CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW: READING COMPREHENSION IN THE

INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL CONTEXTS

‘Teachers have to learn how to teach reading comprehension strategies and

DATA PRESENTATION,
procedures. ANALYSIS
Teachers can do this AND
by becoming RESULTS
more aware of, and being
prepared on the procedures and processes of good comprehension of text.
Teachers need to learn how to interact with students during the reading of a text to
teach them reading comprehension strategies at the right time and right place’
(National Reading Panel - NRP, 2000:4-94)

2.1 Introduction

In Chapter 1, I gave a short overview of reading comprehension to conceptualise

my inquiry. In Chapter 2, I will offer a literature review, by providing a summary of
empirical studies related to aspects of the teaching of reading comprehension in the
international and South African contexts. I will comment on some of the current
debates concerning the teaching of reading comprehension. Although a formidable
body of knowledge exists on concepts like models of teaching reading
comprehension, metacognitive and cognitive strategies when using reading
comprehension strategies, I will identify aspects of reading comprehension relevant
to my study and identify gaps in the literature. Reading strategies can be useful to
help learners become proficient readers. Decoding is also one of the most important
foundational skills. Learners should be able to recognise the types of relationship
between written and spoken words. If teachers can be aware of this relationship,
they will teach learners during reading activities. Usually, where there is a
comprehension problem, at the root of that difficulty is a decoding problem. In
essence, teaching learners proven decoding strategies such as teaching them
sound and letters provides them with a strong foundation to ensure reading
success. Therefore, if children are still struggling with readings skills in the third
grade, odds are, they will be struggling the rest of their lives (Wren, 2001:12).

In the next sections, I will thus give a brief summary of empirical studies done
internationally and nationally in order to highlight their importance to the teaching of

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reading comprehension. I will commence with an explanation of reading acquisition
as a process, as reading comprehension cannot take place without it. Thereafter, I
will present a discussion of studies on this topic in the international context. This
study does not attempt to measure learner performance, but investigates the
teaching of reading comprehension to Grade 3 Tshivenda-speaking learners in
order to explore how teachers teach reading comprehension in their classrooms.

In this chapter, some older sources are referenced to indicate the long road that has
already been travelled to improve reading comprehension in learners. The United
States, for example, is the one country in the world where reading research has
been done for many years. Additionally, for a variety of historical, political and
theoretical reasons, American‟s views of comprehension of text have changed. Text
is no longer regarded as a fixed object that the reader is supposed to depend on as
closely as possible as he or she reads. Instead, the text is viewed as a blueprint for
meaning. The reason being that according to their view no text is ever fully explicit,
no text ever specifies all the relationships among events; this means that readers
play a much more active and constructive role in their own comprehension
(Pearson, 1985:726). An active and constructive model of comprehension has
enormous implications for the role of the classroom teacher in promoting
comprehension. This is because a teacher can no longer regard the text as the
ultimate criterion for defining what comprehension is, but must view the text along
with learners‟ prior knowledge, learners‟ strategies, the task or task given to
learners and the classroom environment (Pearson, 1985:726).

2.2 The reading acquisition process

There are five stages of how reading is acquired, namely pre reader, emergent
reader, early reader, developing reader, early fluent reader and independent reader
(DOE, 2008:10-11):
 During the pre reader stage, the learner is expected to hold the book and
turns pages correctly, recognise the beginning and the end of the page, listen
and respond to stories, interpret the pictures, pretend to read loudly and
silently, know some letters and show interest in print and point at them
whenever they see signs and labels, and create stories out of pictures;

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 The emergent readers uses pictures to tell stories, know some sounds and
some letters that could make a sound, are aware that reading strategies from
left to right, like to join someone who is reading, recognise some words, and
read some familiar books;
 The early fluent reader knows some letter sounds and names, recognises
some common words, can retell a story, uses pictures to make meaning of
the written text, reads alouds when reading to self, reads word for word
loudly, reads early readers and picture books with pattern, repetition and
rhyme;
 The developing reader uses pictures to make reading, uses knowledge of
sentence structure, uses phonics to decode words, combines words into
phrases, retells the beginning, the middle and the end of the story, can also
give some details of the story, use punctuation marks, reads silently, corrects
himself/herself, reads books with large prints.
 During the fluent reader stage, learners move from learning to read, to
reading to learn. In this stage, the reader builds up a substantial background
of knowledge of spelling. The learner recognises most familiar words on
sight, reads fluently at least 60 words per minute, use punctuation to
enhance comprehension, stops at all full stops, and begins to understand
implied meaning.
 Learners in the independent reader stage read fluently and read more
advanced books. They read and understand the implied meaning of the text.

2.3 Comprehension in the international context

There are various international studies conducted on reading comprehension

indicating that there can be no doubt that learners‟ reading comprehension
performance has been a concern to teachers. In America, more than ever before,
they are devoting much intellectual and emotional energy to helping learners to read
and understand the texts in their schools (Pearson, 1985: 724).

For a variety of historical, political and theoretical reasons, Americans‟ views of

comprehension of text have changed. Text is no longer regarded as a fixed object
that the reader is supposed to depend on as closely as possible as he or she reads.
Instead, the text is viewed as a blueprint for meaning. The reason being that

28
according to their view no text is ever fully explicit, no text ever specifies all the
relationships among events. This means that readers play a much more active and
constructive role in their own comprehension (Pearson, 1985:726).

An active and constructive model of comprehension has enormous implications for

the role of the classroom teacher in promoting comprehension. This is because a
teacher can no longer regard the text as the ultimate criterion for defining what
comprehension is, but must view the text along with learners‟ prior knowledge,
learners‟ strategies, the task or task given to learners and the classroom
environment (Pearson, 1985:726).

Durkin (1979) states that the meaning of the text does not reside in the words on a
page, but is constructed in the mind of the reader supports this view. That is why
proficient readers actively use a set of comprehension strategies to help construct
meaning as they read, while struggling readers are less aware and have less
control over their comprehension process when reading. As a result, a number of
strategies to increase reading comprehension were recommended by the National
Reading Panel in America (NRP, 2000; Snow, 2002; Noles & Dole, 2004).In this
study, I shall review these strategies as they were research-based, for example,
monitoring, graphic and semantic organisers, questioning, question answering, and
question generating (NRP, 2000).

Durkin (1978) did a related study in America in fourth-grade classrooms through

observations. One of the goals of this study was to determine when and how often
teachers are engaged in direct, explicit instruction for comprehension skills, that is,
what do teachers tell learners about how they should perform the various
comprehension tasks assigned on the myriad of worksheets and workbook pages.

The study revealed that very little time is spent in the classrooms on explicit reading
comprehension instruction. In the seventy-five hours of reading that Durkin
observed that year, teachers devoted less than 1% of the time to teaching learners
how to comprehend and learn new information from reading (Durkin, 1978). It was
discovered that teachers only monitored learners‟ comprehension by asking
questions after they had finished reading a text instead of teaching specific
strategies to help learners develop comprehension skills (Swanson & De La Paz,

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1998). Much of the time devoted to reading instruction went into giving and
checking written assignments or filling in workbook and ditto sheets, with the
assumption that readers would simply discover the inherent meaning in printed texts
and then transmit this knowledge.

Durkin (1981) then conducted a similar analysis of manuals to assist the teacher
with basal readers, looking for instances of comprehension instruction, which the
readers fell short of what Durkin calls “substantive instruction” for the teachers.
Durkin (1981:515-544) further stated that “there was rarely much in the way of
modelling, guided practice, or substantive feedback suggested in their classroom
observation.” It seemed as if there was little guidance provided for the teachers on
how to teach reading comprehension.

Armbruster et al., (2003:53) provide guidelines on how to teach reading

comprehension strategies. They state that the reading comprehension lesson
should take various steps. These include direct explanation, where the teacher
explains to learners why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the
strategy, and how to determine a strategy that is relevant to the understanding of
the text. Modelling is where the teacher models, or demonstrates how to apply the
strategy, usually by thinking aloud while reading the text that the learners are using.
Guided practice is where the teacher guides and assists learners as they learn how
and when to apply the strategy. Application is where the teacher engages learners
in discussion about how they are applying the strategy and provide the necessary
corrective feedback.

To support these steps, the question may arise as to how teachers can embed all
the strategies. Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998), Shanahan, Callison, Carriere, Duke,
Pearson, Schatschneider and Torgeson (2010), and Snowball (2005) emphasise
that teachers should explain how strategies can help learners learn from the text as
opposed to having them memorise the strategies. In addition, they should learn how
to use the strategies effectively. This implies that teachers must first tell learners
why and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use and how to apply
them before starting to read the text. Learners need to be taught explicitly the use of
comprehension skills when they read (Pressley, Wharton-McDonald, Mistretta-
Hampson & Echevaria, 1998; Pressley, 2000). It is not enough that teachers should

30
ask questions and supervise the completion of exercises; they need to explain to
learners how expert readers make sense of the text. Teachers have to teach
learners the skills that could help them to understand the texts and they need to
learn how, when and where to use these skills (Pearson, Roehler, Dole & Duffy,
1992).

Tregenza and Lewis (2008) conducted a yearlong classroom observations action

research project. The study was on teaching reading explicitly, and on how to use
and reflect on a range of active comprehension strategies. During their classroom
observations, the study showed the following: reading comprehension strategies
can be taught and by doing, to help and build the learner‟s reading comprehension.
Learners reusing strategies until they become familiar may be helpful in developing
fluency and autonomy in using such strategies. The explicit teaching of reading
comprehension strategies into shared and guided reading sessions should be part
of the whole-school approach to learning to read (Tregenza & Lewis, 2008).

Pressley et al., (1998) did another study related to my research project. The study
examined reading instruction in 10 fourth-grade and fifth-grade classrooms. The
study revealed that there was little comprehension instruction and an emphasis on
assessing comprehension, but not on the teaching of reading comprehension
strategies. Taylor, Peterson, Pearson and Rodriguez (2000) had similar findings
when they observed literacy instruction in 88 classrooms with Grades 1 to 4.
Pearson and Duke (2002) assert that many primary-grade teachers have not
emphasised comprehension instruction in their curriculum. In the same vein, during
their classroom observations, the RAND Reading Study Group (2002) executed in
America, revealed little evidence of comprehension instruction in the primary
grades.

In their study of the implementation and effects of explicit reading comprehension

instruction in fifth-grade classrooms, Andreassen and Braten (2010:520) found that
elementary school teachers in America, as well as in Europe, still seem to be
unsure about how to teach reading comprehension. Consequently, these teachers
often test rather than teach comprehension by just concentrating on asking learners
questions about text content after reading. In the United States, according to the
research review in comprehension instruction conducted by Butler et al.(2010), one

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learner in four lacks basic grade-level reading skills in public schools‟ eighth grades.
In addition, these learners do not understand grade-appropriate materials (Butler et
al., 2010).

Evidence from the 1996 National English Literacy Survey in Australia indicated that
the proportion of year three and five learners in their schools that did not meet the
minimum performance standards of reading required for effective participation in
further schooling was estimated to be as high as 27% at year three and 29% at year
five (Masters & Forster, 1997). In 2003, the percentages of Australian learners not
achieving the minimum national benchmarks for reading were 8% (year three) and
11% (year five and seven). In Australia, according to Lyon (2003), there is evidence
from the National Center for Educational Statistics that 38% of fourth graders (nine
year olds) nationally cannot read at a basic level, and cannot read and understand a
short paragraph similar to that in a children‟s storybook. A similar situation exists in
South Africa, as reported by the PIRLS (2006) report.

In Canada, according to results from yearly provincial assessments conducted by

the Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO), the educational system
has not prepared all learners for a life in a literacy-rich society. For instance, the
results from the May 2002 tests show that 50% of the provinces‟ Grade 3 learners
scored below grade-level expectancy in reading (Hamilton Wentworth District
School Board Results, 2004). This relates to the South African context as revealed
by the PIRLS (2006) report. In addition, according to Jamieson (2009), in Canada
many student teachers complete their university teacher preparation programmes
without learning the basic scientific principles behind the development of reading
skills and effective reading instruction. As a result, the substantial body of
knowledge on how to teach children to read, how to identify children who have
failed to acquire specific reading skills, and how to intervene effectively is not being
applied in many Canadian classrooms (Jamieson, 2009:6).

Another study was done regarding reading comprehension in Argentina with

learners in the last year of the primary grade. Learners took part in the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2000). The results revealed that
learner performance was relatively at a very low level. Studies showed that 70% of
the individuals achieved under the international average and that almost 54% of the

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students who were assessed had only mastered the most general aspects of
reading competence.

However, there are countries that are doing very well in reading literacy in Grade 3
and across all grades. Finland scrapped its old education system, which placed
learners into either vocational or academic tracks at the end of the fourth grade and
developed a system of free public education from Grade 1 to Grade 9.In 2003,
Finland ranked first among 40 industrialised nations in reading literacy. According to
PISA (2006), Finland also boasts the smallest gap between its best and weakest
learners, and the second smallest difference amongst individual schools‟
performance. In order to become a teacher across all grades, the requirement was
at least a Master‟s degree. This means that there is emphasis on qualifications for
teachers in Finland. Another important aspect in Finland‟s education system, which
Moore (2003) highlighted, was that classes were small, averaging 20 to 25 learners.
This result is an indication that there is a need for urgent attention in teaching
reading comprehension.

Singapore also participated in the PIRLS study of 2001 for the purpose of
international comparison of reading skills. The results ranked Singapore 15th out of
45 countries. Five years later, in 2006, Singapore once more participated in the
PIRLS study. The results then ranked Singapore as one of the three top performing
countries out of 45 countries. Factors that contributed to the positive results include
aspects such as high percentage of learners who had pre-school education, the
increasing proportion of students who used English at home, well-resourced
schools, an English language syllabus with strong emphasis on language use, a
nationwide professional development oriented towards teaching within the syllabus
(Singapore Government, 2007). Based on the above results from PIRLS, Wong
(2006; 2007) conducted a study in thirteen Grade 3 classrooms in Singapore. The
aim of the study was to find out more about the teaching of reading. Pedagogical
practices in the teaching of reading lessons in the third grade were examined,
focusing on what was happening in reading lessons that might account for
Singapore‟s positive results.

The study by Wong (2006; 2007) revealed that teachers used an Initiation-
Response Evaluation (IRE) pattern for classroom interactions. The IRE pattern is a

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teacher-led, three-part sequence that begins with the teacher asking a learner a
question or introducing a topic to find out whether the learner knows the answer
(Hall & Walsh, 2002). In the IRE pattern the learner‟s answer is evaluated by the
teacher, who makes a brief reply such as „good‟ or „no, that is not right‟ (Hall &
Walsh, 2002). According to Wong (2006), there was an emphasis on answering
worksheet questions, with little if any meaningful, authentic talk. Concerning
comprehension, Wong (2006) found that absent from teacher led lessons was an in-
depth discussion of audience, authorship, or meaning beyond the most basic level.
Evidently, the picture revealed by the studies conducted in different countries
indicates that there can be no doubt that learners‟ reading comprehension
performance is a concern.

It is clear that there are different educational situations in different countries

regarding the teaching of reading comprehension. There are countries that are
doing very well in teaching reading comprehension and those that are in similar
situations as in South Africa. In every situation, there are lessons to be learnt. From
the countries with very low score, we gain information. Those that are doing well
can become our model – we can learn from them. We can take the best and adapt it
to our own context to address our problems. In the context of the study, this
information can help teachers to become more informed about the teaching of
reading comprehension. In the next section, I discuss reading comprehension in the
South African context.

2.4 South African policies and the teaching of reading comprehension

I examined a number of empirical studies and reports on reading comprehension

related to primary grades in the South African context. Few studies have focused on
measuring learner performance in reading their mother tongue (L1) and there is little
research on the topic of the teaching of reading comprehension, especially in the
African languages. International and national studies, which focused on systemic
evaluation, have shown that South African learners are below international
standards in both mathematics and literacy. With regard to reading, SACMEQ 11
(2004) found that the overall reading level of Grade 6 learners in South Africa to be
at level 3, which is referred to as basic reading. PIRLS (2006) also showed that
South African Grade 4 and 5 learners performed second below the international

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mean of 500 points at 302 points. Also, the South African Department of
Education‟s systemic evaluation (2007) showed that grade achievement scores for
literacy were 36%, which is an indication that large numbers of South African
learners cannot understand what they are reading.

According to The Sunday Times (2000:1), South African learners were once
referred to as the „dunces of Africa.‟ This was because of the findings of the
comparative study on literacy and numeracy rates of primary school learners that
was conducted in 12 countries in Africa. These results are an indicator of poor
performance by South African learners as compared with their African peers on
both literacy and numeracy measures. Another study related to my study was the
2001 audit undertaken by the South African National Department of Education (The
Star, 2008:7) to assess literacy levels across the nine provinces of the country. The
survey showed that only 38% of Grade 3 learners could read at grade level in their
mother tongue. This implies that reading comprehension is indeed a challenge to
teachers.

In 2002, a school-based report (DoE, 2002) was published on research done on

learner performance in literacy. The research was commissioned by the Western
Cape Education Department. It conducted standardised literacy and numeracy tests
for Grade 3 (DoE, 2002).The study revealed a low level of reading performance
amongst learners.

In their study, Kilfoil and Van der Walt (1997) raised the concern that quite often the
teacher makes no effort to treat the comprehension text as a communication in
which learners can develop the strategies that will enable them to make sense of
comprehension text as communication. According to them, a typical reading
comprehension lesson may follow the following steps:
 The teacher may explain or teach the vocabulary and then read the text
aloud;
 The learners may then read the text silently alone;
 The teachers may go through the set question with the learners who may
respond orally or by imitating and thereafter answers are checked.

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However, Kilfoil and Van der Walt (1997:167) are against this method of reading
and point out that the method has many weaknesses. Examples of these are that
the comprehension passage may not be a text that has been written primarily for its
communicative value, but it might have been written to exemplify a single
grammatical structure, and therefore may not be suitable for effective reading
comprehension. This means that the question can be answered using the exact
words of the passage, whereby the learners bypass any meaningful comprehension
and merely depend on recognition of linguistic and lexical items that are common to
other questions.

According to Cooper (2000), Duke and Pearson (2002), Marzano, Pickering and
Pallack (2001) and Tompkins (2001), the reading comprehension lesson may follow
various steps, namely:
 Explanation, where the teachers explain to learners why the strategy helps
comprehension;
 Modelling, where the teacher models or demonstrate how to apply the
strategy, usually by thinking aloud while reading a text;
 Guided practice, where the teacher guides and assists learners as they learn
how and when to apply the strategy;
 Application, where the teacher helps learners to practise the strategy until
they can apply it independently.

The 2007 PIRLS study relates closely to my topic as Tshivenda- speaking learners
were also included in PIRLS. This study makes an important contribution as it
describes trends and international comparisons for literacy performance. It started
in 2001 and included three countries, which increased to 40 countries in 2006
(PIRLS, 2007).Because of the importance of PIRLS to my study, it is appropriate to
give a synopsis of the PIRLS study. The PIRLS study was a quantitative research
with the aim of describing trends and international comparisons for the following:
 The reading achievement of Grade 4 learners;
 Learners‟ competencies in relation to goals and standards for reading
education;
 The impact of the home environment and how parents foster reading literacy;

36
 The organisation of time and reading materials for learning to read in
schools;
 Curriculum and classroom approaches to reading instruction.

Campbell, Kelly, Mullis and Sainsbury (2001), Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez and
Kennedy (2003), and Mullis, Kennedy, Martin and Sainsbury (2004)state that PIRLS
focuses on three aspects of reading literacy, namely processes of comparison,
purposes of reading and reading behaviours and attitudes. The PIRLS study
revealed that South Africa with its vast resources scored the worst out of 40
countries that took part in the study. Almost 80% of South African primary school
learners did not reach the lowest benchmark. Overall scores place South Africa at
the bottom of the list for reading achievement. South African learners performed
better in informational texts (316 points) than literacy texts (299 points). The study
showed that the relative difference between the two scores was one of the highest
of all countries. Concerning reading comprehension processes, learners achieved a
score of 307 in retrieving and making straightforward inferences; and this placed
South African learners among the poorest performers. This study further indicated
that 86-96% of children who speak an African language did not reach the lowest
benchmark. It is important to note that the low marks were not caused by
inadequate knowledge of English, since the tests were carried out in all 11 official
languages. This might indicate that the problem in South Africa is a reading
problem, not specifically a language problem.

According to Van Staden and Howie (2008), the importance of the PIRLS study is to
establish nationwide empirical data that can be used to inform decisions on
curriculum and language policy. The concern from this international study was that
South African learners cannot read and write, and are unable to execute the tasks
that demonstrate key skills associated with literacy and numeracy. However, many
researchers indicated that the PIRLS study did not give a clear explanation of how
young children are taught to read and comprehend the text and what is needed to
improve the reading literacy of young children in South Africa. According to Long
and Zimmerman (2008), the PIRLS 2006 study only focused on the implementation
of the reading literacy curriculum in the Foundation Phase and not on the teaching
thereof. This implies that there are a high number of learners without basic reading
skills and strategies to cope with academic tasks in schools. In an analysis per

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language the PIRLS study revealed that Tshivenda learners also fell below the
international mean of 560 on reading literacy. The results for learner performance in
the National Systemic Evaluation (NSE) were appalling. The overall result for Grade
3 learners was a score of 54% in the literacy test. The study showed that, with
regards to reading, all provinces scored less than 50%, except KwaZulu-Natal.

In addition, NSE (2010) found that learners performed better in multiple-choice

questions as opposed to free-response questions. According to the study, the
results were an indication that learners struggled to produce their own written
answers. The study identified contributory factors, such as teachers‟ lack of training
in the fundamental theories of child development, learning language acquisition
schema formation and practical methodology involved in teaching reading
successfully, lack of communicative language teaching; little or no personal
experience of reading, lack of the ability to model literacy activities or to create a
print-rich environment that will motivate the learners to value reading; and lack of
textbooks in vernacular languages. In the same vein, Scheepers (2008) confirms
that there is a dearth of both fiction and nonfiction titles published in indigenous
languages and, as a result, learners have limited opportunities to develop
vocabulary in their home language.

Another study related closely to my research project is on the evaluation of Grade 3

learners conducted across the country by the Department of Education (DoE,
2008). It revealed that most of the learners in the primary grades could not read and
that only 36% of Grade 3 learners could read or count. Concerning literacy, the
lowest ranking province was Limpopo, which scored only 29%. Against this
background, the then Minister of Education stated that “we are falling short of our
target of 50% mean performance in the country. In my view, this is just not good
enough. Our learners deserve more and are capable to achieve much more” (DoE,
2008).

The significance this research has for my study is the finding that Limpopo scored
only 29% in literacy. Some of the reasons given for low reading and counting were
associated with language problems as the study regarded it as invalid that English
and Afrikaans learners scored higher than those who learnt in indigenous
languages. In addition, the study of Reeves et al., (2008: xx) revealed that teachers

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were uncertain about how to approach the teaching of reading and writing and what
strategies to use when teaching reading. Most teachers say they have received little
or no specialised practical theory on how to teach reading and writing from the
Limpopo DoE.

According to The Times, “literacy and numeracy test scores are low by African and
global standards” (13 June 2011:8). Recently, ANA (2010) showed that Grade 3
achievement scores for literacy stood at 36%. In the ANA study, Mpumalanga and
Limpopo fall at the bottom on the list (The Times, 29June2011:5). Based on the
results the Minister of Basic Education confirmed that the results were an indication
that there had been an under-emphasis on the development of the basic skills of
reading and that the education sector needed to focus more on its core functions of
quality learning and teaching in schools. This implies that up to now, despite the
intervention strategies, South African learners still cannot read and understand what
they are reading. In the following sections, I shall describe the intervention
strategies which were implemented by the DoE to address reading instruction and
reading comprehension.

It is clear that South African learners‟ level of reading comprehension is very low
and needs urgent attention. It seems to be good to have studies, surveys and
annual national assessments as a country to gauge our learner performances and
to know where we are as a country. There is however, a need for change in the
classroom so that learners can enjoy reading and construct meaning from the text.
Within the context of my study, the findings from the various studies and national
assessment will assist me in recognising the importance and seriousness of my
topic of enquiry.

2.5 The policies and the teaching of reading comprehension

International policies provide insights into what is happening in other countries

regarding the teaching of reading comprehension. In the South African context there
are many policies designed to address reading in the Foundation Phase.

In this section, I elaborate on the relevant South African policy documents as

recommended for the primary grades. With the first South African democratic

39
elections in 1994, various changes in the education system of South Africa came to
the fore. These changes brought about the South African Schools Act of 1996
(DoE,1996), which indicates that all schools should be self-governing. The current
South African curriculum for teaching reading in Grade 3, which was introduced in
2002, is guided by various documents. Two policies were launched, namely the
Language-in-Education policy and the Norms and Standards regarding Language
Policy. According to the Department of Education (DoE, 2002) the Language-in-
Education policy document should be seen as a continuous process. Concerning
the curriculum, the constitution was the main basis of the transformation and
development of the curriculum. The government adopted a multilingual language
policy that recognises11 languages as official, Tshivenda included. The constitution
of South Africa recommended that the home language should be used for teaching
where possible in the Foundation Phase, in which learners learn to read and write.
The South African situation is not exceptional. There are other countries that have
experienced similar problems, for example, in Namibia, the MEC recommended that
all learning in the early stages, wherever possible, the mother tongue should be
through medium of instruction as the MEC (1993:22) expresses the importance of
mother tongue as follows:
All learning in the early stages is done best in the mother tongue, and this
also provides the best foundation for later learning in another language
medium. Therefore, wherever possible, the medium of instruction must be
the mother tongue or the familial local language.

This statement shows that South Africa and Namibia share the same experiences
and the view that the mother tongue is foundational for learning. The learner can
proceed to Level 2 after he/she has gained basic communication in the mother
tongue.

2.5.1 The Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS)

To improve the quality of teaching the National Curriculum Statement was later
revised to be the Revised National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2002). With regard
to reading comprehension strategies the NCS for Home language (2002) stated that
teaching strategies must enable the learner to “read texts alone, and uses a variety
of strategies to make meaning.”With regards to reading comprehension the RNCS

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(DoE, 2002:72) Learning Outcome 3: reading and viewing requires learners in the
following: “The learners will be able to read and view for information and enjoyment,
and respond critically to the aesthetic, cultural and emotional contexts.”

Therefore, the learner must “read a printed text fluently with understanding” (DoE,
2002). More emphasis was placed on communicative language and literacy
teaching (Prinsloo & Janks, 2002) and more teaching time was allocated to
language and mathematics.

When analysing the critical outcomes, it became clear that reading comprehension
remains the critical aspect throughout the curriculum, because learners could
collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information, communicate
effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills in various modes.
Therefore, teachers must be effectively taught how to teach reading
comprehension. According to the DoE (2002), the critical outcomes are
implemented through the learning outcomes as illustrated by the language policy
and the development of learning programmes in the Foundation Phase. The reading
comprehension skills are emphasised as learners are expected to read various
texts with understanding and to use this information in various situations. However,
there seem to be no clear guidelines for teachers as to how reading comprehension
should be taught in schools, which strategies to use before, during and after reading
the text. Mankveld and Pepler (2004) confirms that the RNCS only stresses the
importance of language development especially in the primary grades, but does not
provide guidelines on how to teach and facilitate literacy acquisition at this level.
This is an indication that the teacher envisaged by the policy is not the teacher that
is currently in the classrooms.

2.5.2 The National Curriculum Statement (NCS)

From 2006 the RNCS was again revised and renamed the National Curriculum
Statement (NCS) (DoE, 2006).The NCS was introduced in an attempt to improve
the teaching of reading. It provided more time for the teaching of reading and gave
guidance on a balanced approach to the teaching of literacy. The NCS contains the
learning programmes, work schedule, lesson plans and the assessment guidelines
for the specific subjects. The outcomes describe the knowledge, skills and values

41
that learners should acquire and demonstrate during the learning process. With
regard to languages, the learning outcomes are clearly specified, namely, listening,
speaking, reading and viewing, writing thinking and reasoning, including language
structure and use. Each of the learning outcomes has criteria that collectively
describe what a learner should know and be able to demonstrate. For this study
Learning Outcome 3, reading and viewing, is applicable and it states: “The learner
is able to read and view for information and enjoyment, and respond critically to the
aesthetic, cultural and emotional values in texts” (DoE, 2002: 72).

The Learning Outcomes describe what knowledge, skills and values learners should
achieved at the end of the phase and is achieved through the assessment
standards. In order for us to know that learners have achieved Learning Outcome 3,
reading and viewing, the assessment standards states that the learners are able to:
 Use visual cues to make meaning;
 Make meaning of written text;
 Read text alone and use a variety of strategies to make meaning;
 Consolidate phonic knowledge;
 Read for information and enjoyment.

However, it seems as if the abovementioned learning outcomes and assessment

standards have not been achieved. PIRLS (2006) revealed that learners are
developing reading comprehension at a very slow pace. According to Scheepers
(2008:33), very little explicit attention is given to vocabulary acquisition in schools
and little attention is paid to meaning. This was supported by the study conducted in
Limpopo by Reeves et al., (2008), which also indicated a low level of reading
amongst the learners.

According to JET Education Services (2010), the principal weakness identified in

the NCS is the lack of specificity and example. While curriculum documents are
designed to give broad guidelines, JET Education Services (2010) indicates that in
South Africa teachers have been asked to develop a learning programme based on
the NCS. Due to the poor qualifications of many teachers, the majority have not
been able to do this successfully. The crippling result has been a lack of logical
progression of teaching and learning in schools that need it most. Another problem
is the interpretation of the language in education policy and implementation of the

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NCS. Many learners are taught and assessed against the English first additional
language curriculum in the Foundation Phase and are expected to develop English
home language proficiency overnight as they move into the Intermediate Phase.
Because of the problems identified in the NCS, the DoE introduced different
campaigns to improve literacy and the teaching of reading as part of the
governmental response to low performance of learners in schools.

2.5.3 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS)

In 2012, the new Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) will be
implemented in the Foundation Phase (Department of Basic Education (DBE)). It is
important to note that the CAPS is a refinement of the NCS. However, to reach the
outcomes is not spelled out. In this document, there are no clear guidelines for the
African language teacher about reading comprehension strategies, which strategies
to use before, during and after reading the text. The CAPS for the Foundation
Phase divides the requirements for reading into shared reading, group reading,
paired and independent reading and phonics. Concerning comprehension, the
CAPS (2012) only explains to the teacher that during the reading lessons the
teacher must engage the learners in a range of thinking and questioning activities.
The CAPS explains that the teacher may use various ways to start questions that
will help to develop lower-order and higher-order comprehension skills, namely
literal comprehension, reorganisation, inferential, evaluation and appreciation.
Teachers are expected to model reading, and work on metacognitive skills to teach
learners to monitor themselves when reading. This could bring an improvement in
the teaching of reading comprehension. However, there are no clear explanations of
the strategies which teachers must use to develop the metacognitive skills, when to
use each strategy (before, during and/or after reading) and the reason for using it.
The question that one may be tempted to ask is: Will the CAPS provide Grade 3
Tshivenda-speaking teachers with guidelines and relevant examples that they can
use to improve the teaching of reading comprehension?

2.5.4 The Foundations for Learning Campaign (FFLC)

The FFLC, as the first intervention, was launched by the then Minister of Education
in 2007(DoE, 2008). The aim was to improve learners‟ performance in the area of

43
literacy and numeracy amongst Foundation Phase learners. However, JET
Education Services (2010) state that the foundations for learning should offer more
guidelines that are specific to teachers. Four documents were produced that include
directives regarding the use of particular methodologies when teaching literacy,
designing the timetable, resourcing the classroom and assessing learners, and
documents on the teaching of reading in the early grades, assessment framework
books, and quarterly assessment activities. Assessment activities for literacy and
numeracy Grades 1-3 including lessons were made available. According to JET
Education Services (2010), the key disadvantage of the campaign was the
overwhelming number of documents the teachers had to coordinate to plan
instruction. This process was further hampered by a lack of documents in
languages other than English, new terminology, a disjuncture between some
milestones and the NCS as well as poor phonics progression.

2.5.5 Teaching Reading in the Early Grades

A teachers‟ handbook, Teaching Reading in the Early Grades by the DoE (2008)
was the second intervention strategy used to meet the crisis of reading amongst the
learners as part of the Foundation for learning project. The handbook covers
various aspects of reading: characteristics of skilled readers, the stages of reading
development, phonemic awareness, word recognition (phonics and sight words),
comprehension, vocabulary and fluency. The teacher is required to involve learners
in shared reading, guided reading, reading aloud and independent reading.
Although I deal with learning theories in Chapter 3, I refer to their relevancy when
describing the teaching of reading comprehension in the early grades, for example,
learning theories are critical as I regard them as foundational for any teaching
profession. In their classrooms, teachers work with different learners and they do
not learn at the same pace. It is important for the teachers to know these learning
theories in order to help learners. There are several approaches to teaching reading
comprehension such as shared reading and guided reading. During shared reading,
guided reading, independent reading and read-aloud sessions, the teacher can
teach learners comprehension strategies and how to apply them (Taylor, Pearson,
Peterson & Rodriguez, 2002; Van Keer, 2004, Trogenza & Lewis, 2009).

44
2.5.5.1 Shared reading

In a shared reading session, the teacher reads with the class or group using a large
storybook that has big, bold print (DoE, 2008). Learners share the reading task with
the teacher and gradually learners take over the task of reading (DoE, 2008).The
purpose of shared reading is explained as follows: The teacher models reading
strategies to learners using Big Books and addressing specific skills in reading.

During the lesson, the teacher leads a discussion of the cover and some of the
illustrations in the book to place the text within the context of learners‟ prior
knowledge, and encourages learners to predict what will happen in the story. The
teacher reads using a pointer to point at the words as she/he reads. After reading,
the teacher checks the learners‟ understanding of the text through discussion or
questions.

The benefits of shared reading are that the teacher models different reading
comprehension strategies for the learners. The planned activities should cater for
different learners‟ abilities by allowing them to join in wherever they can and the
environment must be non-threatening for learners to experience success. During
shared reading the teacher is expected to teach learners while they read certain
kinds of texts, how they read the text, the expression and intonation (tone of voice)
suited to the text, how to respond to the text, the text level, word level or sentence
level features in the text and model.

The teacher is expected to teach a variety of reading strategies and promote

comprehension through differentiated questioning and discussion (DoE, 2008).

2.5.5.2 Group guided reading

Group guided reading is regarded as one of the key components of a balanced

language programme (Hornsby, 2000; Cunningham & Alington, 1999; Pressley,
2002) and is a teacher-directed activity (DoE, 2008). It involves using carefully-
selected books at the learners‟ instructional level. In group guided sessions, the
learners can be grouped according to their reading abilities. The benefits are that it
gives the teacher the opportunity to observe reading behaviours, identify areas of

45
need and allow learners to develop more independence and confidence as they
practice and consolidate reading behaviours and skills. During the process, the role
of the teacher is to bring learners to a higher level by demonstrating, modelling,
explaining and encouraging learners during reading (Opitz & Ford, 2001).

The steps of the guided reading can be linked to the theory of Bruner‟s scaffolding
process leading to independence. Teachers prepare ahead of time. Before reading
starts, the teacher has to spend some time talking about comprehension strategies,
introducing difficult words that are contained in the text and assisting individual
learners to practice strategies for comprehending the text (Fountas & Pinnel, 2001).
It provides opportunities for the teacher to integrate learners‟ growing knowledge of
the conventions of print, letter-sound relationships and other foundational skills in
context.

During guided reading, learners are exposed to reading aloud and shared reading.
Simultaneously, the teacher is able to teach learners how to construct meaning from
the text by using strategies to self-pace, self-direct and self-monitor under the
teacher‟s guidance. This kind of support is linked to Vygotsky‟s (1978; 1986) view
that learners learn more as they get support from knowledgeable others.

The South African government regards guided reading as the solution to the low
level of literacy. However, according to a study on an evaluation of guided reading
in three primary schools in the Western Cape, Kruizinga (2010) states that teachers
had a superficial understanding of guided reading and that it was difficult for
teachers to implement the steps for guided reading in their classrooms. However,
the purpose of guided reading is to assist learners to become independent readers
who can read the text for enjoyment and be able to get the meaning from the text.

2.5.5.3 Independent reading

Independent reading is important in reading comprehension. During this activity,

learners learn to apply the comprehension strategies independently that they were
taught during guided reading (Biddulph, 2000).

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According to the DoE (2008), independent reading is a purposeful planned activity.
The teacher has a structured daily time during which learners associate themselves
with books. Learners choose their own books according to their own interest and
ability. However, learners should be guided to choose the texts that they can read
with a high degree of success.

During this session, the teacher should listen, observe and gather information about
learners‟ reading behaviour. Learners are able to listen to themselves as they read
and cross-check while they practice the strategies (Fountas & Pinnell, 1999).
Fountas and Pinnell (1996) and Zimmerman (1998) support the view that learners
learn best when they are responsible for their own learning.

The goal of teaching reading comprehension strategies is for the learners to

become self-managed readers who can take over the process themselves.
However, Taberski (2000) argued that during independent reading, frustrated
learners do not sustain their reading long enough to practice the skill. This is
because they are unable to decode the words and do not understand the text.
Therefore, independent reading could become a meaningless exercise.

2.5.5.4 Reading aloud

Reading aloud is another approach that can have a positive effect on the
development of reading comprehension (Lane & Wright, 2007). Read-aloud times
should be a well-planned activity and not impromptu (Sipe, 2008). The teacher
should be well-prepared, read to the whole class or to a small group, using material
that is at the listening comprehension level of the learners (Teale, 2003). Reading
aloud is regarded as the best motivator for instilling the desire to read in learners. In
read-aloud sessions, the teacher reads to the whole class or to a small group using
material that is at listening comprehension level of the learners.

The benefit of this approach to the learners is that it helps them to develop a love of
literature, motivates them to read various kinds of texts on their own and increases
their vocabulary (Lane & Wright, 2007). The speaking skills of the learners are
enhanced by hearing good pronunciation and language use, as well as their

47
thinking skills through their comprehension of the text and experience with cause
and effect including logical sequencing.

According to the DoE (2008), reading aloud should occur every day to stimulate
learners‟ interest in the written text. Several key activities take place before, during
and after reading. With regard to the teaching of reading comprehension, the DoE
(2008) emphasised that teachers should keep a close check on learners to ensure
that they are not barking at print, but reading with understanding. They must also be
able to interpret what they read in various situations. Involving learners interactively
while reading aloud help to improve comprehension. The after-reading discussions
encourage learners to link the story events to their personal experiences (Sipe,
2008).

The teachers‟ handbook, Teaching Reading in Early Grades, briefly explains to the
teacher how to develop comprehension, but does not explain how comprehension
should be taught and which strategies to use before, during and after reading in a
Home Language classroom. Therefore, there are no clear guidelines in the
teachers‟ handbook about the teaching of reading comprehension to Tshivenda-
speaking learners. Heugh (2005) concurs, stating that “while the teachers‟
handbook for teaching reading in English has been developed and widely
distributed across South Africa schools, the DoE has still not published one
handbook for teaching reading in any other African languages.” Therefore, there is a
need for guidelines to be developed to assist the African languages teachers in the
languages they understand and with examples that they can use in their teaching.

2.6 The National Reading Strategy (NRS)

The National Reading Strategy (NRS) was the third intervention strategy for
promoting reading in South African primary schools (DoE, 2008). The vision of the
NRS was that every South African learner would be a fluent reader who reads to
learn and reads for enjoyment and achievement. The purpose of the NRS was to
put reading firmly on the school agenda. It was meant to clarify and simplify
curriculum expectations. Furthermore, it was meant to promote reading across the
curriculum and to affirm and advance the use of all languages. This process will
encourage reading for enjoyment and to ensure that not only teachers, learners and

48
parents, understand the role of improving and promoting reading but also the
broader community.

However, according to the DoE (2008), there were many challenges with regard to
the implementation of the NRS, namely teacher competency, a lack of libraries,
teacher conditions, the print environment, language issues and inclusive education.
In addition, the NRS states the following (DoE, 2008:8):
Many teachers in South Africa have an underdeveloped understanding of
teaching literacy, reading and writing. Many teachers simply don‟t know
how to teach reading. Too often teachers know only one method of
teaching reading which may not suit the learning style of all learners.

Therefore, teachers are expected to be competent to teach reading comprehension

and be able to create an atmosphere which is conducive for reading to the learners.
Because teachers have not been explicitly trained to teach reading, it is difficult for
them to assist learners.

2.7 Reading Comprehension in the Primary Grades

Comprehension is the goal of reading and listening. We do it every day, often

without being aware that we are doing it. However, the reader needs
comprehension strategies in order to accomplish the task of reading most
effectively, efficiently and meaningfully. Reading comprehension seems to be a
complex process. Successful comprehension enables readers to acquire
information, to experience and be aware of other worlds, to communicate
successfully and to achieve academic success.

Comprehension strategies are very important in reading. They reflect a purposeful,

intentional, on-going, and adaptable plan, procedure, or process to improve reading
performance, because without it, learners have virtually no means to increase the
sophistication of their reading (Philips, Norris & Vavra, 2007). According to
Shanahan (2006:28), comprehension strategies are intentional actions that a reader
can take to increase their chances of understanding or remembering the information
in a text. Comprehension strategies are important in that they provide the reader
with knowledge of how to use the strategies appropriately and understand the text

49
(NRP, 2000; Pressley et al., 1998; Shanahan et al., 2010). This implies that
teaching reading comprehension is basic for comprehension.

As far as practical application is concerned, there are cognitive and metacognitive

strategies. According to Flavell (1976:232), metacognition means awareness of
one‟s thought processes in the act of carrying them out. The human being then
uses this awareness to control him/herself. Metacognition makes the person aware
of the way in which he/she is thinking. Good readers use metacognition strategies
to think about and have control over their reading, for example, before reading, they
might clarify their purpose for reading and preview the text. During reading, they
might monitor their understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit the difficulty of
the text and fixing up any comprehension problems they have. After reading, they
check their understanding of what they read (Beck, McKeown, Hamilton& Kucan,
2003).

Metacognitive strategies are higher-order executive tactics that entail planning for
learning, monitoring, identifying and remedying causes of comprehension failure or
evaluating the successes of a learning activity, that is, the strategies of self-
planning, self-monitoring, self-regulating, self-questioning and self-reflecting
(Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Zimmerman,1998).
Metacognitive strategies involve planning, monitoring and evaluating before, during
and after any thinking act such as reading comprehension.

Cognitive strategies involve direct interaction with the text and contribute to
facilitating comprehension, and operate directly on incoming information,
manipulating it in ways that enhance learning (Anastasiou & Griva, 2009:284).
Cognitive strategies include the strategies of underlining, using titles, using
dictionary, writing down, guessing from the context, imagery, activating prior
knowledge, summarising, using linguistic clues, using text markers, skipping the
difficult parts and repeating phrases (Anastasiou & Griva, 2009:284).Good readers
employ different cognitive and metacognitive strategies before, during and after
reading a text. Given the complexity of comprehension, it seems likely that learners
may fail to understand what they have read for a variety of reasons; hence, teaching
reading is critical. Therefore, comprehension strategies are needed if one is to
accomplish the task of teaching reading comprehension.

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To understand written text, learners need to decode printed words and access their
meanings. The question is whether teachers are doing enough to help learners to
read, evaluate information and use it in their daily lives, and when the teaching of
reading comprehension should begin. Should it begin when children are still very
young, when they are older or even in the adolescent years? I believe that we must
start in the early childhood years. In fact, teaching reading comprehension should
be the goal of the primary grades. I believe that by the time learners are in Grade 3,
they should be able to read the text and grasp its meaning, and be able to use the
information in other situations in their lives. Zimmerman (1998) is of the opinion that
learners at all levels are significantly influenced by the type of opportunities they are
given. If they are given tasks that make them think, and thinking is mediated, they
will do so, but if they are not given tasks in which they can practice any
comprehension strategies then they will not do so. I believe that the earlier we start
teaching learners comprehension strategies, the better.

The alternative, that is, not teaching comprehension strategies, would be to believe
that comprehension and thought processes are a function area of heredity and are
fixed when the child is born. Cognition is a function of both heredity and
environment, and environmental factors can be manipulated to influence
comprehension. In this regard, if comprehension strategies are really patterns of
behaviour, then we might expect that practice would still have a positive effect on
learners. Practice will lead to competence in intellectual functions, some of which
will take place automatically in appropriate contexts. This does not mean that there
is nothing more that affects the development of reading comprehension, but it
means that practising strategies is the most important aspect.

Children adapt themselves to their environment through assimilation and

accommodation (Piaget, 1950; 1953). As they do this, they learn to think and
comprehend because they are striving to maintain a state of equilibrium between
themselves and the environment. Although Piaget is not really trying to prove that
comprehension can be taught, his theory seems to support it, because it implies
that cognition can develop by interacting with the environment. This leads me to the
assumption that if the environment is manipulated with the aim of improving the
learner‟s thinking, then comprehension can be taught and learnt; and then
comprehension strategies can be taught.

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Relating to Piaget‟s theory, my insight is that teaching reading comprehension
evolves through stages, meaning that there may be certain comprehension
strategies that can be taught at Grade 3 and some that cannot, due to the
maturational levels of these learners. However, cognitive psychologists have found
that young children can perform cognitive tasks that were originally regarded as
being too advanced for them and, therefore, can be taught comprehension
strategies that were supposedly too advanced for them, for example, it has been
found that children can understand cause and effect more than Piaget had given
them credit for. Different authors on the subject concur that reading comprehension
can be taught to Grade 3, as long as they are given suitable tasks and appropriate
information and mediation (NRP, 2000).

2.8 Reading comprehension strategies that can be taught to Grade 3

learners

Comprehension strategies are important in the lives of learners. Philips, Norris and
Vavra (2007) and Kirby (2007) confirm that without them, learners have virtually no
means of increasing the sophistication of reading. Teachers need to employ
research-based strategies in the classroom because they have scientific evidence
of success stories. Comprehension is not just something that just happens it needs
to be taught. According to Shanahan (2006:31), drilling and repetition will not help in
the teaching of reading comprehension. However, sound explanation of
comprehension strategies and their importance is central.

It is thus believed that training teachers in how to teach reading comprehension

remains an important aspect. Teachers need knowledge and skills to monitor
learners‟ comprehension and teach learners comprehension strategies. That means
before reading, the teacher carries the responsibility by providing a demonstration.
According to Shanahan (2006:31), the demonstration must include a clear
explanation of the strategy, a description of how and when to use it, and lastly an
explanation of why it is useful. This relates to the theory of Vygotsky (1987), that for
the child to develop to a stage where they can learn, they have to be in the
company of a role model. The most important people in the context of this study are
the teachers. If they do not serve as positive role models, the learner will never
develop and become able to read and understand the text. During shared reading,

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group guided reading, independent reading and reading aloud, the teacher must
use various strategies for example summarising, story structure to teach reading
comprehension.

From the discussions above, there seems to be a wealth of research evidence

showing that reading comprehension can be improved by teaching learners
comprehension strategies. According to Lenz (2005:2) and Armbruster et al.,
(2003:45-57), it would be appropriate and easier for teachers to follow the three
ways of organising comprehension strategies and to think about strategies that one
might use, before reading (phase 1), during reading (phase 2) and after reading
(phase 3). This is because reading comprehension is a process, and as such, it has
various stages at which different tasks need to be performed.

The purpose of the before-reading strategies is to activate prior knowledge for text
comprehension. Before reading, learners learn new information by connecting it to
what they already know about a topic and the structure of a text (Pressley et al.,
1998).

During reading comprehension, learners read books and stories from the past, and
use language to write their own bibliography. Learners should be able to read with
understanding, and where difficulties occur, be able to initiate repair strategies if
comprehension breakdown is detected. During reading comprehension, learners
read nonfiction stories, big books with various topics in, for example, nature,
explaining simple facts, simple weather forecasts, and stories about the sun and
moon. Learners activate prior knowledge, make connections among important
ideas, construct and test hypotheses, paraphrase key points, and try to resolve any
comprehension difficulties that may arise (Pressley et al., 1997).

After-reading helps learners to clarify any unclear meaning and where learners
maybe required answering questions in writing – either comprehension questions at
the end of a chapter or questions handed out by the teacher.

In this study, I employed the view that reading comprehension is a cognitive

process that involves a deliberate, strategic problem-solving action of the reader as
he or she engages with a text. In this process, readers use their prior knowledge,

53
reading comprehension strategies, knowledge of language and print, experience
and perceived purpose of reading. From the theoretical point of view, if the
knowledgeable teacher actively involves learners, the teaching of reading
comprehension can increase the chances of understanding or remembering the
information in a text. The teacher‟s knowledge of teaching comprehension
strategies and willingness, and the classroom learning environment may influence
the way the learner views the text. In the context of the study, it implies that the
teacher should be able to teach strategies as a way to help the learners to
comprehend the text. Learners come from home into contact with the teacher who
is required to teach learners how to construct meaning from the text by using the
strategies for before, during and after reading. My argument is that the teachers‟
use of reading comprehension strategies may influence reading comprehension
positively.

According to Noles and Dole (2004:179), the teaching of strategies empowers

readers, particularly those who struggle, by giving them the tools they need to
construct meaning from text. They further explain that instead of blaming
comprehension problems on learners‟ own innate abilities for which they (learners)
see no solution, explicit strategy instruction teaches learners to take control of their
own learning and comprehension. Loranger (1997:31) found that learners who were
trained in the use of strategies showed greater focus of engagement during reading
groups, improved knowledge use of strategies, and improved achievement in
comprehension (Zimmerman,1998).

In the same vein, Dreyer (1998:23) used the reading comprehension strategies to
train learners in reading comprehension in her study, and the results showed that
instruction in reading comprehension strategies can and do make a very important
contribution in improving the reading comprehension of learners. These research
studies demonstrate that reading comprehension strategies can be taught and that
they can contribute to improve learners‟ reading comprehension abilities.

In America, because of the low level of reading comprehension amongst the

learners, the NRP (2000) examined research studies that focused on learners in K-
12(Grades R-12) and concluded that there was sufficient evidence supporting the
teaching of seven comprehension strategies. These strategies are comprehension

54
monitoring, graphic and semantic organisers, question answering, question
generating, story structure, summarising and multiple strategies.

Within the context of my research project based on the low performance of Grade 3
learners, in particular Tshivenda-speaking learners, there is a need for the teachers
to teach comprehension strategies to help learners to read with understanding. My
argument is that these strategies, if used in a Tshivenda classroom, may help
teachers to teach the learners how to unlock the code of written text with ease. In
the following section, I present the primary reading comprehension strategies based
on research evidence as identified by the NRP (2000). These comprehension
strategies are relevant as they can be used within the context of my study. If applied
correctly, they may be effective in teaching reading comprehension to Tshivenda-
speaking learners.

2.8.1 Comprehension monitoring

The teaching and monitoring of comprehension strategies are important to assist

the reader to become aware of and realised that when they read they understand
what they are reading. This refers to learners‟ knowledge about and use of reading
comprehension strategies, and is a form of metacognition. Routman (2000:134)
defines comprehension monitoring as “a metacognitive process which is affected by
person strategy and task variables.” Routman (2000:134) adds to this by stating that
comprehensive monitoring is essential for reading as it directs the reader when
trying to make sense of a text. Good readers use metacognitive strategies to think
about and have control over their reading, for example, before reading, they might
monitor their understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit the difficulty of the
text and „fix-up‟ any comprehension problems they have. After reading, they check
their understanding of what they read. Examples of fix-up strategies are identifying
where in the text the difficulty occurs, restarting a difficult sentence or passage on
their own and looking back (or forward) through the text (Lehr & Osborn, 2005:18).

According to Lehr and Osborn (2000:18) readers learn how to be aware of

understanding their material during comprehension monitoring (NRP, 2000:15).
Lehr and Osborn (2003) regard the reader‟s thinking as important during the
comprehension processes. Specifically, it teaches learners to notice when they

55
understand, to identify what they do not understand, and to use appropriate fix-up
strategies to resolve the problems when they do not understand something they
read (NRP, 2000; Armbruster et al., 2003; Lehr & Osborn, 2005). This implies that
when learners monitor their comprehension, they understand that reading must
make sense; and when it does not they try to use appropriate different fix-up
strategies to resolve the problems. The goal is to develop awareness by readers of
the cognitive process involved during reading and teaches learners to be aware of
what they do understand. The NRP (2000) suggested that monitoring
comprehension strategies could help learners to become more aware of their
difficulties during reading comprehension.

In teaching comprehension monitoring strategies, the teacher needs to demonstrate

awareness of difficulties of understanding words, phrases, clauses or sentences.
Learners are taught to think about what is hampering their understanding. They
think aloud, reread, slow down, and look back in text to try to solve a problem
(Armbruster et al., 2003:6-7).

Context clues are also an important part of comprehension monitoring. Learners

can use this strategy during reading when they encounter an unfamiliar word in text,
for example, when a learner stumbles on an unfamiliar word, she/he needs to know
how to use all word identification tools in their mental toolbox to decode the word.
Learners look to see if they recognise any part of the word and then say the
beginning sound of the familiar part of the word, and then read the rest of the
sentence. If learners cannot say the correct word, then the teacher asks them to
think what would make sense there, reminding the learners to use all clues.

2.8.2 Graphic and semantic organisers

Another comprehension strategy that is important to reading comprehension is the

used of graphic and semantic organisers. These tools enable learners to examine
and visually represent relationships and help learners write well-organised
summaries. These organisers illustrate concepts and interrelationships among
concepts of text, using diagrams or other pictorial devices (Armbruster et al.,
2003:50).Graphic and semantic organisers are found in many forms, for example,
semantic maps, expository maps, story maps and graphic metaphors. These allow

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the reader to represent graphically/visually the meanings and relationships of
concepts and their relationships with other concepts (Armbruster et al., 2003; Lehr
& Osborn, 2005). Lehr and Osborn (2005:19) expand the description by saying that
graphic and semantic organisers allow the reader to represent graphically/visually
the meanings and relationships of the ideas that underlie the words in the text and
to improve a reader‟s memory of what they read. By using the strategy of graphic
and semantic organisers, readers focus on concepts and how they are related to
other concepts. In teaching the use of graphic and semantic organisers, the teacher
must ask learners to construct an image that represents the content.

2.8.3 Questioning

The strategy of asking and answering questions seems to have been used for many
years and is still used by teachers to guide and monitor learners‟ learning.
Questions appear to be effective for improving learners‟ reading comprehension.
They provide learners with a purpose for reading, helps learners to focus attention
on what they are to learn, help learners to think actively as they read, encourage
learners to monitor their comprehension, and help learners to review content and
relate what they have learnt to what they already know.

In her study, Durkin (1978) criticise the asking and answering questions as a
reading comprehension strategy. She points out that the manner in which teachers
ask questions is more of an assessment of comprehension rather than teaching of
the reading comprehension process, and regards it as „interrogation‟. However, it is
important for teachers to ask various questions to develop learners‟ critical thinking.
Bloom (1986) and Joubert et al., (2008) agree that the type of questions learners
become accustomed to can shape their understanding of the text, for example,
when learners are constantly asked literal questions, they will obviously focus on
these during reading comprehension. Routman (1996:137) maintains that teachers
need to ask higher-order questions and show learners how to find answers, and this
requires interactive settings in order to achieve high levels of reading
comprehension. The teacher‟s questioning strongly supports and advances
learners‟ learning from reading, keeps the learners engaged and enhances
understanding (Feldman, 2003).

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Analysis by Zimmerman and Hutchins (2003) on questioning as a strategy indicates
that “questions lead readers deeper into a piece, setting up dialogue with the
author, sparking in readers‟ minds what they care about. If you ask questions as
you read, you are awake, you are interacting with words” (Zimmerman & Hutchins,
2003:73).

This implies that questioning during reading becomes a strategy to help learners to
learn to interact with the author of the text and so remain focused throughout the
text. Teachers must ask a combination of questions and show learners how to find
answers. This can be done by discussing the different types of questions that exist
with the learners (Raphael & Au, 2005) and using the information to locate the
answer.

In order to succeed, Taylor, Pearson, Peterson and Rodriguez (2002) and Bloom
(1968) found that learners must engage in high levels of questioning and do so in
highly interactive settings to achieve high levels of comprehension. In a way, it is
critical that instruction should help learners understand that active readers question
the author, the text, and themselves before, during and after reading.

Raphael and Au (2005) maintain that in order for learners to be able to answer
higher-order questions, they need to be able to understand the relationship between
the question and the answer. Under questioning as a comprehension strategy, there
are two different strategies, namely question answering and question generating.

2.8.3.1 Question answering

During reading comprehension, the teacher expects the learner to read and
understand the text and answer questions, and to use the information when
needed. The teaching of the question-answering strategy is helpful for the learners
as they become aware of what is important in the text and learn to answer the
questions.

During question answering, the reader answers questions posed by the teacher and
is given feedback for correctness. It gives learners a purpose for reading, focuses
attention on what they are to learn, encourages them to monitor and helps them to

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review content and relate what they have learnt to what they already know.
Learners learn to distinguish questions that can be answered based on the text from
those based on prior knowledge. They are encouraged to learn to answer questions
better and therefore acquire more knowledge (Armbruster et al., 2003:49-53). There
are different types of questions, for example, answering instructions, which simply
teaches learners to re-examine the text to find answers to questions that they could
not answer after the initial reading. Another type of questions help learners
understand the relationship between questions and where the answers to those
questions are found. In this instruction, readers learn to answer questions that
require an understanding of information.

Questioning during the guided reading phase is intended to scaffold learning for
learners and to check learners‟ understanding. Such questioning is meant to
instruct, guide learners along the pathway to independence (Dewitz, 2006).

When teaching the question answering strategy, teachers need to ask learners
questions during and after reading passages of text. Teachers ask learners to look
back. Within the context of this study, „looking back‟ is when learners articulates and
process their understanding of what they have read and to find answers after
reading. Teachers ask learners to analyse questions with respect to whether the
question is tapping literal information covered in the text, information that can be
inferred by combining information in the text, or information in the reader‟s prior
knowledge base (NRP, 2000).

Concerning the type of questions to be asked, Joubert et al., (2008) recommend

Bloom‟s and other taxonomies as useful tools for helping teachers to engage
learners in higher-order thinking when they read. We can also relate this higher-
order thinking with the applied model of self-regulation of Zimmerman (1998).
Teachers must identify each learner‟s abilities and match their profile to a variety of
reading comprehension strategies rather than teach in a rigid manner. If learners
apply higher-order thinking, they are able to draw more meaning from what they
learn and apply the learning in more sophisticated ways. Although thinking skills
alone do not make a learner an effective reader, they are essential for reading
comprehension.

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2.8.3.2 Question generation

Teachers expect learners to become independent and lifelong readers. Readers

who attain this learn to ask themselves questions about various aspects of the story
(NRP, 2000; Lehr & Osborn, 2005).

Question generating encourages the learner to be actively involved and learn to

own the reading text, and thus improves comprehension ability (Routman,
1994:139). In their view, Lehr and Osborn (2005) confirm that teaching learners to
ask their own questions improves their active processing of text and improves their
comprehension. By generating questions, learners become aware of whether they
can answer the questions and if they understand what they are reading. Learners
learn to ask themselves questions that require them to integrate information from
different segments of text, for example, learners can be taught to ask main idea
questions that relate to important information in a text. Question generating teaches
learners to become involved in the text, independently. They learn to become active
readers and self-questioners and to become aware of whether they understand the
text or not. As a result, their overall comprehension improves (Duke &Pearson,
2002).

In teaching the question-generating strategy, teachers need to ask learners to

generate questions while reading a passage. The question should integrate
information across different parts of the passage. Teachers ask learners to evaluate
their questions, checking that they covered important material, were integrative, and
whether they could be answered based on what was in the text. Teachers provide
feedback on the quality of the questions asked or assist learners in answering the
question generated (Armbruster et al., 2003:11).

Question generating also assist learners to increase their awareness of whether

they are comprehending text (NRP, 2000; Armbruster et al., 2003). Questioning can
be applied before, during and after reading. Pearson (1984:727) suggests that
during reading comprehension, teachers should make sure that guided reading
questions (asked either during or after stories) include many inference questions to
enhance both story-specific inferential comprehension and comprehension of new
stories. Secondly, adding a pre reading set for evoking relevant prior knowledge

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and predicting what will happen in a story, coupled with discussion of why it is
important to do so, results in even better inferential comprehension and even helps
literal questions.

2.8.4 Story structure

During reading comprehension, the reader continuously asks questions in order to

understand the text. Teaching learners to look at the story structure is important in
reading comprehension.

According Lehr and Osborn (2005:18), the story structure is “the way the content
and events of a story are organised into a plot.” This is where readers ask
themselves questions about various aspects of the story (NRP, 2000). In the same
vein, Lehr and Osborn (2005:18) state that learners who can recognise the story
structure have greater appreciation and understanding of and a memory for stories.
These strategies train learners to learn to ask themselves question during reading
about the basic components of stories as they read. Learners learn to identify the
categories of content, namely, setting, initiating events, internal reactions, goal
attempts and outcomes and how this content is organised into a plot (Lehr
&Osborn, 2005:18). This implies that during teaching reading comprehension,
teachers need to ask and answer five questions: Who is the main character? Where
and when did the story occur? What did the main character do? How did the story
end? How did the main character feel? This will help learners to learn to understand
about, that is, the, who and what, where, when and why of stories. They learn to
identify what happened and what was done in the story, for example, learners
should recognise the story structure through the use of story maps. They also learn
to identify the main character of the story, where and when the story took place,
what the main character did, how the story ended, and how the main characters felt.
Learners learn to construct a story map recording the setting, problem, goal, action
and outcome over time (Armbruster et al., 2003:11-12). A type of graphic organiser
shows the sequence of events in simple stories. Instruction in the content and
organisation of stories improve learners‟ comprehension and memory of stories.

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2.8.5 Summarising

Another strategy that can be used in teaching reading comprehension is

summarising. This requires learners to determine what is important in what they are
reading, to condense information and to put it into their own words (Armbruster et
al., 2003:53). This implies that during reading comprehension, teachers must teach
learners to read the text and synthesise the information. Routman (2000:140) refers
to summarising as the ability to state the main ideas in a text in a clear and coherent
manner. This involves paraphrasing and reorganising text information. It requires
readers to sift through large units of text, differentiating important from unimportant
ideas, and the significant from the insignificant (Armbruster et al., 2003:13) and then
synthesise those ideas and create a new coherent text that stands for, by
substantive criteria, the original (Dole, Duffy, Roehler & Pearson, 1999:244). In the
same vein, Klinger and Vaughn (1999) and the NRP (2000) maintain that
summarisation can be taught effectively and that the ability to summarise can
improve comprehension recall.

According to the NRP (2000), during summarising learners are taught to integrate
ideas and generalise from the text information. Summarising involves identifying the
main idea in a paragraph or composing a concise statement of the main concepts
from a long passage; this helps learners to focus on the main ideas or and
encourage learners to reread as they construct a summary (Kamil, 2004).
Summarising requires learners to determine what is important in what they are
reading, to condense this information, and to put it into their own words (Lehr &
Osborn, 2005). In so doing, learners identify or generate main ideas, connect the
main or central ideas, and remember what they read. They learn to make
connections among main ideas through the text. However, “summarising sounds
difficult and the research demonstrates that, in fact, it is a difficult task” (Dole et al.,
1999:244).

Teachers therefore need to give learners opportunities to practice the summarising

strategy before they apply it. Summarising will enable learners to process the text
more deeply and better retain their knowledge of the text. In teaching summarising
as a strategy, teachers need to teach learners to summarise main ideas and leave
out the less important aspects.

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2.9 Conclusion

Reading comprehension is a challenge worldwide. However, there is agreement

that teaching reading comprehension can enhance learners‟ understanding of texts.
There are research-based comprehension strategies which the teacher must know
and model during reading. Teachers must monitor learners‟ understanding and
ensure that they use the strategies correctly. The literature revealed that South
Africa still lacks the theoretical base to guide teachers on the subject and that more
research on the subject is needed.

In this chapter, I gave an overview of the international and national contexts of the
teaching of reading comprehension. I briefly discussed various strategies and their
importance in teaching reading comprehension. It is evident that reading
comprehension is a process. Teachers should organise their comprehension
teaching in the three phases of reading lesson namely before, during and after
reading as discussed in this chapter, to help learners understand the importance
and the correct use of strategies. It is clear that before teaching comprehension,
teachers must first examine the text for rigour, level of questioning and vocabulary.
During reading, teachers must deepen the learners‟ level of understanding by
modelling the reading text. They must provide multiple opportunities for the learners
to read and interact with the text. I explained that it is important during reading to
deepen learners understanding by asking them open-ended questions at various
levels and not only yes and no questions. Teachers must teach learners to read the
text and be able to generate questions from the text.

Teachers must monitor learners‟ understanding and ensure that learners use the
strategies correctly. After teaching, teachers must be able to reflect on learners‟
responses to instruction and plan for deeper teaching opportunities. It is clear that
reading comprehension teaching needs a strategic teacher who is competent and
knowledgeable, for example, the teacher must know that before reading he/she
must teach learners to learn to set a purpose for reading, provide questions and
connections to motivate learners to be involved in their own learning. In addition, the
teacher must pre-teach key vocabulary concepts, link learners‟ background
knowledge and experiences relate the text to learners‟ lives and teach learners text
features and how to use them. The same strategies may be used during and after

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reading, for example, the teacher must teach learners how to monitor understanding
through demonstration and think aloud, provide questions to consider while reading,
help them draw inferences from text, ask them to summarise the main ideas of a
paragraph and to confirm, disconfirm, or extend predictions and generated
questions.

Teachers have a pivotal role in helping learners to acquire these skills and
preparing them for independent learning. Capacity building for teachers is therefore
needed, with appropriate guidelines on how to teach reading comprehension. It is
clear that comprehension is a problem-solving process. That is why it is critical for
teachers to have a substantial knowledge of the strategies and how best to teach
and help learners to acquire and use strategies appropriately. Indeed, teachers
need to respond to the individual learners‟ needs and provide various reading
experiences to foster their ability to use strategies correctly and progress to self-
regulatory learning.

The literature review revealed that the best time to lay a strong foundation is to
teach reading comprehension strategies from an early age when children start
school, instead of attempting to teach them later in their school years when the
harm has already been done.

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