CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

A. Reading

The definition of reading is propose by several experts. According to

Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9) reading is development, interactive, and global

process involving learned skills. The process specifically incorporates and

can be positively and negatively influenced by nonlinguistic internal and

external variables or factors.

Moreover, according to Tarigan (2008: 7) states that reading is a

process carried out and used by a reader to acquire message which is

conveyed by a writer through words could be seen and known by reader. In

short, reading is an activity to get meaning from printed words or symbols

and how this ability is used to recognize, understand and interpret in words.

From all definitions above, it means that a general understanding of

reading can be derived as an active process of getting meaning. This process

is done by knowledge and influenced by nonlinguistic internal and external

variables. Besides that, reading can be taken as a life skill which is relevant to

immediate as well as long term life success and reading generally serves as

source of information and enjoyment.

1. The Importance of Reading

Reading is very important and has main role in our life. Reading can

enrich our experience and knowledge by reading. Therefore, reading also

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something crucial and indispensable. By reading, we can increase our

knowledge about science, technology, and easy way to get much

information that is useful for us.

Reading is main skill to reach a successful study. Students who only

confine in what their teacher gives in the class without having an effort to

read much reference will not pass in the time and success. More reading

means more knowledge.

Moreover, reading as a target language to build vocabulary for

English lesson. It is realized that reading skill or reading activity will open

knowledge widely give more vocabularies and information.

2. The Aim of Reading

The main purpose in reading is to seek and acquire the information

involving the contents of reading and understanding the meaning of

reading text.

Tarigan (2008: 9) said that there are some important things about the

aim, as follow:

a. The readers try to find or know the experience of someone what he has

done or something that happens to him or the way how to solve his/her

problems.

b. Reading for main idea

The readers try to know what the topic interest and the problem of the

story.

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c. Reading for Sequence or Organization

The reader try to know what happens in each part of stories, action, etc.

d. Reading for Inference

The readers try to find out the conclusion from the action or the idea in

the text.

e. Reading to Classify

The readers try to classify some information or actions of the writer in

the text or paragraph.

f. Reading to Evaluate

The reader try to evaluate what the writer has done or what he try to

explain in his paragraph.

g. Reading to Compare or Contrast

The reader compares the plot of story or content, whether have

similarity with him or even contrast.

From the purpose above, reading have important role for the readers.

It can be conclude that reading as organizing and study also for a general

impression. Moreover, we can know that reading as learning content.

3. Assessing Reading

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve teaching and

learning process especially for the students. According to Brown (2004:

187), there are some macro skills and micro skills representing the

spectrum of possibilities for objective in the assessment of reading

comprehension.

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a. Macro Skills

1) Recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their

significance for interpretation.

2) Recognize the communicative function of written texts, according

to form and purpose.

3) Infer the context that is not explicit by using background

knowledge.

4) From describe events, ideas, etc., infer links and connection

between events, deduce, causes and effect, detect such relation as

main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information,

generalization, and exemplification.

5) Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.

6) Detect cultural specific references and interpret them in a context

of the appropriate cultural schemata.

7) Develop and use a battery of reading strategies, such as scanning

and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning

of words from context, and activating schemata for interpretation

of texts.

b. Micro Skills

1) Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthography of

English.

2) Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short term

memories.

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3) Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.

4) Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and

their significance.

5) Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), system

(e.g., tenses, agreement), pattern, rules, and elliptical forms.

6) Recognize that plural meaning may be expressed in different

grammatical forms.

7) Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in

signaling the relationship between among clauses.

The purpose of reading comprehension in this research is to find

specific information in the text. So, the macro skills and micro skills

which are evaluated in this research as follows:

1) Macro skills

a) Infer the context that is not explicit by using background

knowledge.

b) Develop and use a battery of reading strategies, such as

scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing

the meaning of words from context, and activating schemata for

interpretation of texts.

2) Micro skills

a) Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.),

system (e.g., tenses, agreement), pattern, rules, and elliptical

forms.

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b) Recognize that plural meaning may be expressed in different

grammatical forms.

From the explanation above, reading comprehension for macro

skills and micro skills can be specified as information to assess the

students from the multiple perspectives.

4. Major Components of Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the process of understanding and

constructing meaning from a piece of the text. According to Leu and

Kinzer (1987: 30-38) reading comprehension process involves a number of

important components as follows:

a. Decoding Knowledge

The readers are used to determine the oral equivalent of a written

word.

b. Vocabulary knowledge

Vocabulary knowledge is important at all grade levels, but is a

particularly important aspect of reading instruction as children develop

and explore less familiar subject areas with somewhat specialized

vocabularies.

c. Syntactic Knowledge

Syntactic knowledge includes understanding word order rules that exist

within sentences and permit you to determine the grammatical function

and often the meaning of pronunciation of words.

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d. Discourse Knowledge

Discourse knowledge is the knowledge of language organization at

units beyond the single sentence level. It includes knowledge of the

structural organization of different types of writing.

e. Readiness Aspects

Reading readiness is the ability of a student to benefit from initial

reading instruction. Recently, reading readiness has also included

being ready to read and understand a particular selection.

f. Affective Aspects

Affective aspects of reading comprehension include a reader‟s attitude

and interest in reading.

From all the definition above, it can be concluded that reading

comprehension is a process in which involved of written word and

understanding the meaning consist all of aspects and bring the knowledge.

B. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning can be characterized as a social process in which

knowledge is acquired through the successful interaction between the group

members.

According to Slavin in Isjoni (2011: 15) state that, “In cooperative

learning methods, students work together in four member teams to master

material initially presented by the teacher.Moreover, Johnson in Hasan as

quoted by Isjoni (2011: 16) cooperative learning is the instructional use of

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small group that allows students work together to maximize their own and each

other as learning.

From those definitions, we can conclude that cooperative learning a study

of small group to work together and help one another to maximize their own

learning.

Cooperative learning enhances creativity and provides the students with

tools for critical thinking and problem solving. It is regarded as a student‟s-

centered way of teaching. Documented results include improved academic

achievement, improved behavior and attendance, increased self-confidence and

motivation, and increased liking of school and classmates.

1. Characteristic of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning promoted skills within the group including better

communication, mutual liking, and high acceptance. According to Johnson

in Brown and Klein it identified the five elements effective for group

learning. These elements are: positive interdependence, face-to-face

orientation, individual accountability, group processing, and social skills.

a. Positive interdependence

Designing the group experience so that group members believe they need

each other to achieve group goals.

b. Face to face orientation

Students engaging in techniques that encourage each other to learn.

c. Individual accountability

Focuses on rewarding the group based on each individual‟s performance.

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d. Group processing

Groups are required to reflect on and openly discuss the strengths and

weaknesses of the participation of each member of the group.

e. Social skill

It requirement that skills, such as leadership and conflict management,

are taught to students.

All characteristics of cooperative learning above changes the teacher‟s

role from being in front of the learners doing most of the talking (and most

of the work) to becoming a facilitator who guides learner learning in both

academic as well as the social realm.

2. Advantages of Cooperative Learning Models

Cooperative learning is the instruction that involves student

working in teams to accomplish a common goal. Based on article from The

Expert Educator (Jones, et al., 1994) the positive point of cooperative

learning models as follows:

a. Learners usually enjoy working together because they are actively

involved in the learning.

b. Helping learners learn to cooperate in their groups.

c. Learners learn valuable social skills.

d. Cooperative learning can be used successfully with a variety of other

teaching strategies.

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e. Learners learn trust building, communication and leadership skills from

which they benefit for the rest of their lives in the work place, or in

relationships.

From the advantages above, it can be concluded that cooperative

learning models can develop the social and group skills necessary for

success outside the classroom. Besides that, motivating the students also

promoting positive and socio economic groups.

3. Types of Cooperative Learning Models

There are different types of cooperative teams and many ways to form

them. The type of team being formed and the purpose of the team help to

determine the appropriate technique for team formation. Here, the types of

activity in cooperative learning model.

a. Students Team-Achievement Divisions (STAD)

1) Teacher presents skill or information lesson.

2) Students then work in teacher selected groups to master the

information.

3) These teacher-selected groups are designed to be heterogeneous in

terms of achievement, gender and ethnicity.

4) Students are tested individual, and those who I, prove over previous

test score or who do well can help their group earn recognition.

(Slavin, 2008: 143)

b. Jigsaw

1) A cooperative learning strategy that was designed by Aronson.

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2) Students are assigned into groups of 4 or 5, and the material that

needs to be learned is divided into the same number of students.

3) Each member of the group is assigned a part of the information to

learn.

4) Members of each group who have the same assigned material meet

as Expert Groups, to learn the assigned material.

5) Students are tested individually on the material. (Slavin, 2008: 236)

c. Think-pair-share Technique

This approach is useful for encouraging time on task, and, listening to

each other. In this approach, the instructor poses a question to the class,

students think about the question, and students share their thoughts with

other students.

1) The instructor poses a question to the class.

2) Students then think about the question silently.

3) Next, individuals pair up and exchange thoughts.

4) Finally, the pairs share their responses with the entire group.

d. Round table
Round table can be used for brainstorming, reviewing, or practicing

while also serving as a team builder. Sequential from: students sit in

teams of 3 or more, with one piece of paper and one pencil. The teacher

asks a question which has multiple answers. Students take turns writing

one answer on the paper, and then passing the paper and pencil

clockwise to the next person. When time is called, teams with the most

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correct answer are recognized. Teams reflect on their strategies and

consider ways could improve. Simultaneous form: Each student start

pieces of paper, writes one answer, and passes it, so several papers are

moving at once. (Kagan)

e. Numbered Heads Together

This structure is useful for quickly reviewing objective material in fun

way. The students in each time are numbered (each time might have 4

students numbered 1, 2, 3, 4). Students coach each other material on

material to be mastered. Teachers‟ pose a question and call a number.

Points for their team, building both individual accountability and

positive interdependence. This may be done with only one student in the

class responding (sequential form), or with all the numbers, 3‟s for

instance, responding using an Every Pupil Response technique such as

cards or hands signals. (Kagan)

From all of types cooperative learning models can be applied to a wide

variety of classroom activities. Cooperative learning models have been

shown to increase student self esteem, group relations, and collaborative

ability.

C. Round Table Technique

This technique requires each student in a group to have input. It is a good

technique for reviewing material or to create simple applications to a concept.

According to Lom (2012) state that the goal this technique is to generate as

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many responses as possible from all members of the group in a defined period

of time. Round Table based on the instructor asks students to collaborate in

small groups on a specific prompt that can generate multiple responses.

Students share a single piece of paper that gets passed around their circle

rapidly. Roundtables are often followed by a reporting mechanism in which

the professor calls on groups to share their responses. The report-out

instructions might ask for no repeated answers, the most predictable answer,

the most creative answer, etc. Finally, the instructor may choose to collect the

Roundtable papers after the exercise to get a full record of all the small group

conversations.

Kagan in Arra (2011: 115) this approach is useful as a content-related

team building exercise. In this approach, the instructor poses a problem with

many possible answers. The students write an answer and pass the sheet

amongst the group. Finally, the group discusses all possible answers on the

sheet.

According to Colgan (2010) the teacher needs to apply the steps as

follows:

a. Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6).

b. One person in your group should briefly state an answer to the

following question and write it down in abbreviated form on a piece of

paper.

c. Pass the paper clockwise (left) and have the next student add an

answer.

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d. Continue until everyone has had a chance to answer at least once. If

time, keep going. Students may be allowed to say “pass” only once.

e. Randomly choose a group and or student to share a favorite group

answer.

Another way Round Table can be used for brainstorming ideas,

possible answers to a question or generating a group of questions. This

activity improves the teamwork. Members of the team share responses

with one another teammates.

1. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Round Table

Round Table technique is an active learning strategy that has many

benefits. As stated by Lom (2012), by using this technique there are two

point. First, Round Table ensures that every student in the classroom is

generating knowledge and contributing to a discussion simultaneously.

Second, this technique can also be used as a way to help students rapidly

generate a variety of diverse ideas as potential starting places for

assignments.

However, this technique has several limitations. First, it can create

a level of noise in class that can be uncomfortable for some teacher.

Second, it need long time for teaching learning process.

Another important part of Round Table technique are particularly

well suited to brainstorming exercises. Roundtables can quickly transform

the energy. An example of Round Table technique can also be an effective

tool for test preparation.

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2. The Procedural Steps of Round Table

There are four procedural steps of round table technique, repeated as

students read and discuss a selection as follows:

a. Grouping

Grouping is the first step where the students are asked to make a group

consist of 4-6 members. After that, each group has to choose one of the

members to be a leader of the group.

b. Predicting

During the second steps, ask students what they expect to find when

they read. At the beginning ask questions like.

What will a story with this title be about? Why? ,

Who do you think will be in a story with this title? Why,

Where do you think this story will take place? Why?

c. Reading

Students are asked to read silently in order to get the specific

information in the text and check their prediction.

d. Proving

During this fourth step, ask students to evaluate their predictions

within the context of a discussion. Ask questions like, was your guess

correct? Why or why not? (Leu and Kinzer, 1987: 222)

From all the procedural steps above can organize well. Besides

that, make the students have already and understand about the material.

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D. Basic Assumption

One of the language skills that should be learned by the students is

reading. To build motivation is not an easy way for reading. Round table

technique is one way to help students in reading activity in the class. This

technique can encourage the students‟ motivation in reading comprehension.

By applying round table technique, the students able to understand the

content of the text and they can get any ideas in reading activities. It was

assumed that, by applying this technique, their reading comprehension will be

better.

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