Angelo Joseph Valenzuela

BPE 2-1

 Integumentary System

The integumentary system is the largest organ of the body that forms a physical barrier
between the external environment and the internal environment that it serves to protect and
maintain. The integumentary system includes the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis, associated
glands, hair, and nails. In addition to its barrier function, this system performs many intricate
functions such as body temperature regulation, cell fluid maintenance, synthesis of Vitamin D,
and detection of stimuli. The various components of this system work in conjunction to carry
out these functions—for example, body temperature regulation occurs through
thermoreceptors that lead to the adjustment of peripheral blood flow, degree of perspiration,
and body hair.

Anatomy

Skin: The skin is made up of two layers—the superficial epidermis and the deeper dermis.

The epidermis is the tough outer layer that acts as the first line of defense against the external
environment. It is composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells that further break down into
four to five layers. From superficial to deep, the primary layers are the stratum corneum,
stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. In the palms and soles, where the
skin is thicker, there is an additional layer of skin between the stratum corneum and stratum
granulosum called the stratum lucidum. The epidermis regenerates from stem cells located in
the basal layer that grow up towards the corneum. The epidermis itself is devoid of blood
supply and derives its nutrition from the underlying dermis.

The dermis is the underlying connective tissue framework that supports the epidermis. It
further subdivides into two layers—the superficial papillary dermis and the deep reticular layer.
The papillary layer forms finger-like projections into the epidermis, known as dermal papillae,
and consists of highly vascularized, loose connective tissue. The reticular layer has dense
connective tissue that forms a strong network. The dermis as a whole contains blood and lymph
vessels, nerves, sweat glands, hair follicles, and various other structures embedded within the
connective tissue. 

Hypodermis: The hypodermis lies between the dermis and underlying organs. It is commonly
referred to as subcutaneous tissue and is composed of loose areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
This layer provides additional cushion and insulation through its fat storage function and
connects the skin to underlying structures such as muscle. 

Hair: Hair is derived from the epidermis but grows its roots deep into the dermis. Its structure
divides into the externally visible hair shaft and the hair follicle within the skin. The hair follicle
has an intricate structure that contains the hair bulb that actively divides to extend the hair
shaft vertically. Hair generally categorizes into hormone-dependent, thicker terminal hairs in
regions such as the axilla, pubic areas, scalp, chest, etc., and androgen-independent vellus hairs
that cover the rest of the areas. Hair growth has multiple phases called anagen (growth phase),
catagen (nonproliferative phase), and telogen (resting phase) that cycles depending on
hormones and nutrients. Hair covers the majority of the body with the few exceptions of the
palms, soles, lips, and portions of external genitalia. Hair serves as mechanical protection for
the skin, increases sensory function, and aids in regulating body temperature. Arrector pili
muscles located in the dermis attach to hair follicles, helping the shaft to stand and trap air
close to the epidermis for temperature control.

Nails: Nails form as layers of keratin and appear at the dorsal tips of the fingers and toes. The
nail growth begins at the nail matrix that creates new cells and pushes old cells out distally. The
visible portion of the nail is the nail plate covering the nail bed, where it adheres to the finger.
Nails function to protect the fingers and toes while increasing the precision of movements and
enhancing sensation.

Associated Glands: There are four types of exocrine glands within human skin—sudoriferous,
sebaceous, ceruminous, and mammary glands.

Sudoriferous glands, also known as sweat glands, are further divided into eccrine and apocrine
glands. Eccrine glands are distributed throughout the body and primarily produce serous fluid
to regulate body temperature. Apocrine glands are present in the axilla and pubic area and
produce milky protein-rich sweat. These glands are responsible for odor as bacteria break down
the secreted organic substances.

Sebaceous glands are part of the pilosebaceous unit, including the hair, hair follicle, and
arrector pili muscle. It secretes an oily substance called sebum, a mixture of lipids that forms a
thin film on the skin. This layer adds a protective layer, prevents fluid loss, and also plays an
antimicrobial role.

Function

Physical protection: Given that the integumentary is the covering of the human body, its most
apparent function is physical protection. The skin itself is a tightly knit network of cells, with
each layer contributing to its strength. The epidermis has an outermost layer created by layers
of dead keratin that can withstand wear and tear of the outer environment, while the dermis
provides the epidermis with blood supply and has nerves that bring danger to attention
amongst other functions. The hypodermis provides physical cushioning to any mechanical
trauma through adipose storage, and the glands secrete protective films throughout the body.
The nails protect the digits, which are prone to repeated trauma by creating a hard covering,
and hairs throughout the body filter harmful particles from entering the eyes, ears, nose, etc.   

Immunity: The skin is the body’s first line of defense as it acts as the physical barrier that
prevents direct entry of pathogens. Cells are connected through junction proteins with
reinforcement by keratin filaments.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and lipids on the skin also act as a biomolecular barrier that
disrupts bacterial membranes. AMPs, such as defensins and cathelicidins, are produced by
various cells in the skin, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, glands, etc., and are activated by
proteolytic cleavage with stimulation. Lipids, such as sphingomyelin and glucosylceramides, are
stored in lamellar bodies found in the stratum corneum and display antimicrobial activity.

An additional aspect of the skin’s immunity lies in the resident immune cells. Both myeloid and
lymphoid cells are present in the skin, and some, such as the Langerhans cells or dermal
dendritic cells, possess the capability to travel to the periphery and activate the greater
immune system.

Wound healing: When our body undergoes trauma with a resulting injury, the integumentary
system orchestrates the wound healing process through hemostasis, inflammation,
proliferation, and remodeling.

Hemostasis occurs through tissue factor located in subendothelial spaces of the skin, which
triggers the coagulation cascade to form a fibrin clot.

In the following inflammatory phase, immune cells such as neutrophils and monocytes will
infiltrate the injury site to attack pathogens and clear out debris.

The proliferative phase involves the multiplication of resident cells such as keratinocytes and
fibroblasts that contribute to the formation of granulation tissue. Through a matrix of immune
cells and the eventual formation of a collagen network by fibroblasts and myofibroblasts, the
new extracellular matrix forms.

The final remodeling phase consists of apoptosis as cells are no longer needed and excess
structures are broken down in efforts to restore the original architecture. Macrophages secrete
matrix metalloproteases that remove excess collagen, and remaining immature collagen
matures to finalize the extracellular matrix.
Vitamin D synthesis: The primary sources of vitamin D are sun exposure and oral intake. With
ultraviolet sunlight exposure, 7-dehydrocholesterol converts to vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in
the skin. Cholecalciferol is then hydroxylated in the liver, then kidney into its active metabolite
form, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D (calcitriol). This metabolite ultimately leads to increased calcium
absorption in the gut and is crucial for bone health. 

Regulation of body temperature: The skin has a large surface area that is highly vascularized,
which allows it to conserve and release heat through vasoconstriction and vasodilation,
respectively. When body temperatures rise, blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow and
maximize the dissipation of heat. In conjunction with this method, the evaporation of sweat
secreted by the skin allows for greater heat loss. The hair on the body also affects the
regulation of body temperature as erect hair can trap a layer of heat close to the skin. Various
inputs from central and skin thermoreceptors provide fine-tuning for this thermoregulatory
system.   

Sensation: Skin innervation is by various sensory nerve endings that discriminate pain,
temperature, touch, and vibration. Mediation of innocuous touch in glabrous skin by four types
of mechanoreceptors—Meissner corpuscle, Pacinian corpuscle, Ruffini endings, and Merkel
cells. Meissner corpuscles can detect movement across the skin, Pacinian corpuscles detect
high-frequency vibration, Ruffini endings detect stretch, and Merkel cells aid in spatial imaging.
In hairy skin, tactile stimuli are picked up by three types of hair follicles and their associated
longitudinal and circumferential lanceolate endings. Noxious stimuli in both glabrous and hairy
skin are detectable by free nerve endings located in the epidermis. Each type of receptor and
nerve fiber varies in its adaptive and conductive speeds, leading to a wide range of signals that
can be integrated to create an understanding of the external environment and help the body to
react appropriately. 

Diseases

Acne – Acne is a very common condition that involves inflammation of the pilosebaceous unit
caused by the overproduction of keratin within hair follicles, increased sebum production,
and Cutibacterium acnes mediated inflammation. Acne can have varying morphologies,
including comedones (open and closed), papules, nodules, and pustules, that all vary in
appearance and size. Various factors correlate with the development of acne, such as skin
trauma, diet, and stress. In women, hormonal acne is characterized by flares involving the
jawline, characteristically flaring with menstrual cycles. Increased androgen circulation also
contributes to acne, as sebaceous glands produce sebum in response to androgens, providing a
growth medium for C. acnes and increasing inflammation.
Atopic dermatitis – More commonly referred to as eczema, this is a chronic condition that
affects both children and adults. Multiple factors such as defects in epidermal junctions,
reduced innate immunity in the skin, and genetics appear to contribute to the development of
this condition. Filaggrin is a protein located within the stratum corneum and functions to link
keratin intermediate filaments and create an impenetrable outer layer. A defect in filaggrin will
lead to a defective barrier function and increased water loss from the skin, which leads to
characteristic symptoms of atopic dermatitis. In young patients, atopic dermatitis is commonly
on extensor surfaces and cheeks. It then involves flexural areas in older patients. The hallmark
symptom is itching, and environmental factors can often trigger atopic dermatitis. A vicious
itch-scratch cycle can then ensue, leading to lichenification of the skin. 

Psoriasis – Chronic plaque psoriasis is the most common subtype of psoriasis and involves well-
demarcated, erythematous plaques with an overlying silvery scale. Lesions are pruritic in about
50% of patients. The lesions are typically located on extensor surfaces and tend to have a
symmetric distribution. The pathophysiology involves the hyperproliferation of keratinocytes
within the epidermis and immune system dysfunction.

Cellulitis – Cellulitis is an infection of the deep dermis and subcutaneous fat that presents with
areas of erythema, edema, and warmth. It most often results from Streptococcus pyogenes and
less often Staphylococcus aureus due to skin barrier disruption, and patients with non-purulent
cellulitis should receive empiric therapy for these organisms. Cellulitis with purulent drainage
should undergo incision and drainage before antibiotic treatment.

Cancer

Squamous cell carcinoma is a malignant tumor originating from epidermal keratinocytes that
commonly arise in areas of sun exposure. In darker individuals, lesions can occur unrelated to
sun exposure. The appearance can vary but generally present as erythematous papules,
plaques, or nodules that may either ulcerate or become hyperkeratotic. The diagnosis requires
a biopsy for pathologic confirmation. 

Basal cell carcinoma is the most common skin cancer and is a locally invasive cancer that arises
from the basal layer of the epidermis. Ultraviolet radiation is the most significant risk factor that
causes mutations in several tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes. The characteristic
appearance is a pink, pearly papule with telangiectasia, and a biopsy is necessary to confirm the
diagnosis.

Melanoma is a serious form of skin cancer due to its potential to metastasize quickly and can
be divided into four subtypes—superficial spreading, nodular, lentigo maligna, and acral
lentiginous. They arise as a superficial tumor confined to the epidermis but can undergo a
vertical growth phase, resulting in increased tumor thickness. Thickness is measured by
Breslow's depth, which is a measurement starting from the granular cell layer of the epidermis
and is the most important prognostic factor. Melanomas can be detected clinically using the
ABCDE criteria (asymmetry, border irregularity, color variation, diameter >6mm, and evolution
over time).

Burns—Burns result from excessive heat, radiation, or chemical exposure, and grading the
severity of the burn is by the depth and area of skin involvement. Burns are treated as
emergencies, as severe burns can lead to dehydration, sepsis, and death.

Care

 Wash up. Bathe in warm—not hot—water; use mild cleansers that don’t irritate; and
wash
gently—don’t scrub.

 Block sun damage. Avoid intense sun exposure, use sunscreen, and wear protective
clothing.

 Don’t use tanning beds or sunlamps. They emit the same harmful UV radiation as the
sun.

 Avoid dry skin. Drink plenty of water, and use gentle moisturizers, lotions, or creams.

 Reduce stress. Stress can harm your skin and other body systems.

 Get enough sleep. Experts recommend about 9 hours a night for teens and 7-8 hours for
adults.

 Speak up. Talk to your doctor if you notice any odd changes to your skin, like a rash or
mole that changes size or color.

Reproductive System

The reproductive system is a collection of organs and a network of hormone production

in men and women that enable a man to impregnate a woman who gives birth to a child.
During conception, a sperm cell from the man fuses with an egg cell in the woman, creating a
fertilized egg (embryo) that implants and grows in the uterus during pregnancy.

Functions

The female reproductive system is designed to:

 Produce the eggs necessary for reproduction, called the ova (ovum is singular for one
egg) or acolytes
 Incubate and nourish a fertilized egg until it is fully developed

 Produce female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle

The male reproductive system performs the following functions:

 Produces, maintains and transports sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective
fluid (semen)

 Discharges sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex

 Produces and secretes male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male
reproductive system

Anatomy

The female reproductive organs include:

 Ovaries — The ovaries are two small, oval-shaped glands located on either side of the
uterus. They are home to the female sex cells, called eggs, and they also produce
estrogen, the female sex hormone.

 Fallopian tubes — The fallopian tubes are narrow tunnels for a fertilized egg to make its
way down to the uterus. Damage or blockage to the fallopian tubes — called tubal
disease — can sometimes cause fertility problems. Learn more about common fertility
problems.

 Uterus — The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ located in a woman’s lower
abdomen, between the bladder and the rectum. It is also called the “womb” and holds
the fetus during pregnancy. Each month, the uterus develops a lining (the
endometrium) that is rich in nutrients. The reproductive purpose of this lining is to
provide nourishment for a developing fetus. Uterine abnormalities, such as fibroids
or endometriosis, may cause infertility by interfering with egg fertilization or embryo
implantation and development.

 Cervix — The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus, located between the
bladder and rectum. It forms a canal that opens to the vagina. Often called the neck or
entrance to the womb, the cervix lets menstrual blood out and semen into the uterus.
Growths in the cervix called polyps can sometimes affect the fertilization or embryo
growth process.

 Vagina — The vagina, also known as the birth canal, joins the cervix (the lower part of
uterus) to the outside of the body.
 Vulva — This is the external portion of the female genital organs.

Male reproductive organs

 Penis — The penis is made up of two parts, the shaft and the head. The urethral opening
at the tip of the penis delivers sperm into the vagina during sexual intercourse.

 Scrotum — The scrotum is the sac-like organ hanging behind and below the penis. It
contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels.

 Testicles (testes) — The testes (oval organs that lie in the scrotum) are the primary male
reproductive organ and are responsible for testosterone and sperm production.

 Epididymis — The epididymis is a C-shaped tube that rests on the backside of each
testicle. It transports and stores sperm cells that are produced in the testes. The
epididymis also brings the sperm to maturity, since the sperm emerging from the testes
are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force
the sperm into the vas deferens.

 Ductus (vas) deferens — The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports
mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm outside of the body,
in preparation for ejaculation.

 Ejaculatory ducts — These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.

 Urethra — The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the
body. In males, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen when the man
reaches sexual climax. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked
from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at climax.

Diseases

Endometriosis External

Endometriosis is a problem affecting a woman’s uterus—the place where a baby grows when a
woman is pregnant. Endometriosis is when the kind of tissue that normally lines the uterus
grows somewhere else. It can grow on the ovaries, behind the uterus, on the bowels, or on the
bladder. Rarely, it grows in other parts of the body.
This “misplaced” tissue can cause pain, infertility, and very heavy periods. The pain is usually in
the abdomen, lower back, or pelvic areas. Some women have no symptoms at all, and having
trouble getting pregnant may be the first sign they have endometriosis.

Uterine Fibroids External 

Uterine fibroids are the most common noncancerous tumors in women of childbearing age.
Fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow in and around the wall of the
uterus, or womb. The cause of fibroids is unknown. Risk factors include being African-American
or being overweight. The symptoms of fibroids include

 Heavy or painful periods or bleeding between periods.

 Feeling “full” in the lower abdomen.

 Urinating often.

 Pain during sex.

 Lower back pain.

 Reproductive problems, such as infertility, multiple miscarriages, or early labor.

But some women will have no symptoms. That is why it is important to see your health care
provider for routine exams.

Gynecologic Cancer

CDC provides information and educational materials for women and health care providers to
raise awareness about the five main gynecologic cancers. Gynecologic cancer is any cancer that
starts in a woman’s reproductive organs. Gynecologic cancers begin in different places within a
woman’s pelvis, which is the area below the stomach and in between the hip bones.

 Cervical cancer begins in the cervix, which is the lower, narrow end of the uterus.

 Ovarian cancer begins in the ovaries, which are located on each side of the uterus.

 Uterine cancer begins in the uterus, the pear-shaped organ in a woman’s pelvis where
the baby grows when a woman is pregnant.

 Vaginal cancer begins in the vagina, which is the hollow, tube-like channel between the
bottom of the uterus and the outside of the body.

 Vulvar cancer begins in the vulva, the outer part of the female genital organs.
HIV/AIDS

HIV and Breastfeeding

HIV can be spread through breast milk, so mothers in the US who have HIV should not breast-
feed their babies.

HIV is the human immunodeficiency virus. HIV affects specific cells of the immune system
(called CD4 cells). Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off
infection anymore. The human body cannot get rid of HIV—that means once a person has HIV,
he or she has it for life. There is no cure at this time, but with proper medical care, the virus can
be controlled. HIV is the virus that can lead to acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS.
AIDS is the late stage of HIV infection, when a person’s immune system is severely damaged.

HIV in Women
Women who are infected with HIV typically get it by having sex with a man who is infected or
by sharing needles with an infected person. Women of minority races/ethnicities are especially
affected, and black or African American women are the most affected group.

Pregnant Women
All pregnant women should know their HIV status. Pregnant women who are HIV-positive can
work with their health care providers to ensure their babies do not contract HIV during
pregnancy, delivery, or after delivery (through breast milk). It is possible for a mother to have
HIV and not spread it to her baby, especially if she knows about her HIV status early and works
with her health care provider to reduce the risk.
Learn more from CDC’s Act Against AIDS campaign including how HIV is spread, and how to
prevent HIV.

Interstitial Cystitis

Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a chronic bladder condition resulting in recurring discomfort or pain in
the bladder or surrounding pelvic region. People with IC usually have inflamed or irritated
bladder walls that can cause scarring and stiffening of the bladder. IC can affect anyone;
however, it is more common in women than men. Some people have some or none of the
following symptoms:

 Abdominal or pelvic mild discomfort.

 Frequent urination.

 A feeling of urgency to urinate.

 Feeling of abdominal or pelvic pressure.

 Tenderness.

 Intense pain in the bladder or pelvic region.

 Severe lower abdominal pain that intensifies as the urinary bladder fills or empties.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome happens when a woman’s ovaries or adrenal glands produce more
male hormones than normal. One result is that cysts (fluid-filled sacs) develop on the ovaries.
Women who are obese are more likely to have PCOS. Women with PCOS are at increased risk of
developing diabetes and heart disease. Symptoms may include

 Infertility.

 Pelvic pain.

 Excess hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs, or toes.

 Baldness or thinning hair.

 Acne, oily skin, or dandruff.

 Patches of thickened dark brown or black skin.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

STDs are infections that you can get from having sex with someone who has the infection. The
causes of STDs are bacteria, parasites, and viruses. There are more than 20 types of STDs. Read
more about specific STDs from these CDC fact sheets.
Most STDs affect both men and women, but in many cases the health problems they cause can
be more severe for women. If a pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause serious health
problems for the baby.

If you have an STD caused by bacteria or parasites, your health care provider can treat it with
antibiotics or other medicines. If you have an STD caused by a virus, there is no cure, but
antiviral medication can help control symptoms. Sometimes medicines can keep the disease
under control. Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely
eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STDs.
Care

 Eat a balanced diet that is high in fiber and low in fat.

 Drink plenty of water.

 Get regular exercise.

 Maintain a healthy weight.

 Get enough sleep.

 Avoid using tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs.

 Manage stress in healthy ways.

Endocrine System

Endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all
over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying
messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell
your body what to do and when to do it.

Functions

Endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood.

Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the
message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop
producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the
pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called
homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly every
process in your body, including:

 Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).

 Growth and development.

 Emotions and mood.

 Fertility and sexual function.

 Sleep.

 Blood pressure.

Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can
cause health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood
and behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones. Illness,
stress and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.

Anatomy

 Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It
uses information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands,
including the pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many
processes in your body, including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and
sexual function.

 Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes
hormones that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands,
ovaries and testicles. The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions,
including how your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.

 Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s

responsible for your metabolism (how your body uses energy).

 Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the
level of calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to
work, you need the right amount of calcium.

 Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your
metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.

 Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that
causes you to feel sleepy.

 Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role
in your digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of
sugar in your blood.

 Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and
testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
 Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone.
This hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

Diseases

 Diabetes: This endocrine disorder affects the way your body uses the energy from the
food you eat. Diabetes develops when the pancreas doesn’t make enough of a hormone
called insulin, or insulin doesn’t work as it should.

 Thyroid disorders: Several conditions can affect the function of the thyroid

gland. Hypothyroidism happens when the thyroid doesn’t produce enough
hormones. Hyperthyroidism occurs when it creates too many hormones.

 Hypogonadism (low testosterone): In men, hypogonadism can cause erectile

dysfunction. It can also cause memory and concentration problems, changes in muscle
strength and low sex drive. It happens when the testes do not produce enough of the
sex hormone testosterone.

 Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal imbalance causes women with PCOS to

have irregular periods, abnormal hair growth, excess acne and weight gain. It can lead to
diabetes, increased risk of metabolic syndrome and infertility.

 Osteoporosis: When a woman’s ovaries don’t produce enough estrogen, bones become

brittle and weak. Although it is more common in women, men sometimes
have osteoporosis when testosterone levels get too low. People with an overactive
parathyroid gland (hyperparathyroidism) may also have weak bones.

Care

Our endocrine system needs the same things the rest of your body needs to stay healthy. You
should exercise, eat right and see your healthcare provider regularly.

If you have a family history of diabetes, thyroid disorders or PCOS, talk to your provider.
Managing these conditions can help you avoid a hormone imbalance that can lead to health
problems.