International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 2012, 3(3):404-411

Use of Sea Weed Extracts as Plant Growth Regulators for Sustainable Agriculture

D. Panda1, K. Pramanik1 and B. R. Nayak2

Department of ASEPAN (Agronomy, Soil Science, Agricultural Engineering, Plant Physiology and Animal Science), Institute
1

of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati University, Sriniketan, West Bengal (731 236), India

2
RRTTS, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Chipilima, Sambalpur (Orissa)

Article Histor y Abstract

Manuscript No. 305 Sea weed extracts are the inexpensive source of naturally occurring plant growth
Received in 1st April, 2012 regulators which have greater potential as biostimulants in agriculture. The endogenous
Received in revised form 30th August, 2012 plant growth regulators present in the sea weed extracts and concentrates is thought to
Accepted in final form 3rd September, 2012 be involved in the promoting plant growth and yield. Different plant phytohormones
and growth regulators present in sea weed extracts are known to enhance the yield
and yield attributes of crops, when applied exogenously. Seaweed liquid fertilizers
Correspondence to are useful for achieving higher agricultural production, because the extract contains
growth promoting hormones like Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins, Abscisic
E-mail: [email protected]
*
acid, Ethylene, Betaine and Polyamines other than the trace elements, vitamins, amino
acids, antibiotics and micronutrients. This paper reviews the literature supporting evidence
Key words for the occurrence of plant growth regulators in sea weed extracts and seaweed concetrates
and their use for sustainable agriculture and horticulture.
Seaweed extract, Sea weed concentrate,
plant growth regulator

1. Introduction 2. Chemical composition of Sea weeds

Seaweeds and various seaweed extracts have been utilized Seaweeds contain a diverse range of organic compounds which
in agricultural practices since long. The extracts of marine includes several common amino acids inter alia aspartic acid,
macroalgae viz. brown, red and green algae are known to have glutamic acid and alanine in commercially important species.
positive effect on growth and yield of crops. The brown algae Alginic acid, laminarin and mannitol represent nearly half of
are the most commonly used sea weeds in agriculture. Sea the total carbohydrate content of commercial seaweed preparations.
weed extracts contain different phytohormones like Auxins, Seaweeds also contain a wide range of vitamins which might
Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid, Ethylene, Betaine be utilized by crops. Vitamins C, B, (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin),
and Polyamines and other growth promoters along with trace B12, D3, E, K, niacin, pantothenic, folic and folinic acids occur
elements, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics and micronutrients in algae. Although vitamin A is not present, the presence of its
which enhance the yield and yield attributes of crops, when precursor carotene and another possible precursor, fucoxanthin has
applied exogenously. Sustainable agriculture is the successful been found (Stephenson, 1968). Apart from the above organic
management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing and inorganic constituents, there is evidence of presence
human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of of substances of a more stimulatory and antibiotic nature.
the environment and conserving natural resources (CGIAR, The organic constituents of sea weed extract include plant
1978). Sea weeds and sea weed extracts which are important hormones which elicit strong physiological responses in low
components of organic farming are a promising avenue for doses (Crouch and van Staden, 1993).
yield maximization through their biostimulatory role on crop
3. Plant hormones found in Sea weed extracts
plants. Sea weeds and their extracts are integral to sustainable
farming because of their multifarious utility in various fields Various phytohormones and plant growth regulator are found
of agriculture including nutrient and crop management, growth in different sea weed concentrates and marine macroalgal
promotion and plant protection etc. extracts viz. Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins , Abscisic acid,

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Ethylene, Betaine and Polyamines and simulate plant growth IAA occurs as an inactive conjugate with carboxyl groups,
when applied exogenously. glycans, amino acids, and peptides, which, upon hydrolysis,
3.1. Auxins are converted to free active IAA (Bartel 1997), where as in
marine algae, it occurs as conjugates of indole and amino
Auxins or auxin-like compounds are known to occur endogenously
acids (Stirk et al., 2004).
in many marine algae. The presence of indole-3-acetic acid
(IAA) has been recorded in a range of marine algae, like 3.2. Cytokinins
Nereocystis spp., Ecklonia maxima, Macrocystis pyrifera, Cytokinin is the most common phytohormone recorded from
Ascophyllum nodosum, Porphyra perforata, Fucus vesiculosus, sea weed extracts. Cytokinins have been detected in fresh
Caulerpa paspaloides and Sargassum heterophyllum etc. seaweeds (Hussein and Boney 1969) a well as seaweed ex-
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) has also been found in Caulerpa tracts (Brain and others 1973). The cytokinins present in sea-
paspaloides, S. heterophyllum and other algae. Auxin-like weed extracts include trans-zeatin, trans-zeatin riboside, and
substances like phenyl-3-aceticacid (PAA), hydroxyphenyl dihydro derivatives of these two forms (Stirk and van Staden
aceticacid (OH-PAA) from Undaria pinnatifida extracts (Abe 1997). Seawater taken from the Fucus-Ascophyllum zone is
., 1972 and 1974) and 3(hydroxyacetyl) indole in Prionitis found to contain cytokinin as 6-(3-methyl-2-butenylamino)
lanceolate extracts (Bernart and Gerwick, 1990) have been purine. Different cytokinins like Iso-pentenyl adenosine,
reported. IAA has been found in hydrolyzed, liquified A. zeatin, zeatin riboside, dihydrozeatin, iso-pentenyladenine,
nodosum commercial preparation. The seaweed concentrate of 2-hydroxy-6-methylaminopurine and 2-hydroxy-1-meth-
the brown alga Ecklonia maxima, exhibits a remarkable root ylzeatin have been reported from Sargassum muticum, Por-
promoting ability when applied to cuttings, which is attributed phyra perforata and Chara globularis. Most crop responses
to endogenous indoles like Indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA); to seaweed are thought to be primarily due to the cytokinin
N,N-dimethyltryptamine; indole-3-aldehyde (IAId); and in group of plant hormones. Seaweed extracts with cytokinin
addition, iso-indole, 1, 3-dione (N-hydroxyethylphthalimide) activity are capable of producing physiological change, even
in the extracts (Crouch and Van Staden,1991). In higher plants when applied at low concentrations used under field conditions.
Several cytokinins like trans-zeatin, trans-zeatin riboside and
Table 1: Extracts of some Sea weeds with growth stimulant their dihydro derivatives; iso-pentenyladenine; iso-pentenyl
role in Agriculture and Horticulture adenosine and several cytokinin glucosides have been identified
and quantified in a several seaweed extracts.
Sl. Species Algal type Application
No 3.3. Gibberellins
1 Ascophyllum nodosum Brown algae PGS The presence of gibberellin-like substances in seaweeds is
2 Macrocycstis pyrifera Red algae PGS well known. The presence of gibberellic acid in Enteromorpha
prolifera and Ecklonia radiata has been confirmed (Jennings,
3 Ecklonia maxima Brown algae PGS
1968). At least two compounds have been recorded that
4 Durvillea antarctica Brown algae PB
behave like the gibberellins GA3 and GA7, although these
5 Durvillea protatorum Brown algae PGS may be vitamins A1, and A4 (Stephenson, 1968). A terpenoid,
6 Porphyra perforata Red algae PGS α-tocopherol a major component of the E group of vitamins
7 Fucus vesiculosus Brown algae PGS present in sea weeds, may mimic gibberellin activity(Gopala,
8 Caulerpa paspaloides Green algae PGS 1984; Jensen,1969). Gibberellin-like compounds are also readily
found in a diversity of seaweeds. It is thought that these compounds
9 Sargassum Brown algae PGS
may break down during the manufacturing process. Gibberellin
heterophyllum
activity has been found in some freshly made-up seaweed
10 Nereocystis spp. Red algae PGS
preparations.
11 Chara globularis Brown algae PGS
3.4. Abscisic Acid
12 Sargassum muticum Brown algae PGS
The presence of water soluble growth inhibitors like Abscisic
13 Enteromorpha prolifera Green algae PGS
acid has been confirmed in Laminaria digitata, Ascophyllum
14 Cyanidium caldarium Red algae PGS nodosum (Hussian and Boney,1973) and Ulva lactuca (Hartmann
15 Laminaria digitata Brown algae PGS and Kester,1983). There is presence of higher level of abscisic
16 Ulva lactuca Green algae GR acid in some commercial extracts of A. nodosum. ABA is also
PGS: Plant growth stimulant; PB: Plant biostimulant; GR: present in the green algae Enteromorpha compressa (Niemann
Growth retardant and Dorfiiing, 1980). The water-soluble growth inhibitors

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International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 2012, 3(3):404-411

extracted from Laminaria digitata and A. nodosum resulted influence plant growth. At present they have not been recorded
in marked inhibition of lettuce hypocotyl growth (Hussain in commercial seaweed products.
and Boney 1973).
4. Effect of Sea weed extracts on Plant Growth and Yield
3.5. Ethylene
Sea weed extracts affects various aspects of growth and
There are few studies on ethylene, but the precursor of
development including overall health of the plants. The effect
ethylene,1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) was
of sea weed extracts on crop plants can be discussed on the
found in the sea weed concentrate prepared from the brown
aspects like root development and mineral absorption, effect
kelp E. maxima. The level of the ethylene-releasing compound
on shoot growth and photosynthesis, effect on crop yield and
was estimated as 9.29 nmol ml-1(Nelson and Van Staden,1985).
The presence of ethylene in SWC, however, still remains to vegetative propagation.
be demonstrated. 4.1. Root development and mineral absorption
3.6. Betaines Seaweed products promote root growth and development (Metting
Betaines are the compounds found in the extracts of sea weeds et al., 1990; Jeannin et al., 1991). The root-growth stimulatory
which behave like cytokinins. Betaines have been isolated from effect is more pronounced when extracts were applied at an
many of the species of brown algae used for the production early growth stage in maize, and the response was similar to
of seaweed extracts. Ascophyllum nodosum extracts contain that of auxin, an important root growth-promoting hormone
c-aminobutyric acid betaine, d-aminovaleric acid betaine and (Jeannin et al., 1991). SWC application is found to reduce
laminine whilst Laminaria species have a range of betaines transplant shock in seedlings of marigold, cabbage and tomato
including glycine betaine (Blunden et al., 1986). In plants, by increasing root size and vigor. SWC treatment enhanced
betaines serve as a compatible solute that alleviates osmotic both root: shoot ratios and biomass accumulation in tomato
stress induced by salinity and drought stress;however, other seedlings and wheat by stimulating root growth, indicating that
roles have also been suggested (Blunden and Gordon,1986), the components in the seaweed had a considerable effect on root
such as enhancing leaf chlorophyllcontent of plants following development. The root-growth-promoting activity is observed
their treatment with sea weed extracts (Blunden et al., 1997). when the seaweed extracts are applied either to the roots or as
This increase in chlorophyll content may be due to a decrease a foliar spray (Biddington and Dearman 1983; Finnie and van
in chlorophyll degradation (Whapham et al., 1993). Yield Staden 1985). The concentration of SWC is a critical factor in
enhancement effects due to improved chlorophyll content its effectiveness as in tomato plants high concentrations(1:100
in leaves of various crop plants have been attributed to the seaweed extract: water) inhibits root growth but stimulatory effects
betaines present in the seaweed (Genard et al., 1991; Blunden are found at a lower concentration (1:600). Biostimulants in
et al. 1997). It has been indicated that betaine may work as a general are capable of affecting root development by both
nitrogen source when provided in low concentration and serve improving lateral root formation and increasing total volume
as an osmolyte at higher concentrations (Naidu et al., 1987). of the root system (Atzmon and van Staden, 1994; Vernieri
Betaines have been shown to play a part in successful formation et al., 2005). An improved root system could be influenced by
of somatic embryos from cotyledonary tissues and mature seeds endogenous auxins as well as other compounds in the extracts.
of tea (Wachira and Ogada 1995; Akula et al. 2000). Seaweed extracts improve nutrient uptake by roots, resulting
in root systems with improved water and nutrient efficiency,
3.7. Polyamines
thereby causing enhanced general plant growth and vigor.
The polyamines are a group of compounds that act as plant
4.2. Effect on Shoot Growth and Photosynthesis 
growth regulators but are not classified as plant hormones.
These are a class of compounds, which have several amino Seaweeds and seaweed products enhance plant chlorophyll
groups replacing hydrogen usually in alkyl chain e.g. putrescine, content (Blunden et al., 1997). Application of a low concen-
spermidine and spermine. Polyamines are known to have tration of Ascophyllum nodosum extract to soil or on foliage
significant effect on the stability of various conformational of tomatoes produced leaves with higher chlorophyll content
states of RNA and DNA and are often associated with important than those of untreated controls. This increase in chlorophyll
phases in cell division cycle. They also impart membrane content is due to reduction in chlorophyll degradation, which
stability to different cellular membranes. Several polyamines might be caused in part by betaines in the seaweed extract.
have been determined in the unicellular thermoacidophilic Glycine betaine delays the loss of photosynthetic activity by
red alga, Cyanidium caldarium (Hamana et al., 1990). As inhibiting chlorophyll degradation during storage conditions
polyamines affect a wide range of physiological growth processes, in isolated chloroplasts. The extracts of Ascophyllum nodosum
the occurrence of these compounds in seaweed products could have been shown to affect the root growth of Arabidopsis at

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Table 2: Different physiological roles of Sea weed extracts similar to plant growth regulators
Sl Plant growth Implied physiological roles similar to plant growth regulators References
No. regulators in
Seaweed extract
1 Auxin as IAA a. Extract of Ecklonia maxima exhibited remarkable root-promoting Crouch et al., 1992;
and conjugates activity on mung bean Crouch and van
of indole and b. Increased rooting in marigold (Tagetus patula) by treatment with Staden,1991;
amino acids Ecklonia maxima extracts (10% SWC Kelpak) for about 18 hours Crouch et al., 1990
c. Seaweed extracts improve water and nutrient uptake by roots Crouch and van
with improved water and nutrient efficiency, thereby causing Staden,1991;
enhanced general plant growth and vigor.
2 Cytokinins as a.Photosynthates partitioning and nutrient mobilization in treated Stirk and van Staden,1997;
trans-zeatin, plants Hahn et al, 1974;
trans-zeatin b. Seaweed extracts contain substantial amounts of cytokinins which McKersie and Leshem
riboside, and is known to mitigate abiotic stress-induced free radicals 1994; Fike et al. 2001
dihydro (i) by antioxidative enzyme activities which scavenges several Ayad,1998 ; Fike et al.,
derivatives of reactive oxygen species (ROS) 2001
these two forms (ii) direct scavenging by preventing ROS formation by inhibiting Featonby-Smith and van
xanthine oxidation Staden 1983a, b, 1984
c. Yield increases in seaweed-treated plants are thought to be
associated with cytokinin present in the extracts
3. Gibberellins a. Using the lettuce hypocotyl bioassay, the presence of Gibberellins William et al.,1976
in the extracts of Ascophyllum nodosum has been detected Rayorath et al.,2008
b. A nodosum extract induce amylase activity independent of GA3
and might act in concert with GA-dependent amylase production
leading to enhanced germination and seedling vigor in barley
4. Ethylene Not known
5. Abscisic acid The water-soluble growth inhibitors extracted from Laminaria Hussain and Boney,1973;
digitata and A. nodosum resulted in marked Tietz et al.,
inhibition of lettuce hypocotyl growth 1989; Kingman and
Moore,1982
6. Betaines Increase in chlorophyll content in treated plants by reducing Whapham et al., 1993
chlorophyll degradation
7. Polyamines Not known

very low concentrations (0.1 g L-1), whereas plant height and in seaweed-treated plants are thought to be associated with
number of leaves were affected at concentrations of 1 g L-1 the hormonal substances present in the extracts, especially
(Rayorath et al., 2008). cytokinins (Featonby-Smith and van Staden 1983a, b, 1984).
Plants treated with extracts shows growth enhancement effects Cytokinins in vegetative plant organs are associated with nutrient
over control plants; for example, plants treated with A. nodosum partitioning, whereas in reproductive organs, high levels of
extract were at a more advanced developmental stage when cytokinins may be linked with nutrient mobilization. Cytokinin
compared with untreated plants and the effect is concentration in sea weed concentrate shifts distribution of photosynthate
dependent. Application of Sea weed extracts improves plant from vegetative parts (roots, stem, and young leaves) to the
mineral uptake by the roots and in the leaves. developing fruit and promotes fruit development. Seaweed
extract induces early flowering and increases fruit yield when
4.3. Effect on crop yield 
sprayed on tomato plants during the vegetative stage, produc-
Seaweed extracts probably encourage flowering by initiating ing large sized fruits with superior quality (Crouch and van
robust plant growth (Abetz and Young 1983). Yield increases Staden,1992). Seaweed concentrates trigger early flowering

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International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 2012, 3(3):404-411

Table 3: Physiological effects elicited by seaweed extracts and possible mechanism(s) of bioactivity
Mode of application Effects Possible Mechanisms
Aerial application
1. Seed treatment • Growth responses
2. Seedling dip 1. Improved shoot and root growth • Modulation of phytohormones
3. Foliar spray 2. Higher flowering and fruit set • Increased photosynthetic efficiency and
3. Better yield carbon assimilation
• Delayed senescence
• Biotic stress resistance • Antimicrobial
1. Resistance to fungal, bacterial • Antifeedant and insect repellant
and viral pathogens • Up regulation of disease resistance genes
2. Resistance to insect pests e.g. PR genes
• Abiotic stress resistance • Reduced transpiration
1. Salt and drought resistance • Enhanced stomatal conductance
2. Freezing and chilling resistance • Upregulation of subset of stress resistance
3. Enhanced photosynthesis metabolome
• Enhanced nutritional quality • Altered metabolism
• Upregulation of biosynthetic enzyme
Soil application
1.Incorporation of • Suppression of soil borne • Antimicrobial
marine bioproducts • diseases and nematodes • Enhanced growth of friendly microbes
2.Soil drenching • Abiotic stress resistance • Anti-infective
3. Addition of extracts • Improved modulation • Altered metabolism
to hydroponics • Promote plant growth promoting • Modulation of root exudates
• rhizobacteria • Differential expression of signal
molecules
• and biosynthetic enzymes
• Water and low temperature stress resistance • Altered root architecture
• Efficient water and nutrient uptake

and fruit set in a number of crop plants. Sea weed extract of rooting in cuttings in certain species that are difficult to root.
Ecklonia maxima is found to increase the number of flowers Increased rooting has been observed in marigold (Tagetus
and seeds flower-1 head in marigold when applied immediately patula) treated with 10% the sea weed concentrate Kelpak
after transplanting (Aldworth and van Staden,1987). (Ecklonia maxima) for about 18 hours (Crouch and van Staden
Application of Ascophyllum nodosum extract has been shown 1991). Similarly, Kelpak, when applied at a 1:100 dilution, is
to increase the yield of cauliflower, lettuce, and maize (Abetz found to increase the number of rooted cuttings and improve
and Young 1983; Jeannin et al., 1991). Foliar application of the vigor of the roots in difficult-to-root cuttings of Pinus
Ecklonia maxima extracts is known to enhance yield in bean, pinea (Atzmon and van Staden 1994). Foliar application of
wheat, barley and peppers (Nelson and van Staden,1984; Beckett commercial liquid seaweed extract from Ascophyllum nodosum,
and van Staden, 1989; Featonby-Smith and van Staden, 1987; supplemented with BA and IBA, enhances the number of
Arthur et al., 2003). Ascophyllum nodosum extract has also propagules (crown divisions) plant -1 in the ornamental
been shown to have positive effects on the yield of Thompson herbaceous perennial Hemerocallis sp (Leclerc et al., 2006).
seedless grape (Norrie and Keathley,2006). 4.5. Role in alleviation of different abiotic stresses in crop
4.4. Role in vegetative propagation  plants 
Seaweed products are exploited in conventional vegetative Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and temperature
propagation (Crouch and van Staden 1991; Atzmon and van extremes can reduce the yield of major crops and limit agricultural
Staden 1994; Kowalski et al., 1999) in many crop species. It production worldwide. Salinity and drought are becoming wide
is a common practice to apply auxins exogenously to enhance spread in many regions of the world, with an estimated 50%

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of all arable lands possibly being salinized by 2050 (Flowers Chemistry 38, 897-898.
and Yeo 1995). Many abiotic factors such as drought, salinity, and Abetz, P., Young, C.L., 1983. The effect of seaweed extract
temperature are manifested as osmotic stress and cause sec- sprays derived from Ascophyllum nodosum on lettuce and
ondary effects like oxidative stress, leading to an accumulation cauliflower crops. Botanica Marina XXVI, 487-492.
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as the superoxide anion Akula, A., Akula, C., Bateson, M., 2000. Betaine: a novel
and hydrogen peroxide. These are known to damage DNA, candidate for rapid induction of somatic embryogenesis
lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins and also cause aberrant in tea (Camellia sinensis [L.] O. Kuntze). Plant Growth
cell signaling. Seaweed extracts from Ascophyllum nodosum Regulation 30, 241-246.
have been shown to contain betaines, including gamma-amino Aldworth, S.J., van Staden, J., 1987. The effect of seaweed
butyric acid betaine, 6-aminovaleric acid betaine, and glycine- concentrate on seedling transplants. South African Journal
betaine. Plants sprayed with seaweed extracts also exhibit of Botany 53,187-189.
enhanced salt and freezing tolerance (Mancuso et al., 2006). Arthur, G.D., Stirk, W.A., van Staden, J., 2003. Effect of a
Commercial formulations of Ascophyllum extracts are known seaweed concentrate on the growth and yield of three
to improve freezing tolerance in grapes. Seaweed extracts varieties of Capsicum annuum. South African Journal
which contain substantial amounts of cytokinins are known of Botany, 207-211.
to mitigate stress-induced free radicals by direct scavenging Atzmon, N., van Staden, J., 1994. The effect of seaweed
and by preventing reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation concentrate on the growth of Pinus pinea seedlings. New
by inhibiting xanthine oxidation (McKersie and Leshem, 1994; Forests 8, 279-288.
Fike et al. 2001). It is hypothesized that seaweed extract-induced Ayad, J.Y., 1998. The effect of seaweed extract (Ascophyllum
heat tolerance in plants might be attributed largely to the cytokinin nodosum) extract on antioxidant activities and drought
components in the seaweed extracts (Ervin et al. 2004; Zhang tolerance of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.).
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5. Conclusion
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