sentences and supporting ideas are detailed. It is a
good idea for each main point and its supporting ideas to be written in separate paragraphs. The
number of paragraphs in the body is determined by the number of points raised.

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(f) The conclusion – in the conclusion the writer may re-emphasise , sum up the main points raised
in the letter, or express a desire for a reply from the addressee. For example, “I would greatly
appreciate your reply”.
(g) The ending (the valediction) – a business letter normally ends with, Yours faithfully’ if the
salutation is Dear Sir or Dear Madam. This is usually used after establishing a continuous
correspondence with the same person. Sometimes a letter is written by another office on behalf
of another. The letter would for example end with;
“Tanyaradzwa Twaya’
for : Principal

Format for writing business letters

There are two main styles of writing business letters, namely simple style and memorandum style

Writing an official letter using simple style

Simple style is used for correspondence between individuals and government officials or private
organisations.

Here are some points for the simple style:

 The address of the sender- without name or title is written in the right hand corner. The margin
of the sender’s address can either slope inwards or go straight down. Note the position of the
date.
 The title and address of the addressee are given below on the left. The margin of the
addressee’s address should go straight down
 In the salutation, each main word begins with a capital letter. The salutation is followed by a
comma (Dear Sir,)
 The heading or topic of the letter is written on the line below Dear Sir. It is capitalized and
underlined.
 Paragraph indentation is required in handwritten letters. The current trend of starting
everything from the left-hand margin should be discouraged in handwritten letters
 The first word of the closing salutation begins with a capital letter, but not the other words. A
comma comes after the closing salutation (eg, Yours sincerely,)
 Dear Sir is normally followed by Yours faithfully, Dear Mr. Twaya is best followed by Yours
sincerely
 An official letter using this format may be sent to anyone whether government official, private
organization or individual.

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For example;

Makwali Full Primary School,

Post Office Box 495,
Kwalifaidi

13 th March, 2020.

The District Education Officer,

Post Office Box 521,
Ndinakoza.

Dear Sir,

VISIT BY READING SPECIALIST

Thank you for your letter Ref.No. A/36/94 dated 21 st January , 2020 informing us of the proposed visit
to our school by the reading specialist.

Members of staff have been informed about Dr Twaya’s visit to the school, and we are all ready and
eager to meet him on 4 th July, 2020. However, we need more information in order to prepare
adequately for his visit. Would you let us know which classes he would like to see? In addition, would
you let u know whether the visitor would want to meet the whole staff, or just those teaching the
classes concerned? We do not know whether we should prepare lunch for our visitor. Would you ,
please advise us on this? We look forward to meeting Dr. Twaya.

Yours faithfully,

L.L. TAWONASHE
(Headteacher)

Memorandum style – it is generally written as a circular from one office to another. Government
circulars are usually as given below. The style should not be used for letters to individuals.

Characteristics of a memorandum style

 It is written as a circular from one government officer to another government officers

 It is written from one government officer to a private organization
 It is simple to use from time to time

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Here are some points to follow when writing using a memorandum style

 The reference number on the left is underlined. It may include the abbreviated name of school,
the file reference number and the latter number.
 The date , on the right hand side is underlined
 The title and address of the sender are written across the line after the word FROM
 The title and address of the addressee are written across the line after the word TO
 The heading or topic of the letter is written underneath the title and address of the addressee. It
is capitalized and underlined
 No salutation is necessary either at the beginning or at the end of the letter. (ie, Dear Sir and
Yours faithfully are NOT required) the letter ends with the writer’s name, often signed and then
printed neatly below, followed by his or her position.
 cc : means copy to another relevant official for information.

Ref: Mak/1/20 5 th April, 2020

From : The Headtecher, Makwali Full Primary School, Post Office Box 495, Kwalifaidi.
To : The District Education Officer,Post Office Box 521, Ndinakoza.

VISIT BY READING SPECIALIST

Thank you for your letter Ref.No. A/36/94 dated 21 st January , 2020 informing us of the proposed visit
to our school by the reading specialist.

Members of staff have been informed about Dr Twaya’s visit to the school, and we are all ready and
eager to meet him on 4 th July, 2020. However, we need more information in order to prepare
adequately for his visit. Would you let us know which classes he would like to see? In addition, would
you let u know whether the visitor would want to meet the whole staff, or just those teaching the
classes concerned? We do not know whether we should prepare lunch for our visitor. Would you ,
please advise us on this? We look forward to meeting Dr. Twaya.

L.L. TAWONASHE
(Headteacher)

(2). A Memo

A memo is an internal document from one office to another within an organization or a company. This
is written to inform the addressee about new on formation like policy changes. It may also be written
to persuade an officer to take certain action such as attending a meeting.

How to write a memo

Characteristics of a memo

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Heading – it follows this general format

To : (Addressee’s name and job titles)

From : (Name and job titles)
Date : ( Complete and current date)
Subject or Re: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way). Re means referring to. Generally the
following guidelines should be observed.

Write the purpose of the memo concisely and clearly.

 Points or details are written in lists rather than paragraphs and usually arranged from the
strongest to weakest.
 Memos are not usually signed at the end
 If there are any attachments in a memo, a notation about what is attached is made. For
example: Attached: Several complaints about gender based violence, January – December 2019.

Sample memo

To : Gloria Twaya - Chairperson of Assessment Committee

From : Tinashe Tawonashe – Principal Umodzi Teachers Training College, P.Bag 5, Takhoza.
Date : 5 th April , 2020

Subject : Meeting for Awards of Certificates of IPTE 14

Be informed that the award meeting for the fourteenth group of student teachers who have completed
year 2 of the Initial Primary Teacher Education will be held on 4 th July at MANEB offices in Zomba.

Make sure that all assessment grades are ready.

(2) Reports

A report is a document which provides an account of something one may have seen, examined,
investigated or surveyed. Reports vary widely in their purposes and formats. In many work
places reports carry complex information for readers who can use it to answer requests or solve
problems. At a school teachers may be required to write reports on disciplinary cases or an
accident involving learners or teachers. Examples of what can be reported at school level are
theft, disasters, accidents, etc
How to write reports
Reports can be written in the form of letters, memos, complex documents with tables of
contents, lists of tables and figures, appendices and indices. It is important to always remember
that reports usually read by multiple readers who vary in levels of knowledge and education. A

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useful and successful report must answer certain questions for the readers. Therefore it is
important that the writer asks him/herself the following questions:
 What is the report about?
 Are the facts in the report reliable, accurate, complete or relevant?
 How can the reader use the report?
 What actions might follow from it?
 What recommendations am I making for readers to consider?

What are the structural elements of report writing?

 A covering letter from the writer to the primary recipient

 A title page that includes an informative title, date and the writer’s name
 Front matter that includes the table of contents and acknowledgement
 The body of the report that begins with an introduction, then an executive summary
containing the main details of the report
 The conclusion of the report which contains a summary, general comments or
recommendations
 The back matter which includes appendices, indexes and other materials that the
reader may want to consult but it too lengthy to include in the body of the report.

Sample Report writing format 1

Kwali Full Primary School

Private Bag 6,
Makwali.

7 th April, 2020.

The District Education Manager,

Private Bag 7,
Makwali.

Dear Sir,

FIRE BURNS DOWN SCHOOL BLOCK

I wish to report that one of the classroom blocks at our school caught fire on the night of Sunday, 5 th
April, 2020 and was burnt down. Nearly all the school equipment contained in it was destroyed.

On Sunday, 5 th April, 2020 at 3:00 pm a learner noticed that the roof of the senior section block was on
fire. This block includes the headteacher’s office. Members of staff and villagers from the nearby villages
came to help to put the fire out, but it was in vain.

Many items were destroyed. These include the following:

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i. All the wooden fittings: doors, windows, tables, chairs, etc.
ii. Learners’ books, new exercise books, rulers, handcraft and needlecraft materials stored in
the Headteacher’s office.
iii. The administration records of the school: the log book, cash and receipt books, the visitors’
book, the attendance register, the admission book, and the stock book.

Whether anyone set the building on fire or not is not yet clear. However, the accident was reported to
the police and the school committee immediately. The police have already been here and are still
conducting investigations into the matter.

The chairperson and the secretary of the school committee are intending to see you next Friday to seek
financial assistance. They would like to start constructing another roof as soon as possible. The walls and
floors of the building are still intact, except for one wall which need repairing.

I would be grateful for any recommendations you may wish to make on this matter.

Yours faithfully,

S.L. TANYARADZWA
(Headteacher)

Sample report writing format 2

Ref. No. Kwa/T/21 7 th April, 2020.

From : The Headteacher, Kwali Full Primary School, Post Office Box 6, Makwali.

To : The District Education Manager, Makwali Rural District, Private Bag 7, Makwali.

FIRE BURNS DOWN SCHOOL BLOCK

I wish to report that one of the classroom blocks at our school caught fire on the night of Sunday, 5 th
April, 2020 and was burnt down. Nearly all the school equipment contained in it was destroyed.

On Sunday, 5 th April, 2020 at 3:00 pm a learner noticed that the roof of the senior section block was on
fire. This block includes the headteacher’s office. Members of staff and villagers from the nearby villages
came to help to put the fire out, but it was in vain.

Many items were destroyed. These include the following:

i. All the wooden fittings: doors, windows, tables, chairs, etc.

ii. Learners’ books, new exercise books, rulers, handcraft and needlecraft materials stored in
the Headteacher’s office.
iii. The administration records of the school: the log book, cash and receipt books, the visitors’
book, the attendance register, the admission book, and the stock book.

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Whether anyone set the building on fire or not is not yet clear. However, the accident was reported to
the police and the school committee immediately. The police have already been here and are still
conducting investigations into the matter.

The chairperson and the secretary of the school committee are intending to see you next Friday to seek
financial assistance. They would like to start constructing another roof as soon as possible. The walls and
floors of the building are still intact, except for one wall which need repairing.

I would be grateful for any recommendations you may wish to make on this matter.

S.L. TANYARADZWA
(Headteacher)

(3) Agenda
An agenda is the list of topics to be discussed in a meeting. The agenda is supposed to be
circulated some days before the day of the meeting . this gives a chance to the members to
think over the items for discussion . it also provides an opportunity for members to contribute
their own items to be discussed in a meeting.
How to write agenda for a meeting
 Write agenda in brief-like headings
 Leave space under a list of items for members to insert their points for discussion. Those
who add an item should write their names
 Write your name and title at the end.

Format for an agenda

Ref No. MAK/E/20 14 th April, 2020

From : The Acting Principal
To : All lecturers
There will be a staff meeting on 20 th April, 2020 at 13:30 hours in the Staff room.

Agenda

a. Two workshops on Conivid 19 starting on 26 April, 2020

b. Student teachers from Phalombe Teachers; Training College
c. DTED visitors
d. Teaching practice report
e. AOB

Tanyaradzwa L. Twaya
(Acting Principal)

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(4) Minutes
These are the main points which are taken down by a secretary during a meeting. Minutes of
meetings vary depending on the formality of the meeting. The one taking the minutes requires
the ability to listen, analyse, synthesize and record the most important actions and points raised
in a meeting. The minutes are called formal when there is a clear agenda. They are informal
when there is no formal agenda.

State the purpose of taking minutes in a meeting

a. Is to keep a record of resolutions for follow up.
b. They also help those not present at the meeting to follow what transpired.

Mention the five characteristics of b. The language is objective

good minutes c. The language is concise and brief
d. Uses reported speech
a. There is a heading, name of school,
e. List members present or absent etc
date, venue and time
How to write formal minutes

 The minutes begin with a heading that includes the name of the group, date, venue and
time. For example, “Minutes of the staff meeting held at Makwali Primary School on 20
th April, 2020 in the staff room”.
 A list of those present follows, then apologies and absentees if any.
 Minutes follow the formal agenda by which the meeting was run.
 In certain cases the writer should be sure to record who moved a particular motion and
specific votes which were made in support of the motion.
 The language used should be objective, concise and brief. Thus minutes should be a fair
reflection of what was actually discussed and agreed upon.
 Minutes should be presented in reported speech and in the passive voice
 Agenda items should be numbered and given headings.
For example: 1/18/20 –Two workshops on Conivid 19 starting on 26 April, 2020
1 is agenda number, 18 is meeting number, 20 is year

Sample of the minutes

Minutes of staff meeting held at Makwali Full Primary School

Date : 20 April, 2020 Venue : Staffroom

Time : 2:00pm
Members present : The Headteacher (Chairperson), Mrs C Chikondi, Mr. Limbikani, Ms Tingo, Mr. D.
Chimwemwe, Mr. Kwali, Mr. Sapu, Mrs. Ndakhoza

Apologies - Mrs T. Tinotenda, Mr. Tinenyasha and Mr. Tapiwanashe

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Chairperson’s opening address- The chairperson welcomed all members to the meeting and declared
the meeting open.

Acceptance of previous minutes – it was proposed and accepted that the previous minutes were an
accurate record of the previous meeting.

Matters arising- It was asked whether the site of the new teacher’s house had been finished. The
chairperson informed the staff that it had been resolved that the new house should be built near the
school garden.

1/3/20 Discipline

The question of general discipline was discussed at length. It was felt that too many pupils arrived late
without good reasons, that standard 7 in particular was very noisy in class, and that many learners were
not clean and tidy.

Resolution

It was resolved that the chairperson would address all learners on the above matter, and that teachers
should emphasize these areas in class.

2/3/20 Records of work

The headteacher noted that some members of staff did not keep proper records of work covered and in
some cases no records of work were indicated. He pointed out that authorities would take serious
measures of this so that this habit stops.

Resolution

It was resolved that the Deputy Headteacher would carry out periodic checks and assist any new teacher
who was unsure of the normal procedure.

3/3/20 New teachers

The chairperson informed members that the DEM had written a letter informing the school that it would
receive three new teachers from college- Miss Chakabva, Mr. Dande and Mr. Tsoko. He also asked all
members to receive and assist them in their work.

4/3/20 AOB

As there was no other business, the chairperson thanked everybody and closed the meeting at 4:35 pm.

(5) Curriculum vitae - This is another type of writing for professional needs. it is a document that
contains detailed description of an individual’s background, personal experience and
educational attainment.

Purposes of a curriculum vitae

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 Enables prospective employment to make an informed decision.
 Explains the educational and work experiences one has.
 Shows the kind of person one is and capabilities one has.

Sections of a curriculum vitae

1. Personal information 3. Work experience

2. Educational qualifications 4. referees

Format for a curriculum vitae

1. personal information
This section include name, birth date, birth place, nationality, district of origin, village, tribe, marital
status, religion, language proficiency, hobbies and contact address with telephone numbers, fax
numbers and or e-mails.

2. Education/professional qualification
This section includes qualifications, institutions where obtained, years, courses studied and areas of
specialization.

3. Work experience
This presents the experiences one has had in different work places. It mainly centers on the past job
description and organization worked for. It can also cover workshops and seminars one attended.

4. References
This is the section that shows people who can give more information about one’s performance
during studies as well work. It includes names of referees, their addresses and telephone
numbers. In most cases it is recommended to have three referees.

Sample curriculum vitae

CURRICULUM VITAE FOR TAFADZWA TWAYA

Surname : Twaya First name : Tafadzwa Sex : Male

Date of birth : 26/05/1996 Marital status : Single
Religion : Christianity Nationality : Malawian
Home District : Chitipa Traditional Authority : Mwenechanya Village: Kalowa
Language proficiency : Lambya, Tumbuka, Chichewa, English, Shona, Sena, Ndebele and Yao

Hobbies : Watching football, Cycling, Reading books and Watching movies

Cell number : 0999996120 / 0888886120 Email: [email protected]

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION
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Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE)

Institution : Makwali Secondary School Year : 2019

Subjects Grade
Agriculture 1
Bible Knowledge 1
Biology 1
Chemistry 1
Chichewa 1
English 1
Expressive arts 1
Geography 1
Physical Science 1
Social and Development Studies 1
WORKING EXPERIENCE
 Collecting data for CADECOM beneficiaries
 Collecting data using tablets for ACTION AID beneficiaries
 Village Saving Loans Agent for Care Malawi beneficiaries

REFEREES
 Mr. Joshua Chakabva, CARE Malawi Supervisor, Cell : 0888888888
 Mr. Nyasha Twaya, Bwelako Teachers Training College. Cell 0999999999
 Mr. Paul Mtakuramombembudziihata , ACTION AID Manager. Cell : 0989898989

References

1. MIITEP Student Teacher Handbook 3 (1998). MIE, Domasi. Zomba.

2. J.L. Kinneavy & J.E. Warriner (1987). Elements of writing. Rinehart & Winston Inc, Orlando.
Florida.
3. IPTE English Lecturers’ book(2008). MIE, Domasi. Zomba.
4. IPTE English Module 4 (2018). MIE, Domasi. Zomba.
5. H.B.Jovanovich (1988). English Composition and Grammar First Course. Jovanovich Inc. USA.

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