ZLY 106

INTRODUCTION

Integuments and regulatory mechanism

The integument of vertebrates is an enveloping layer (such as the skin, membrane, or cuticle)
which covers or encloses the whole animal body. The Integuments as a system protect against
many threat such as infections, abrasion, chemical assaults, and radiation damage. In humans the
primary organ of the integumentary system is the skin. In addition to the skin being the primary
organ of the integumentary system several other glands and different sensory unit like the
somatosensory receptors is also a part of this organ system. The integumentary system is composed
of the skin and its appendages, subcutaneous tissue, deep fascia, mucocutaneous junctions and
breast (Figure 1)

Image source: Wikipedia, informed Health.org and Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc

Figure 1: The Integumentary System.

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MAMMALIAN SKIN AND FUNCTION

The skin is one of the body’s largest organs. It is the soft, flexible, outer tissue which covers the
vertebrate’s body. It is an organ of the integumentary system that is made up of multiple layers of
ectodermal tissues.

Image source: dreamstime.com // Wikipedia

Figure 2: A cross section of the mammalian skin and its underlying structures

The skin is composed of three major layers:

- The epidermis
- The dermis/corium
- The hypodermis.
The epidermis and the dermis interlock through dermal papillae (fingerlike projections) that
consists of sensitive vascular dermis projecting into the epidermis.

The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin that provides a water proof barrier and creates the
skin colour. It keeps pathogens out and keeps water in. it is composed of layers of squamous cells
(scale-like) that describe their flat and squashed appearance). It is the interface between the
individual and the environment. Various tough proteins impregnate the outermost layers of the
epidermis and their cells are without nuclei. The primary function of the epidermis is defensive
and it is cornified to resist abrasion. Lipids and organic salts coat the surface of the skin (acid
mantle). The acid mantle has antifungal and antibacterial properties. There is an electronegative
(electron-attracting) layer deep in the epidermis, which is a foreign deterrent to foreign
organic/ionic agents. Hair characteristic threadlike outgrowths of the epidermis form an animal’s
coat or pelage.

The epidermis forms a protective barrier over the body’s surface. It contains no blood vessels. The
cells in the deepest layers of the epidermis are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries
extending to the upper layers of the dermis.

The dermis is beneath the epidermis and it contains tough connective tissues, hair follicles sweat
glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic and blood vessels. The dermis nourishes the
epidermis and its major role is to regulate body temperature and blood pressure. There are also
sensory nerve endings that make the individual to sensitive to touch, heat, cold and pain. The blood
vessels in the dermis provide nutrient and remove wastes from its own cell and those of the
epidermis.

The hypodermis is the deeper subcutaneous tissue that is made of fat and connective tissues. The
hypoderm layer of the skin is the thickest layer of the skin and it is also known as the deepest
subcutaneous tissue made of fat and connective tissue. The hypoderm also consists of cells like
fibroblast, fat cells, connective tissue, large nerves and blood vessels as well as macrophages. The
thickness of the hypoderm differs in different part of the body and they are significant to both male
and females. In males the hypoderm is much thicker in the shoulder and abdomen in men while in
females it is thicker in the hips and thighs. The purpose of hypoderm is to attach the skin to
underlying bones and muscles as well as supplying the other layers of skin with blood vessels and
nerves. The hypoderm also consists of loose connective tissues and elastin protein. Some of it
functions are; The amount of fat present in the hypoderm is very high and it help in energy storage,
the thick layer of the hypoderm protect it from external agents and also act as insulator, protecting
against cold, it provides attachment between the epidermis and dermis to the internal organs in the
body, and leptin which is also known as appetite regulating hormones is synthesized by fat cells
in the hypodermis layer.
Figure 3: Further characterization of the layers of the vertical section of the human skin

The epidermis is comprised of three layers:

a) The outermost cornified layer or stratum corneum.

b) The middle granular layer or stratum granulosum/ pigment layer
c) The innermost Malpighian layer or stratum Malpighi/ stratum germinativum (growing
layer)

The cornified (outermost or surface) layer is comprised of dead cells impregnated with keratin
(fibrous structural protein/scleroprotein). Hairs and nails are made up of keratin and it contains a
lot of sulphur. This uttermost layer is a high, flexible and water-proof layer due to the keratin. The
layer is specially developed in the parts that are exposed to constant friction such as in the palm
and soles of the feet. There is constant wearing off of the cells of the cornified layer and
replacement or substitution by cells from the underneath layer.

The granular layer is comprised of living cells produced from and pushed upwards from the
Malpighian layer and replaces the cells of the cornified layer. As the older cells move up towards
the cornified layer, they become flattened, accumulate keratin and finally die. The Malphigian
layer which doubles as stratum germinativum consists of stratum spinosum and stratum basale.

The Malpighian layer consists of active cells that vigorously divide to generate new epidermal
cells. They provide cells for the granular and cornified layers. The cells of this layer contain
pigment melanin that imparts colour to the skin; it also defends the skin from ultraviolet rays’
penetration. This layer also includes protein keratin that imparts stiffness and flexibility to the skin.
There is folding of the layer at intervals, some of this sink into the dermis to provide space for hair
follicles and sebaceous glands. Oxygen and nutrients are provided to the actively dividing cells of
this layer by diffusion from capillary blood which is in abundance in the dermis.

Functions of the Epidermis

1. The keratin produced is tough and insoluble in water, the keratinized stratum corneum protect
against mechanical injuries, fungal and bacterial attack and loss of body moisture.
2. The presence of melanin in the epidermis protect the dermis and other internal organs against
exposure to ultraviolet rays and it damaging effects
3. The epidermis is also known for the synthesis of the vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet ray
from the sunlight.
4. Langerhans cells which are present in the epidermis are also part of the immune system and protect
against foreign antigens.
5. The sensation caused in the skin are made possible by the sensory cells and receptors in the
epidermis.

The dermis is the layer of connective tissue after the epidermis. It comprises of blood capillaries,
hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands and sensory nerve endings.

Blood Capillaries

The blood capillaries supply nutrients and oxygen for tissue respiration. They remove wastes in
the dermis capillary network and body temperature is being regulated by the capillary loops in the
dermis which are close to the surface.

Hair follicles

They are small, pocket-like holes or pits in which the hairs lie. The division of the Malpighian
cells at the base of the pit forms the hair. As the hair is formed, the produced cells become
keratinized. When the hair is touched, the nerve endings at the base of the follicles respond. Also
attached to the follicle, is a hair erector muscle. The contraction of the erector muscle pulls the hair
to erect position. In mammals that have fur, the contraction of the erector muscles causes the entire
fur to bristle. The erector muscles also contract when the skin feels cold, this causes the hair to
stand, thereby trapping an increased layer of air. This is the reason for the appearance of goose
pimples.

Sweat/Sudoriferous glands

They are coiled tubes extending as ducts in the dermis and open to the surface as sweat pores. Each
gland absorbs water from blood capillaries network that enclosed them. The water contains little
quantities of mineral salts and urea known as sweat. The sweat evaporates when it reaches the
sweat pores on the surface of the skin, therefore cools the body. Thus, the skin acts as an excretory
organ.
Sebaceous glands

They secrete sebum (oil) into the hair follicles. The sebum keeps the hair and epidermis supple
and water proof and also keeps out microorganisms.

Sensory nerve endings

The skin is a sense organ. It contains sensory receptors scattered throughout the epidermis and the
dermis. The sensory cells receive stimuli from the outside surroundings and send impulses to
appropriate parts of the body for interpretation and action. The receptors are pressure, touch, pain
and thermo (heat and cold) receptors.

The subcutaneous/fatty layer/adipose tissue

This is found beneath the dermis. It comprises large numbers of fat cells, which acts as food reserve
for the body. In some aquatic mammals, the tissue acts as an insulating layer which prevents heat
loss from the body.

The functions of the dermis

1. The blood vessels present in the dermis provide nourishment and also help in the process of waste
removal from its cells and as well as from the base of the epidermis.
2. The dermis also helps provide support to the epidermis.
3. Dermis helps in thermoregulation as sweat glands promote evaporation, resulting in loss of
excessive body heat.
In summary, the functions of the skin include;
i. Protects the body against trauma.
ii. Regulates body temperature.
iii. Maintains water and electrolyte balance.
iv. Senses painful and pleasant stimuli.
v. Participates in vitamin D synthesis.
vi. Keeps vital chemicals and nutrients in the body.
vii. Provides a barrier against dangerous substances from entering the body.
viii. Provides a shield from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiations emitted by the sun.
ix. Its color, texture and folds help mark people as individual.
HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain steady internal, physical and chemical
conditions. Such conditions or variables include temperature, water level, sugar level, pH of the
blood, ionic concentrations and CO2 level. Changes in the internal environment are often detected
and adjusted by control mechanisms.

Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback loops that counteract changes of various
properties from their target values or set points. Positive feedback loops also move the system
away from its starting state. For the variable to be regulated, three interdependent components are
involved in all homoeostatic control mechanisms: a receptor, a control center and an effector.

A receptor is also known as the sensor/sensory detector that monitors a physiological value and
detects a change in the environment. The value is reported to the control center. The control center
responds to the signal and compares the values to the range. If it deviates too much from the normal
range, the control center activates an effector. An effector causes a change to reverse the situation
and returns the value to the normal range. Muscles and glands are effectors.

Waste products of the body metabolism tend to pollute the mammalian blood or body fluid. They
would interfere with the normal functioning of the body or act as poisons or even kill the organism
if they are allowed to accumulate.

Organs involved in Homeostasis

For homeostatic balance in the body, the main organs and glands involved are the lungs, kidneys,
liver, skin and endocrine glands (hormones).

i. The brain carries out the overall control over the homeostatic processes.
ii. The lungs control the levels of oxygen intake and carbon (iv) oxide output.
iii. The kidneys regulate the water and mineral salts concentration
iv. The skin regulates body temperature
v. The liver and pancreas regulate blood glucose level.

The control of blood sugar

The following homeostatic mechanisms make the liver to control blood glucose level and keep it
within normal limits (Figure 4)
a. Hormone insulin is secreted by the pancreas. It stimulates the liver to convert any excess
glucose in the blood to insoluble glycogen which is stored in the liver. So the blood sugar
returns to normal.
b. Glucagon hormone is also produced by the pancreas. It makes the liver to convert glycogen
into glucose and release it into the blood when blood sugar is low or below the normal level
or after a lot of exercise or fasting. Thus returning the blood sugar level to normal.
c. The glucose level in the blood sensitizes the hypothalamus if the glycogen level in the liver
is depleted. Thus, the hypothalamus stimulates the production of various hormones and
some of them cause the liver to convert amino acids and glycerol (stored in the liver) to
glucose.

Figure 4: Controlling body sugar

Control of temperature.

All humans and many animals have a hypothalamus, found in the middle of the brain.
Sweat gets a bad reputation, even though it plays an important role in cooling down our bodies
when we get too hot. Let’s think about homeostasis in terms of body temperature. Most animals
maintain, or hold, their temperature at a certain level. For humans, this is about 98.6°F (37°C).
When your hypothalamus senses that you’re too hot, it sends signals to your sweat glands to make
you sweat and cool you off. When the hypothalamus senses that you’re too cold, it sends signals
to your muscles that make your shiver and create warmth. This is called maintaining homeostasis.
The hypothalamus also maintains homeostasis in lots of other ways, such as by controlling your
blood pressure.

Figure 5: The hypothalamus and temperature control.

Image source: Asu-ask a biologist, http // askabiologist.asu.edu/bird-hypothalamus

The temperature in your body, like the temperature in your home, is a balance between different
cooling and heating systems. The hypothalamus also controls many of your hormones. It does this
by being a sort of gatekeeper for other glands that release hormones. When your hypothalamus
senses a change in your body, it will tell the right gland how to help correct that change. For
example, when you have too much homework and are stressed out, the hypothalamus will send a
signal to your adrenal glands and they will release hormones that can help your body deal with the
stress. For the stress response, this will result in the release of sugars, which will help to power
you through your homework. The hypothalamus is also involved in the release of many other
hormones that control everything from your blood pressure to how much you grow when you’re
young. This makes the hypothalamus the main link between the brain and your hormonal, or
endocrine, system.

OSMOREGULATION

Osmoregulation is a physiological process that involves maintaining a fixed concentration of cells

membrane, impermeable molecules and ions in the fluid that surround cells. It involves multiple
body to brain signaling mechanisms which tells the status of total fluid in the body and the
percentage distributed around the body system, the visceral neuraxis which receive and integrates
body fluid related input and reflex (autonomic and endocrine) as well as behavioral (thirst and
sodium appetite related behaviors) mechanism that are controlled and activated by the visceral
neuraxis. As water is essential to life so does osmoregulation is vital to health and wellbeing of
humans and other animals.