HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
♦ The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body that forms a physical
barrier between the external environment and the internal environment that it
serves to protect and maintain. The integumentary system includes the epidermis,
dermis, hypodermis, associated glands, hair, and nails. In addition to its barrier
function, this system performs many intricate functions such as body temperature
regulation, cell fluid maintenance, synthesis of Vitamin D, and detection of
stimuli. The various components of this system work in conjunction to carry out
these functions—for example, body temperature regulation occurs through
thermoreceptors that lead to the adjustment of peripheral blood flow, degree of
perspiration, and body hair.
1. SKIN
 Protection: Acts as a physical barrier against harmful agents, including
pathogens, UV radiation, and chemicals.
 Sensation: Contains numerous nerve endings and receptors that detect touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain.
 Thermoregulation: Helps maintain a stable body temperature through
processes like sweating and vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) or
vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels).
 Metabolic Functions: The skin is involved in the synthesis of vitamin D
when exposed to sunlight, which is essential for bone health.
 Excretion: Through sweat, the skin can excrete certain wastes and excess
substances, including water, salts, and a small amount of urea.
 Waterproofing: The stratum corneum and the sebaceous glands produce lipids
that prevent excessive water absorption or loss.

LAYERS OF THE SKIN

♦ EPIDERMIS
 The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, playing a crucial role in
protecting the body from environmental factors, pathogens, and water loss. It is
primarily composed of keratinocytes, but it also contains melanocytes, Langerhans
cells, and Merkel cells.

Layers of the Epidermis: The epidermis is organized into specific layers, from
the deepest to the outermost:
a. Stratum Basale (Basal Layer):
- It's the innermost layer of the epidermis.
- Contains columnar to cuboidal basal cells which constantly divide (proliferation,
mitosis) and push older cells toward the surface.
- Melanocytes are also found in this layer, producing the pigment melanin, which
provides protection from ultraviolet (UV) radiation and gives skin its color.
- Merkel cells, which are involved in touch sensation, are also present.
b. Stratum Spinosum (Spiny Layer):
- Consists of several layers of keratinocytes, which are connected by desmosomes,
giving it a "spiny" appearance.
- Langerhans cells are found in this layer, functioning as part of the immune
system by helping to present antigens to T-cells.
- Prickly layer
c. Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer):
- Comprises 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis
(programmed cell death).
- The cells contain keratohyalin granules and lamellar granules, which play a role
in the keratinization process.
d. Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer):
- Found only in the thick skin of areas like the palms and soles.
- Composed of 2-3 layers of clear, dead keratinocytes that have a translucent
appearance.
- Tonofilaments
e. Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer):
- Outermost layer, consisting of 20-30 layers of dead, flat keratinized cells
(corneocytes).
- These cells are filled with keratin and are constantly being shed and replaced.
- This layer provides the main barrier function of the skin.

Cell Types in the Epidermis:

a. Keratinocytes: The most abundant cells in the epidermis, responsible for the
synthesis of keratin, which provides structural strength.
b. Melanocytes: Produce melanin, a pigment that absorbs UV radiation and
gives color to the skin, hair, and eyes.
c. Langerhans Cells: Immune cells that help in the detection and presentation
of foreign antigens to the immune system.
d. Merkel Cells: Associated with sensory nerve endings and are involved in the
sensation of touch.

Functions of the Epidermis:

a. Protection: Acts as a physical barrier against harmful environmental factors,
pathogens, and UV radiation.
b. Prevention of Water Loss: Provides a semi-impermeable barrier,
preventing excessive water loss from the body.
c. Melanin Production: Protects deeper layers of the skin from UV radiation.
d. Sensory Reception: Contains receptors that respond to touch.
e. Thermoregulation: Through processes like sweating, it assists in regulating
body temperature.

♦ The epidermis doesn't contain blood vessels, so it relies on diffusion from

the underlying dermal layer for nutrients and oxygen. Regular cell turnover
(shedding of the outermost cells and growth of new cells from the basal
layer) ensures the maintenance and repair of this protective layer.

♦ DERMIS
 The dermis is the layer of skin situated beneath the epidermis and above the
subcutaneous layer (hypodermis). It's responsible for the skin's flexibility and
strength, and it houses many of the skin's essential structures.
Layers of the Dermis:
a. Papillary Dermis:
- It is the uppermost layer of the dermis, just below the epidermis.
- Comprises of areolar loose connective tissue.
- Contains dermal papillae, which are finger-like projections that extend into the
overlying epidermis. These increase the surface area for exchange of oxygen, nutrients,
and waste materials between the dermis and epidermis. Dermal papillae also contain
capillaries and nerve endings.
- The pattern of dermal papillae in areas like the fingers contributes to the formation of
fingerprints.
- Loose network of collagen and elastic fibers
b. Reticular Dermis:
- The deeper and thicker part of the dermis.
- Consists of dense, irregular connective tissue.
- Contains the majority of the dermis's structures, such as hair follicles, sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, blood vessels, and nerve endings.
Structures and Cells in the Dermis:
a. Fibroblasts: These are the primary cell type in the dermis and are responsible for
producing and maintaining the connective tissue matrix which includes collagen and
elastin fibers.
b. Collagen Fibers: Provide strength and resilience to the skin.
c. Elastin Fibers: Offer flexibility, allowing the skin to return to its original state after
stretching.
d. Mast Cells: Part of the immune system; they release histamines in response to
allergens, leading to an inflammatory response.
e. Macrophages: These cells are also part of the immune system and help in
phagocytosis, engulfing and digesting cellular debris and pathogens.
f. Blood Vessels: Supply nutrients and oxygen to the skin and help in
thermoregulation.
g. Lymph Vessels: Assist in immune response and fluid balance.
h. Hair Follicles: Involved in hair growth and the secretion of sebum from associated
sebaceous glands.
i. Sweat Glands: Produce sweat, which helps in thermoregulation and excretion of
wastes.
j. Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum, an oily substance that lubricates the skin and
hair.
k. Nerve Endings: Allow for sensation (e.g., touch, pain, temperature).
l. Pacinian and Meissner's Corpuscles: Specialized nerve endings involved in
deep and light touch sensation, respectively.

Functions of the Dermis:

a. Mechanical Support: Provides strength and elasticity to the skin.
b. Nutrient Supply: Blood vessels in the dermis supply nutrients and oxygen to both
the dermis itself and the epidermis.
c. Sensation: Houses various nerve endings which detect stimuli like touch, pressure,
pain, and temperature.
d. Thermoregulation: Blood vessels in the dermis can constrict or dilate to regulate
body temperature. Sweat glands produce sweat that help in cooling the body.
e. Immune Defense: Contains immune cells that defend against pathogens.
♦ The dermis provides structural integrity to the skin and houses the majority of
skin's appendages and specialized structures. Damage to the dermis, as in a deep
cut or burn, can impact these structures and may result in scar formation due to the
dense network of collagen fibers present in this layer.

♦ HYPODERMIS
 The hypodermis, also commonly known as the subcutaneous layer or
subcutaneous tissue, is the innermost layer of the skin. While it's technically not
part of the skin (integument), it's crucial to skin function and overall body
physiology.
Composition:
a) Primarily made up of adipose tissue (fat cells or adipocytes), which provide
insulation and act as an energy reserve.
b) It also contains loose connective tissue, which binds the dermis to the underlying
structures, typically muscles and bones.
Structures in the Hypodermis:
a. Adipocytes (Fat Cells):
- Store energy in the form of fat.
- Play a role in regulating body temperature by insulating the body.
- Offer cushioning against physical impacts.
b. Blood Vessels: - Larger blood vessels than those found in the dermis are in the
hypodermis, serving as major blood supply routes to the skin.
c. Nerve Endings: - Some free nerve endings are found in the hypodermis, responding
primarily to pain and pressure.
d. Hair Follicle Roots: - The lower parts of larger hair follicles can extend into the
hypodermis.
e. Elastic Fibers: - Allow the skin to return to its original position after being
stretched.
Functions of the Hypodermis:
a. Thermal Insulation: - The fat stored in the adipose tissue acts as an insulator,
helping to regulate body temperature.
b. Shock Absorption: - Protects internal organs and bones from injury due to its
cushioning effect.
c. Energy Reserve: - Fat stored can be metabolized to produce energy when the body's
energy reserves are low.
d. Anchoring the Skin: - The loose connective tissue helps bind the dermis to the
underlying muscles and bones, allowing the skin to move freely over them.
e. Regulating Hormones: - Adipose tissue secretes hormones, known as adipokines,
which are involved in regulating various physiological processes, including appetite,
insulin sensitivity, and inflammation.
Clinical Relevance:
a. Site for Injections: - The hypodermis is often the site for subcutaneous injections
because of its fatty tissue content and good blood supply, ensuring efficient absorption of
medications.
b. Ageing & Weight Changes: - Changes in the amount and distribution of adipose
tissue in the hypodermis can be influenced by factors like ageing, hormones, and weight
fluctuations, affecting the skin's appearance.
c. Wound Healing: - Injuries extending into the hypodermis might take longer to heal
and might result in more pronounced scarring.
♦ The thickness and distribution of the hypodermis can vary significantly among
individuals and between different parts of the body. Factors such as gender,
genetics, age, and overall body composition play a role in these differences. For
instance, the hypodermis tends to be thicker in the abdomen and thighs compared
to the arms or the shins.

2. HAIR
Functions of Hair:
Protection:
1. Scalp hair offers protection against UV radiation from the sun.
2. Eyebrows and eyelashes help prevent debris and sweat from entering the eyes.
3. Nasal hair filters particles from inhaled air.
Thermal Regulation:
1. Hair provides insulation, retaining heat.
2. The arrector pili muscle contraction reduces heat loss by making the hair stand
erect.
3. The scalp hair also provides shade and aids in cooling through the evaporation of
sweat.
Sensory Function:
1. Hair follicles are surrounded by nerve endings, which make hair a sensory organ,
detecting changes in the environment, such as a light touch.
Communication and Expression:
1. Eyebrows play a role in facial expression and non-verbal communication.
2. Hair also plays a cultural, social, and individual role in personal identity,
aesthetics, and self-expression.
Protection Against Friction:
1. Body hair, especially in areas like the armpits and groin, reduces friction.
Pheromone Dispersal:
1. Hair in certain areas, such as the armpits and pubic region, aids in the dispersal of
pheromones, which are chemicals involved in attraction and other social
communications.
Parts of Hair:
Hair Shaft:
- The portion of the hair that is visible above the skin surface.
Composed of three layers:
a. Medulla: The innermost core, which might be absent in very fine hair.
b. Cortex: The thick middle layer, containing pigmented cells that determine hair color.
c. Cuticle: The outermost protective layer, consisting of overlapping, tightly packed,
transparent cells.
Hair Follicle:
- The skin organ that produces hair.
- Extends into the dermis and occasionally reaches the hypodermis.
- Surrounded by a Sheath, which has two layers:
a. External Root Sheath
b. Internal Root Sheath
Hair Bulb:
- The base of the hair follicle, appearing bulbous.
- Contains the Hair Papilla, a structure with blood vessels and cells that produce
hair.
Hair Matrix:
- A layer of cells around the hair papilla.
- Responsible for hair growth by dividing and pushing the older cells upwards.
Sebaceous Gland:
- Attached to the hair follicle.
- Secretes sebum, an oily substance that nourishes and waterproofs the hair and
skin.
Arrector Pili Muscle:
- A small, involuntary muscle attached to the hair follicle.
- When contracted (often in response to cold or emotional stimuli), it causes the hair
to stand upright – colloquially called "goosebumps."
Hair Growth and Cycle:
Hair growth undergoes a specific cycle with various phases:
Anagen: Active growth phase, which can last for several years.
Catagen: Transitional phase, where growth stops and the hair follicle shrinks. Lasts for
a few weeks.
Telogen: Resting phase, where the hair eventually falls out. Lasts for a few months.
Exogen: Shedding phase, overlapping with the rest of the phases.
 The length of these phases and the duration of the complete cycle vary
depending on the body region and individual factors.

♦ Hair, both in its structure and function, reflects a combination of genetics, biology,
and environment. Different populations and individuals exhibit significant
variability in hair type, color, thickness, and growth patterns.

NAIL
Functions of Nails:
 Protection:
- Nails shield the fingertips and toes from physical harm.
- They enhance the sensitivity of the fingertip by acting as a counterforce when the
pulp of fingers (the fleshy part) is touched.
 Enhanced Precision:
- Nails enable fingers to pick up small objects, offering enhanced dexterity.
 Scratching:
- Nails can be used to scratch an itch or remove debris from surfaces.
 Aesthetic and Communication:
- Humans often paint and decorate nails as a form of self-expression and aesthetic
appeal.
- In some cultures, and contexts, nail condition and style can communicate social
cues or statuses.
 Indicator of Health:
- The condition of one's nails can offer clues about overall health. For instance,
malnutrition, fungal infections, and certain systemic diseases can alter the
appearance and structure of nails.
Parts of the Nail:
 Nail Plate:
- The hard and translucent portion that's most commonly associated with the nail.
- Made of densely packed, dead, keratinized cells.
 Nail Matrix:
- The tissue beneath the base of the nail, under the cuticle area.
- The region where new nail cells divide, grow, and keratinize to form the nail plate.
As these cells grow and harden, older nail cells are pushed out towards the
fingertips.
 Nail Bed:
- The skin beneath the nail plate.
- It contains blood vessels that nourish the nail and give the nail its pink color.
 Lunula:
- The half-moon shaped pale region at the base of the nail plate.
- It's the visible part of the nail matrix.
 Cuticle (Eponychium):
- A thin layer of skin that overlaps the base of the nail.
- Serves as a protective barrier.
 Nail Folds:
- The skin that frames and supports the nail on three sides.
 Hyponychium:
- The region beneath the free edge of the nail.
- It's an area of epithelium, particularly thickened, that secures the nail to the
fingertip.
 Free Edge:
- The part of the nail that extends past the end of the finger or toe.

Growth and Other Aspects:

Growth Rate:
- Nails grow continuously, with fingernails typically growing faster than toenails. On
average, fingernails grow at a rate of about 3mm (0.1 inch) per month, while toenails
grow about 1mm (0.04 inches) per month. The exact rate can be influenced by age, sex,
nutrition, genetics, and other factors.
Composition:
- Nails are primarily composed of a protein called keratin, which is also found in
hair and the outer layer of skin.
Health Indicators:
- Changes in nail color, shape, or growth rate can be indicative of various health
conditions. For instance:
- Yellow nails might indicate fungal infection or chronic bronchitis.
- White nails can be a sign of liver diseases.
- Pale nails could suggest anemia.
- Bluish nails might indicate oxygen deprivation.
- Pitting or rippling on the nail surface can be associated with psoriasis or
inflammatory arthritis.

♦ Nails, while sometimes overlooked in terms of function, serve multiple roles, both
protective and aesthetic, and can be a window into the body's overall health.
Regular care and observation of the nails are essential to ensure they remain
healthy and continue to serve their functions effectively.

GLANDS
♦ The integumentary system, which encompasses the skin and its appendages (like
hair and nails), contains several glands. These glands play essential roles in
maintaining skin health, protecting against environmental factors, and facilitating
various physiological processes.
1. Sebaceous Glands (Oil Glands):
Location: Associated with hair follicles, although some exist independently. Found
throughout the body except for the palms and soles.
Secretion: Sebum, an oily substance comprised of lipids and cellular debris.
Function:
- Lubricates the hair and skin.
- Provides a hydrophobic barrier, preventing excessive water loss.
- It has antibacterial properties, which can help protect the skin from certain
bacteria.
Associated Conditions:
- Overactivity can lead to conditions like acne.
- Blocked glands can lead to sebaceous cysts.
2. Sudoriferous Glands (Sweat Glands):
There are two main types of sweat glands:
a. Eccrine (Merocrine) Glands:
Location: Distributed all over the body, with higher densities on the palms, soles,
forehead, and armpits.
Secretion: A clear, watery fluid composed mainly of water, salts (like sodium chloride),
and small amounts of waste products such as urea and uric acid.
Function:
- Temperature regulation via evaporative cooling.
- Excretion of waste products.
- Helps maintain proper electrolyte balance in the body.
b. Apocrine Glands:
Location: Found mainly in the armpits (axillary region), groin, and around the nipples.
Secretion: A viscous, milky fluid which contains proteins, lipids, and steroids.
Function:
- Secreted in response to emotional stress and sexual stimulation.
- Its exact function isn't entirely clear, but it's believed to play a role in scent (body
odor is produced when the secretion is broken down by skin bacteria).
- Begins to function at puberty.
Associated Conditions:
Hyperhidrosis: Excessive sweating, usually associated with eccrine glands.
Bromhidrosis: Foul-smelling sweat, typically related to the apocrine glands and the
breakdown of their secretions by skin bacteria.
3. Ceruminous Glands:
Location: Found in the external ear canal.
Secretion: Cerumen, commonly known as earwax.
Function:
- Protects the ear by trapping debris.
- It has antimicrobial properties.
- Lubricates the ear canal, preventing it from drying out.
Associated Conditions:
Ceruminosis: Excessive accumulation of earwax, which can lead to blockage and
reduced hearing.
4. Mammary Glands:
Location: Present in the breast tissue.
Secretion: Milk.
Function: Producing milk for nourishing infants.
Associated Conditions:
Mastitis: Inflammation of the mammary gland, often due to an infection.
Numerous other conditions and diseases can affect mammary glands,
including fibrocystic changes, benign tumors (fibroadenomas), and breast
cancer.
♦ These glands within the integumentary system play crucial roles in maintaining
skin health, facilitating sensory communication, and executing vital physiological
processes like thermoregulation and waste excretion.