COMMUNITY TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, PERCEPTIONS

AND RESPONSE TO FLOOD RISKS IN NYANDO BASIN,

WESTERN KENYA

NYAKUNDI HELLEN MWANGO (BA)

REG NO: I57/5672/03

A THESIS SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN
THE SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

JUNE 2010
ii

Declaration

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university or any other award.

------------------------------------ -----------------------
Nyakundi Hellen Mwango Date
(I57/5672/03)

We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under
our supervision.

-------------------------------------- ----------------------
Dr. Isaac Mwanzo Date
Department of Public Health,
School of Health Sciences‟
Kenyatta University

-------------------------------- ----------------------
Dr. Andre Yitambe Date
Department of Public Health,
School of Health Sciences,
Kenyatta University

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Dedication

To my parents, Mrs. Eunice Nyakundi and Mr. Alphayo Nyakundi. This degree reflects
their hard work just as much as it does mine. Without them I would not have been able to
achieve this goal-thank you.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank several people who have contributed to the successful completion of
this work:

First and foremost, grateful thanks are extended to my university supervisors, Dr Isaac
Mwanzo, Dr Andre Yitambe and Mr. Steven Mogere, who guided me throughout the
study. The criticism, comments and advice from other members of staff in the department
and classmates at different stages of the thesis are also highly appreciated.

Gratitude goes to the field assistants and all who took part in the field work. I would also
like to show appreciation to the residents of Nyando District for their hospitality and
willingness to participate in the study.

Special thanks to my family: my mum and dad for providing me with everything I needed
to maintain my direction and stay focused; my siblings: Rose, Ben, William and Ruth, for
their encouragement; and my daughter Chudia, for being a constant source of joy and
inspiration.

This investigation received further financial support from the ProVention Consortium and
I am very grateful for the scholarship. Above all, thanks to God for His grace, strength
and sustenance.

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Table of contents

Declaration ......................................................................................................................ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv
Table of contents ............................................................................................................. v
List of tables .................................................................................................................viii
List of figures ................................................................................................................. ix
List of pictures ................................................................................................................ x
Abbreviations and acronyms .......................................................................................... xi
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background information ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 The problem statement .............................................................................................. 4
1.3 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Study objectives ........................................................................................................ 6
1.5 The Study was guided by the following research questions: ....................................... 7
1.6 Null Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 7
1.7 Significance of the study (rationale) ........................................................................... 7
1.8 Scope of study and limitations ................................................................................... 7
1.9 Assumptions .............................................................................................................. 8
1.10 Conceptual framework ............................................................................................. 8
1.11 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................... 10
1.12 Operational definition of terms .............................................................................. 13
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 16
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Nature of flood risks ................................................................................................ 16
2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health ................................................................. 18
2.4 Vulnerability to Flood Risks .................................................................................... 20
2.5 Behavioural response to flood risks ......................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Coping mechanism ............................................................................................... 22

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2.5.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and warning ...................................... 23

2.6 Attitude towards external support ............................................................................ 24
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 26
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Location of study ..................................................................................................... 26
3.3 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 27
3.5 Sampling techniques and sample size ...................................................................... 28
3.5.1 Sampling technique .............................................................................................. 28
3.5.2 Sample size determination .................................................................................... 30
3.6 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 32
3.7 Construction of research instruments ....................................................................... 33
3.7.1 Household questionnaire ....................................................................................... 33
3.7.2 Interview guide for key informants ....................................................................... 34
3.7.3 Focus group discussion ......................................................................................... 34
3.8 Pilot study ............................................................................................................... 34
3.8.1 Validity of instruments ......................................................................................... 35
3.8.2 Reliability of instruments ..................................................................................... 35
3.9 Data Collection Techniques ..................................................................................... 36
3.10 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................ 37
3.11 Data Analysis Methods .......................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................... 39
4.1 Results..................................................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 39
4.1.2 Socio demographic characteristics, education and socio-economic status .............. 39
4.1.3 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 46
4.1.4 Existing perceived risk of flooding to public health............................................... 52
4.1.5 Behavior associated with flood risk management in Nyando District .................... 56
4.1.6 External support.................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 76
4.2.1 Socio-demographic information ............................................................................ 76
4.2.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 78

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4.2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health .............................................................. 80

4.2.4 Behavior associated with flood management ......................................................... 84
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............. 92
5.1 Major findings of the study ...................................................................................... 92
5.1.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics ................................................. 92
5.1.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 92
5.1.3 Existing perceptions of impact and management of flood risks ............................. 92
5.1.4 Response behavior towards health risks ................................................................ 93
5.1.5 Attitude towards external support ......................................................................... 94
5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 94
5.3 Recommendations for implementation ..................................................................... 96
5.5 Recommendations for further research: .................................................................... 98
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 99
APPENDIX I: MAP .................................................................................................... 110
APPENDIX 11: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................. 111
APPENDIX II: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE ........................................... 130
APPENDIX III: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR KEY INFORMANTS .................... 133

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List of tables

Table 2.1: Types of floods and their characteristic impacts…………………………….1

Table 3.1: Selection of study area using the Nyando District administrative ladder……30

Table 3.2: Summary of results of Stratified Proportional Sample……………...……….31

Table 4.1: Age, gender and marital status of respondents………………………………40

Table 4.2: Socio-economic characteristics of respondent in the study area…………….42

Table 4.3: Main source of water, wall structure and roof types of households…………45

Table 4.4: Length of residency of study population in Nyando District………………..46

Table 4.5: Local knowledge of flood forecasting and warning…………………………56

Table 4.6: Summary of traditional early warning flood indicators……………………..50

Table 4.7: Use of traditional knowledge in the study area………………………….…..51

Table 4.8: Perceived presence of health hazards as a result of flooding………….….....53

Table 4.9: Survival strategies to deal with damage to shelter adopted by residents

before, during and after the flood season……………………...……………..57

Table 4.10: Reasons for staying in a flood prone area………….………………………59

Table 4.11: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of food in the study area……...…60

Table 4.12: Relationship between shortage of water and main water source…………...61

Table 4.13: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of water………………………… 62

Table 4.14: Summary of diseases suffered by respondents during the flood season……64

Table 4.15: Summary of deaths related to flooding……………………………………..66

Table 4.16: Coping strategies used to deal with loss of crop in study area……………..68

Table 4.17: Coping strategies to handle livestock during the flood season….………….69

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List of figures

Figure 2.1: A conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer

and Penning-Roswell (1990) that elicits perception and

the behavioural response to flood hazards………...………………………..9

Figure 4.1: A comparison of education levels between male and female respondents....41

Figure 4.2: A comparison of income levels of the male and female respondents…...….44

Figure 4.3: Sources of traditional flood information in the community……...…...……47

Figure 4.4: Perceptions on methods of flood prevention and control: Profile of mean

scores: N=528…………………………….…………………..…………….55

Figure 4.5: Average percentage of health care services sourced by

households during the flood season…………………...…………………....65

Figure 4.6: Effectiveness of coping strategies in study area……….………………..….70

Figure 4.7: Level of preparedness in the study area…………...………………………..71

Figure 4.8: Sources of support received during flood times in the study area……..…...72

Figure 4.9: Satisfaction levels with the amount relief aid received……………………..74

Figure 4.10: Perception of coping capabilities in the absence of external support…..…75

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List of pictures

Photo 2.1: Showing the general state of roads at onset, during and soon

after the flood season………………………………………………………...17

Photo 3.1: Selection of participants for FGD discussion (Chief‟s meeting)………...…..37

Photo 4.2: Picture showing a house with a raised floor and a boat on stand by

for evacuation of people and property during extreme flood conditions…….58

Photo 4.3: Picture shows harvesting of rainwater into a water tank; a coping

mechanism to address water problems ……………………….…………...62

Photo 4.4: A woman in Ayweyo receives 2 Kgs. of maize as an incentive for

digging/clearing a water channel. This is a government initiative:

The Food for Work Program……………………...………………………...73

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Abbreviations and acronyms

APFM - Associated Program on Flood Management

APELL - Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level

CHWs - Community Health Workers

FGD - Focus Group Discussion

GOK - Government of Kenya

GWP - Global Water Partnership

ICLR - Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction

IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IDNDR - International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

IRIN - Integrated Regional Information Network

IRMED - Institute for Resource Management and Economic Development

ISDR - International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature

LVEMP - Lake Victoria Environnent Management Programme

NGO - Non Governmental Organization

SPSS - Statistical Package of Social Sciences

TEK - Traditional Ecological Knowledge

UNDP - United Nations Development Program

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program

WHO - World Health Organization

WMO - World Meteorological Organization

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Abstract
Flooding is one of the most widespread of climatic hazards that continues to pose serious
multiple threats to public health. Globally, efforts to combat it have shifted towards long-
term commitment to capacity building and broad based community involvement in flood
risk interventions. In Kenya, the ability of local people to resist the impact of disasters
has not been given adequate attention. This was descriptive cross sectional study and the
objectives were to explore existing traditional flood knowledge, perceptions and behavior
associated with flood risks and attitude of community towards external support. Most
prone and least prone areas were selected for comparative analysis between the two risk
levels. Flood area residents and institutional representatives were sampled using simple
random sampling and a total of 528 households, 7 FGDs and 11 key informants
participated in the study. The results were derived from questionnaires, Focus Group
Discussions and key informant interviews. Data were analyzed using the SPSS Program.
Chi-square test was used to determine association and difference between two variables.
Results demonstrated in the study show that traditional flood knowledge and coping
mechanism exist in the study area (80%) and these strategies were used as a trusted
source of information and importance to this community. The findings revealed
significantly greater level of awareness of flood hazards in the high risk areas in
comparison to the low risk areas (p=0.001). They also demonstrated significant clear
spatial differences in the level of awareness and use of traditional flood knowledge
between respondents living in high and low risk areas. These were significantly
influenced by demographic variables such as age, occupation, education and length of
residency (p=.0001). Perception of risk was influenced by several variables, most notably
past experience and level of exposure to risk. The burden of diseases was significantly
higher during the flood season but the advantages of living in the flood plains seemed to
outweigh the health risks associated with flooding. The result is a combination of
innovative adjustability and passive acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these
indigenous actions were taken at the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by
floods. Aid dependency during flood disasters was found to have significantly
contributed to decreased ability cope (high risk, p=0.026; low risk, p=0.003). This study
concluded that there was a wealth of traditional flood knowledge which indicated some
ability of the locals to be resilient. Higher perception of risk did not necessarily translate
into better preparedness. Most indigenous coping actions were taken at the household
level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. The dependency syndrome and its
pitfalls for creating less resilient communities was evident in this community. This study
recommends that programs promoting the use of traditional flood knowledge should be
integrated into official flood warning methods to exploit the local ways of predicting and
coping with floods. The community needs to embrace both structural and non-structural
measures to achieve the greatest results. The Government, NGO‟s and CBO‟s dealing
with flood disasters in Nyando should focus on preparedness by enhancing local coping
capacities on protection measures in anticipation of future flood events. Flood warning
activities tailored to local social contexts will be instrumental in reducing vulnerability
and strengthening capacity of the affected communities to respond more effectively to
flood emergencies.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Flooding is one of the most widespread of all the hydro meteorological hazards causing

huge annual losses in terms of damage and disruption to economic livelihoods,

businesses, infrastructure, services and public health (Few et al., 2004).

Table 2.1: Types of floods and their characteristic impacts

Type Duration Characteristic impacts

Predictable regular Up to 3 Blocks access. Damage and displacement of population

flooding months often relatively low depending on levels of protection
Increased size of Up to 6 Blocks access to many areas. Greater potential for
regular flooding months infrastructure damage, livelihoods impacts, and large
displacement of populations.
Flash flooding A few days Rapid cresting often with little warning. High velocity
to weeks flood flows can destroy infrastructure. Population
displacement often localized.
Urban flooding A few days Can be rapid-onset, often coming flash floods in urban
to weeks rivers or from saturation or blockage of urban drainage
systems. Potential for infrastructure damage affecting
larger service area. Population displacement often
localized.
Coastal flooding A few days Often combined with wind damage from storms -.
Damage and displacement along coastline with extent
depending on storm size.
Slow-onset from 3-6 months Bock access. Depending on season, damage to crops
sustained rainfalls may be significant. Population displacement limited
and may be dependent on food security.
Adopted from McCluskey, 2001, cited in ProVention (2008)

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Flood disasters are on the rise and in the past decade, on average more than 140 plus

million people have been affected each year with annual mortality estimated at 25,000

(World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2005). Of all natural disaster deaths, 97%

occur in developing countries. Asia and Africa are the most affected continents with

floods accounting for half of these disasters. Much of Africa is vulnerable to flooding

with episodes of floods accounting for 26% of total disaster occurrences (Institute for

Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR), 2004).

In Kenya, many parts of the country experience unexpectedly heavy rainfall in mid-April

which continues through the end of May and from September to November. The areas

that are most prone to flood disasters are the Lake Victoria Basin, comprising of Nyando,

Migori, Kisumu and Busia Districts; the Tana River plains and other parts of Eastern and

Coastal provinces (Mungai, 2002).

Floods in Nyando are caused by rivers overflowing their banks due to their carrying

flows in excess of their carrying capacity within their banks. This generally happens

during the long and short rains, especially after spells of intense and heavy rainfalls in the

catchments of the rivers. The upper reaches of Nyando are in Kericho and Nandi Districts

where annual rainfall is high and it is this rain that causes the most devastating of the

floods in the basin. The flat terrain reduced vegetation cover and predominantly black

cotton soils found in the water sheds do not allow quick infiltration thus increasing

surface runoff which causes flash floods. The situation is aggravated by gulley formation

due to soil erosion, poor land use and deforestation (Onyango, 2005).

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Floods in the Kano Plains have become more severe and frequent and the rivers have

gradually lost their ability to buffer environmental variability. The historical pattern in

Nyando shows consistent deforestation and degradation over the last hundred years,

punctuated by severe worsening of these problems during the heavy rains that

accompanied El Nino events (Mungai, 2002). Flooding in the Nyando is a rapidly

growing public health problem in the area. Floods have increased the incidence of a

number of water associated diseases among people and animals, constrained crop and

tree selection, made transportation more difficult, interrupted schooling and destroyed

property and infrastructure (ibid).

The magnitude of disaster is not determined by floodwater alone but also by the pattern

of vulnerability in which people live. These people, often already vulnerable to other

disasters and stresses such as HIV/AIDS, drought, food insecurity, and on-going conflict,

are forced to live in hazardous places, building their homes and growing their food in

flood plains (ProVention, 2008). Despite the risks, many communities continue to occupy

flood plains due to economic advantages of fertile soils and availability of water supply

(United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1998). Full control of floods is not

possible or economically feasible and complete abandonment of the flood prone areas

may not be reasonable because it is not only a valuable resource but in many areas, the

only means to support life (UNEP, 2008).

The scale of damage by a flood event largely depends on the state of preparedness and

response mechanisms employed by the communities affected to combat the negative

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impact. Vulnerable people individually and collectively develop their own means,

resources and strategies to cope with flooding. Social capital e.g. reciprocal support

among neighbours, support from immediate family members and wider kinship networks

is a vital safety net for people in coping with recurrent flooding. Shahaduzzaman, (1999)

notes: “how people respond will be determined by their personal strengths, those of their

families, friends and community, and the resources which they have or receive.

The fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

2007 predicts that heavy precipitation events, which are likely to increase in frequency,

will augment flood risks. These floods will affect lives and in human settlements in all

areas, e.g. coastal zones, river deltas and mountains. With increasing climatic variability

ensuring that water related disasters will not abate any time soon, actions designed to

strengthen resilience of communities living in flood-prone locations will be increasingly

important in reducing the human burden from flooding. In this context, a focus on the

role of community perceptions and responses is crucial in developing a comprehensive

understanding of societal vulnerability and how social processes play a decisive role in

shaping coping capacities (Few et al,. 2004).

1.2 The problem statement

Flooding is a recurrent phenomenon in Nyando District. Population pressure, climate

variability, and environmental degradation on flood plain have grown and the risks that

floods pose have become increasingly evident. As per the assessment made after recent

floods, in the Kano plains, the average annual damage is about US$ 850,000 with annual

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relief and rehabilitation measures costing US$ 600,000 (Associated Programme on Flood

Management (APFM), 2004).

In the study area, interventions to address the problem of flooding over the years have not

produced desired results. This is partly because of the conventional conceptualization and

analysis of the flood problem that has ignored local perceptions and experiences and

historical processes that are the triggering factors of flood vulnerability.

There has been relatively little scientific research characterizing health outcomes of flood

hazards and similarly, little social science research targeting how vulnerable populations

perceive, respond to flood risks. There is also a growing frequency of small and medium

scale disasters related to patterns of human environmental intervention, indicating that

disaster risk is accumulating. These disasters have a larger cumulative impact but are

generally ignored by both national and international disaster management or development

policies and represent a challenge for disaster risk reduction.

1.3 Purpose of the study

A major part of improving the management of flood disasters is by gaining a more

detailed understanding of the issues at hand. Research is a vital element in this process.

Much of the existing literature on flood management in Nyando District has explored the

physical aspects of their nature and occurrence (Mungai et. al., 2002; 2004; Walsh et al.,;

2004; the Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), 2005). However, there is also

a growing literature that is examining the issue from a social perspective with calls in

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particular for more research into the social responses to flood management, (Few, 2005;

Pratt, 2002; Packham, 1992). Consequently, the present study shifts focus and instead

chooses to understand constructs of flood risk and local coping strategies as important

aspects of flood management in Nyando District.

Perception and evaluation of risk has an influence on the costs paid after a disaster.

Millions of shillings are spent on flood relief programs annually in the study area and that

underscores the relevance of this study. Additionally, in order to develop effective

information strategies and policies (risk communication), there is need for baseline data

on community perceptions and response to flood risks.

1.4 Study objectives

The main objective of this study was to investigate how communities in Nyando District

perceive and respond to flood risks in order to develop effective flood warning activities

that are tailored to local social contexts.

The specific objectives were to:

i. Explore traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early warning of flood

risks.

ii. Establish communities‟ perceptions of floods risks.

iii. Identify behavior associated with flood risk management in the study area.

iv. Assess attitude of the Nyando communities towards external support systems.

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1.5 The Study was guided by the following research questions:

i. What is the existing traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early warning

of flood risks?

ii. How do Nyando communities perceive flood risks?

iii. What are the existing response mechanisms to flood risks?

iv. What is the attitude of Nyando communities towards external support systems?

1.6 Null Hypothesis

Level of exposure to risk does not influence awareness and use of traditional knowledge,

perceptions of flood risks, response mechanisms and attitude towards external support of

Nyando communities.

1.7 Significance of the study (rationale)

The potential utility of the study is to reduce vulnerability; to strengthen capacity of the

affected communities to respond more effectively to flood emergencies and to provide

insights into possibility of a more integrated approach to flood prevention and coping

with loss.. This study is envisaged to benefit the following groups of people: rural

communities living in flood prone areas, disaster managers, policy makers, researchers

and scholars, and funding agencies.

1.8 Scope of study and limitations

i. Kenya has experienced several flood disasters that have occurred in different parts

of the country but the present study concentrated on Nyando District with a

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population of 332,137 (Kenya, 2002-2008). This was necessitated by the available

resources and the time frame within which the project was to be completed.

ii. The study was not connected to any concrete flood but to related flood experience/s

by the respondents.

iii. Conclusions are based on information elicited from the fieldwork.

iv. Results obtained may not be generalized to other areas when assessing data and

making interpretations that would be appropriate across broader scales.

1.9 Assumptions

This study was based on the assumptions that:

1. The sample population was assumed to have similar characteristics with the rest

of the population residing in Nyando District; therefore they were assumed to be a

true representation of the Nyando District community.

2. Assumption was made on the information given by the respondents to be true.

1.10 Conceptual framework

This study used a conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer and Penning-

Roswell, (1990). In this model, modifications were made to focus on the inter-

relationships between human responses to a natural hazard and how the perceived threat

influences subsequent actions.

This model helps to illustrate why people continue to live in risk-prone areas. How they

assess risk is influenced by several factor; benefits of living in a flood plain, lack of

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alternatives, the unpredictability and changing nature of the risk.

Probability of a
flood hazard

Perception of risk

Risk estimation and

Perceived probability Evaluation
of risk distorted by:

Risk not
Recognizable and -Social capital: Existence acceptable
tangible benefits of of friends, relatives and
non-hazard experience wider kinship networks
Risk reducing measures:
- Adaptation
Ignorance or non-comprehension - Adjustment
of flood threats - External assistance
-
---
Individual characteristics:
Risk acceptance Age, gender, education, income, length of
residency and flood experience

Resources Availability and Control

(Human, economic, and organizational)

Figure2.1: A conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer and Penning-
Roswell, (1990) that elicits perception and the behavioural response to flood hazards.

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The model further highlights important human attributes (some quantifiable and some

non- quantifiable) affect how people perceive risk; socio-economic characteristics,

peoples Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of the environment and experience of

flood hazards.

Coping is also highlighted in the model, which illustrates risk reducing measures to

respond to unacceptable perceived threats and the role of external assistance. The

underlying factors affect each other in a complex interrelationship. Whether strategies are

effective is ultimately an outcome of resource availability and control.

1.11 Theoretical framework

This study combined the cultural theory paradigm (Thompson et. al. 1990; Dake, 1991)

and the Psychometric approach (Fischhoff et al., 1997; Slovic, 1987; 1992 cited in Plapp,

2006) to reveal the underlying cognitive structure of risk and the influences of social

values. In addition to the cultural theory and psychometric approach, some further

components were included in the research design to obtain a better overview on possible

influences on risk perception and coping strategies.

1.11.1 Cultural Theory Paradigm

The cultural approach perceives environment and risk as social constructs (Wildavsky,

1979 cited in Krimsky and Golding, 1992). It further assumes that cultural patterns

structure the mind-set of individuals and social organizations to adopt certain values and

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reject others. These selected values determine the perception of risks and benefits (Renn,

1992).

According to cultural theory, risk management is the proximate stimulus rather than its

outcome. In addition to being proactive, management strategies in cultural theory include

various coping and adaptive behaviors that tend to be discounted in conventional

approaches (Rayner, 1992). Risk communication in cultural theory emphasizes creation

of shared meaning and trust over the transfer of quantitative information (Rayner, 1988

cited in cited in Krimsky and Golding, 1992).

The cultural theory is fundamentally concerned first with relationships among human

beings and second with societal relationships with nature. Methodological individualism

that extrapolates from individual behavior to social action has no place in cultural

analysis (Rayner, 1992). The cultural theory of risk is arguably the most eloquent and

comprehensive framework, although it has been criticized for its lack of empirical

evidence and apparent relativism (Krimsky and Golding, 1992).

1.11.2 The Cognitive /Psychometric Paradigm

The psychometric paradigm encompasses a theoretical framework that assumes that risk

is subjectively defined by individuals who may be influenced by a wide array of

psychological, social, institutional and their interrelationships can be quantified and

modeled in order to illuminate the responses of individuals and their societies to the

hazards that confront them (Slovic, 1992).

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The psychometric paradigm (Slovic, 2000) concentrates on various risk characteristics or

risk dimensions to explain the sometimes „irrational‟ perceptions of „lay persons‟. This

approach assesses the cognitive structure of risk - not actual behavior. This method uses

questionnaires to ask people directly about their perceptions of risks and benefits and

their „expressed preferences‟ for various kinds of risk /benefit trade-offs.

The psychometric paradigm with its elicitation of perceptions and expressed preferences

assumes that people can provide meaningful answers to difficult, if not impossible

questions. The results are dependent upon the set of hazards studied, the questions asked

about these hazards, the types of persons questioned and the data analysis methods.

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1.12 Operational definition of terms

Acceptable risk: The level of loss a community considers acceptable given existing

social-economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental

conditions

Adaptation: Change in behavior and functioning of a system to reduce

vulnerability.

Attitude: Feelings, beliefs and behavior tendencies towards concepts related

to flood risks and flood management.

Catchment area: The area from which water runs off to a river.

Cognition: The conscious or unconscious process of deriving meaning from

sensory data. So „perceived risk‟ is termed cognated risk‟.

Community: A process where the concerned communities function and

Participation contribute to a cohesive group to perform an activity.

Education: Highest level of education attained by the respondent. For

example: primary, secondary and university

Early warning: The provision of timely and effective information, that allows

individuals exposed floods to take action to avoid or reduce their

risk and prepare for effective response.

Flood: A temporary covering of land by water outside its normal confines.

Flood control: Interventions to limit flooding.

Flood damage: Damage to receptors (buildings, infrastructure, goods), production

and intangibles (life, cultural and ecological assets) by a flood.

Flood forecasting A system designed to forecast flood levels before they occur:

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Flood disaster: A flood event that has the potential to cause harm with resulting

damage or risk to health, life and livelihoods.

Flood vulnerability: Measure of risk combined with the level of social and economic

ability to cope with a flood event

High risk areas: Areas highly prone to flooding.

Household: A person or group of people who occupy the same dwelling as

their primary residence.

Low risk areas: Areas medium prone to flooding.

Income: Amount of incoming money from various sources at the end of

each month.

Intervention: A planned activity designed to effect an improvement in an

existing flood management system.

Key informant: Participant who commands respect in the community either due to

their profession or position of leadership.

Perception of risk: The subjective assessment of flood risks based on experience and

information acquired within the social, cultural and historical

context of the study area.

Preparedness: The ability to ensure effective response to flood impact.

Resilience: The ability of a system/community/society/defense to react to and

recover from the damaging effect of floods.

Response: Activities that occur in the aftermath of a flood to assist victims

and to rehabilitate or reconstruct the physical structures of the

community.

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Risk: The probability of harmful consequences to human population

resulting from flooding.

Risk perception: Risk perception is the view of risk held by a person or group and

reflects cultural and personal values, as well as experience.

Susceptibility: The propensity of an individual/household/community to

experience harm.

Traditional: The whole body of knowledge developed over time by

knowledge communities to predict the coming of heavy rains and floods.

Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and

environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of a

community to the impact of flood hazards.

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses literature related to the subject of the study. The literature was

reviewed under various major headings which included: Nature of flood risks,

vulnerability to flood risks, perception of flood risks, behavioral response to flood risks

and attitude towards external support.

2.2 Nature of flood risks

Natural hazards, otherwise known as environmental hazards, are generally defined as

geophysical events that can potentially cause large-scale economic damage and physical

injury or death (Johnson et al., 2000: 216). It is into this category that flood hazards fall.

Floods can be predicted to a reasonable extent with the exception of flash flood, whose

scale and nature are often less certain (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC),

2005)

When interaction with humans occurs, floods have the potential to exact a huge impact

on the public health of human populations. Since 1900, for example, flood disasters alone

have led to at least 6.8 million reported deaths and 1.3 million reported injuries (Few et

al., 2004). Outbreaks of flood related diseases have been reported following major flood

events. The immediate health impacts are increase in cases of diarrhoea, cholera, malaria,

typhoid, skin diseases and mental problems (Few et al., 2005).

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Access to food stuff may prove difficult or impossible when food distribution networks

are unable to operate. The impact of inundation of crops and agricultural land affects not

only the local community but even those who live further away but are reliant on food

production from these lands (Badjeck, 2004). Floods destroy shelter, schools, hospitals,

power lines, roads and are liable to result in population displacement. This displacement

can result in individuals losing their homes, possessions and livelihoods (Few et al.,

2005).

The consequences of floods are by no means solely negative. Seasonal river floods in

particular play a big role in supporting eco systems, renewing soil fertility in cultivated

flood plains (Wisner et al., 2004). In regions such as the flood plains of Bangladesh, a

„normal‟ level of seasonal flooding is therefore regarded as positive: it is only when a

flood reaches an abnormal level that it is perceived negatively as a damaging effect

(Parker, 2000, cited in Few, 2004).

Photo 2.1: Showing the general state of roads at onset, during and soon after the flood
season.

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2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health

Understanding how a community perceives health risks such as polluted water,

inadequate drainage, or lack of garbage collection is essential to designing effective

programs to address those problems. Individuals perceive risks to their health through a

lens derived from their cultural, economic, societal, and educational backgrounds and

respond accordingly. For example, a squatter in a slum in Calcutta, India, might happily

boil water collected at a public tap rather than move to a house with piped water that was

located far from job opportunities; a middle-class family in Los Angeles would probably

make a very different choice (Messner, 2005).

Until recently, these differences in how people view and respond to risks were not part of

formal health risk analysis, which has traditionally relied on statistical correlations

between exposure to risks and the incidence of various illnesses. Now, health planners

are beginning to realize that using such objective measures of risk to design public health

projects without accounting for how the affected community itself views the health risk

being addressed is a recipe for failure.

It is increasingly recognized that individual values, beliefs and behavior operate within a

social context. There is growing consensus that local perceptions and indigenous

knowledge should be important elements in the evaluation of programs aimed at

improving health. Recent literature on health promotion has focused on the notion that

individual values, beliefs and behavior operate within a social context. As reviewed

recently in Health Promotion International by Whitelaw and colleagues (Whitelaw et al.,

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2001), and discussed at length by Poland et al., (2000), „settings‟-based activity has

indeed become very popular, as it offers health promotion a conceptual base that allows a

much broader multi-sectoral and trans-disciplinary approach to health promotion. Of the

various models of settings-based approaches, a preferred approach is one that combines

top level commitment and guidance with a high level of community and individual

participation (Whitelaw et al, 2001).

Perceived health risk is inherently multidimensional, with many characteristics other than

the probability of harm affecting human judgment. How „risky‟ an exposure or behavior

is perceived to be by a given individual depends on a long list of factors, including

whether the risk is perceived to be voluntary, familiar, amenable to easy change,

associated with benefits, and associated with immediate or short-term versus delayed or

long-term impacts. While the relationship between changing health risk perceptions and

changing health behaviors and health status is still quite unclear, understanding the

factors, and in particular the social factors, that impact health risk perception is useful in

designing mitigation strategies (Robert et al., 2003 cited in Messner, 2005).

„Social construction of risk‟ refers to the notion that how a society collectively defines

and responds to a given hazard is determined by social discourse, not merely by science

or technological information (McDaniels, 1998). The use of „change in health risk

perception‟ as an indicator of the impact of the intervention implicitly takes into

consideration the influence of the social construction of risk. Thus, it is important to

understand the very strong influence of social context in evaluating health promotion

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initiatives in Kenya. In this social context is a component of monitoring changes in health

risk perception, which is a particularly useful adjunct to other indicators of effectiveness

of the intervention (Spiegel et al., 2001; Spiegel et al., 2003).

According to various studies on the perception of technical and environmental risks, there

are several factors which influence risk among which are: characteristic of the risk

source, value attitudes, ethnic, cultural and socio economic background (Solvic, 1996,

2000 and Vaughan/Nordenstam, 1991; cited in Messner, 2005) and personal variables

such as profession, individual‟s level of risk tolerance, knowledge, and communication of

changing social views of risk (Barke et al., 1997; Smith, 2001: 59, cited in Messner,

2005). Therefore risk is regarded here as multidimensional concept that combines both

the subjective (quantitative) assessments based on experience and information as well as

the perceived or attributed risk characteristics within a certain context (Renn, 1989).

2.4 Vulnerability to Flood Risks

Dow (1992) and Cutter (1996) have provided reviews of the development of the concept

of vulnerability over the years. Despite differences in the definition of the term

“vulnerability,” two main views have emerged (e.g. Adger et al., 2004 cited in

Nethengwe, 2007). The first view treats vulnerability as a pre-existing condition and

focuses on potential exposure to hazards (Cutter, 1996). The second major perspective on

vulnerability suggests that not all individuals and groups exposed to a hazard are equally

vulnerable; rather, people display patterns of differential vulnerability (Blaikie, 2004).

This differential vulnerability depends on exposure and on the coping ability of those

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affected and their resilience levels (Dow, 1992; Watts and Bohle, 1993; Cutter, 1996;

Clark et al., 1998; cited in Nethengwe, 2007).

Cutter (1996) asserts that a third major theme is emerging in vulnerability literature. The

concept of vulnerability as a “hazard of place” combines elements of differential

vulnerability and vulnerability as a pre-existing condition. This approach called the

vulnerability of places framework by Nethengwe, (2007) treats vulnerability as both a

biophysical risk and a social response within a specific geographic domain. Researchers

such as Yarnal, (1994) and Clark et al., (1998) have employed this approach. Flood

vulnerability is thus not merely proximity to flood zones, but it is the product of the flood

as a physical, political and socio-economic phenomenon (Alexander, 1993; 1997).

Generally, marginalized groups have less social powers and fewer economic resources

and physical capacity to anticipate, survive and recover from the effects of massive

floods (Few et al., 2003). Poverty is a major factor that increases vulnerability and

impacts of floods are likely to persist longer among the poor. People in these areas have

less possibility for evacuation from flood prone areas and are more vulnerable to flood

related diseases which can prove fatal (Coutio, 2004). The elderly, the disabled and the

children are particularly vulnerable, and gender -biased attitudes and stereotypes can

complicate response and extend the time for recovery (Pilon, 1999).

2.5 Behavioural response to flood risks

People take some positive action to reduce losses, and some preventive action much in

advance of the hazard event, and others choose a large number of adjustments. The

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reasons for diversity might be due to differences in what people know about hazardous

events, how they perceive them, and the concepts they use to classify their experiences

and make decisions accordingly (Eyob, 1999). Adjustments vary tremendously, by

hazard and society, but are universally found (Kates, 1978). It has also been emphasized

that for a number of African countries, adaptation is an option not by choice but by

compulsion.

2.5.1 Coping mechanism

Historically, all communities living in flood plains have always co-existed with floods

and many studies identify such communities to have a traditional flood culture,

characterized by adjustments to mitigate flood damage. Due to frequency of long history

of flooding, it is possible to find collective action patterns and cognitive patterns which

are adjusted to the hazard situation; through the elimination of doubt, thus making the

situation predictable (Kates, 1978). Social capital e.g. reciprocal support among

neighbours, support from immediate family members and wider kinship networks, is a

vital safe net for people in coping with recurrent flooding (ProVention, 2008).

The most basic coping mechanism is that of the family. Kinship is a strong bond and in

times of need people will first look up to their families and relatives for support

(Wijkman, 1984). Del Ninno et al., (2000) for example reports on how borrowing and

selling belongings and reducing food consumption became short term economic coping

mechanisms for poor families affected by the extreme Bangladesh flooding of 1998.

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Community level action strongly suggests that response at this level may be of key

importance in influencing public health. One crucial area in terms of public safety is

warning and evacuation, for which community based activities, may provide the key to

survival (Few et al., 2004). Religious/ social institutions help individuals to cope during

emergency periods. They provide leadership, shelter, emotional support and help with

burials. In some areas, churches are also called upon to ensure emergency aid is

distributed equitably. Internal political/ economic organizations serve as point through

which the government can provide assistance to the victims. Mutual aid groups such as

agricultural cooperatives and labor unions provide leadership as well as some degree of

financial support (Wijkman, 1984).

Response to flood risks that involves a change in action or policy is referred to as

adaptation, and the ability of people and systems to bring about such changes is referred

to as adaptive capacity (Few et al., 2004). As with coping capacity adaptive capacity of

people and systems is shaped by social, economic and political processes (Adger et al.,

2003).

2.5.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and warning

Flood forecasting and warning is one of the most important tools to reduce flood risks

and minimize impact on life and property. At present many rural populations most in

need of hydro-meteorological and environmental information are not able to access it and

have to depend heavily on highly refined perception of nature through the interpretation of

signs (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), 2005).

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Communities have their own early warning systems woven into their culture. They

observe nature and changes that take place in the flora, the behavior of animals, the rivers

and clouds. These changes according to them provide signals for impending disasters

(Sharma, 2002). This knowledge is the sum of facts that are known or learned from

experience or acquired through observation and study and handed down from generation

to generation. Communities identify themselves easily with indigenous knowledge

systems which have enabled them to live in harmony with their environments for

generations (UNEP, 2008).

Indigenous knowledge gained international recognition after the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in June, 99 in Rio de

Janeiro. Agenda one of the environmental agreements signed at UNCED emphasizes that

governments and intergovernmental organizations should respect, record, and work

toward incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into research and development

programs for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainability of agricultural and

natural resource management systems. Other international documents, such as the 1980

“World Conservation Strategy” by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources (IUCN), also paved the way for the recognition of the role played

by indigenous knowledge in biodiversity and human development (UNEP, 2008).

2.6 Attitude towards external support

The responsibility of providing relief during natural disasters falls mainly on the

government, which is supposed to have proper machinery, logistics and resources. In

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areas frequently visited by disasters of a kind, local and international NGOs are also

known to provide relief and rehabilitation services (Sharma, 2002).

In many emergency contexts, aid agencies hesitate to provide food and other aid for

extended periods because of fears that this may create „dependency‟. Concerns about

dependency can influence decisions about levels of assistance, and affect what type of

assistance people receive, where and when Harvey (2005) argues that framing concerns

in terms of dependency is unhelpful and can result in cutting back relief of people who

may still be in desperate need. The focus should be not how to avoid dependency but

how to provide sufficiently reliable and transparent assistance so that those most in need

understand what they are entitled to and can rely on it as part of their own efforts to

survive crisis.

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CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the following: research design; variables; location of study;

population and sample selection; sampling procedure and sample size; data collection

instruments, data collection procedures; and data analysis.

3.2 Location of study

The study was carried out in Nyando, one of the 12 districts in Nyanza province. It has 3

main topographical land formations namely the Nandi Hills, the Nyabondo Plateu and the

Kano Plains which are sandwiched between the two hills. The district has a total land

area of 1,168.42 km with a population of 332,137 (Kenya, 2002-2008).

Nyando District is divided into five administrative divisions namely, Upper Nyakach,

Lower Nyakach, Nyando, Miwani and Muhoroni. Nyando, Miwani and Lower Nyakach

divisions have been conveniently selected as large parts of these areas fall in the Kano

Plain which over the years has experienced the worst effects of flood hazards and people

who continue to live there are still vulnerable to perennial flooding.

Sondu Miriu, Nyando, Awach and Ombei rivers drain from the Nandi Hills where high

rainfall is received to Lake Victoria through very large low lying plains which are also

very heavily populated and are a major cause of persistent flooding along their banks as

they approach the lake with devastating effects. The Kano plains feature very small

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slopes/altitude/gradient, large swamps and comprise of predominantly black cotton soils

with moderate fertility and poor drainage.

Nyando River Basin covers an area of 3517 square kilometres of Western Kenya and has

about 258738 (35%) persons from Nyando District residing within the Basin (Mungai,

2002). The lower reaches of Nyando lie between 1000 and 1300 meters above sea level.

It is the hottest and the driest region of the basin with annual average rainfall ranging

from 800mm to 1200 mm, the annual average maximum temperatures ranging from 29 -
0 0
31 c while the annual average minimum temperatures range from 12-16 c. The natural

vegetation is open scrubland (Onyango et al., 2005).

Dominant river action is deposition and the region is characterized by flooding as a result

several rice irrigation schemes have been set up. Annual flooding near the delta leaves

rich alluvial deposits that are cultivated and yield good harvests. The deposits also cause

the river channel to shift. This has led to serious inter-clan conflict in the delta region

because the river is used as a boundary and this boundary keeps shifting. The government

is yet to find a lasting solution. The most valued fields are those found in the flood plains.

3.3 Research Design

The study used the cross sectional descriptive survey design, as it sought to establish and

describe a prevailing phenomenon. The design was suitable for this study given that

extensive data on traditional knowledge, perceptions and coping strategies associated

with flood risks was collected at one point in time. Apart from reporting the current

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status, the collected data were used to determine whether and to what extent relationships

exist between and among the variables considered in the study.

3.4 Study variables

i. The dependent variable was: category of risk (high or low risk)

ii. The independent variables were: Knowledge, attitude, awareness, perception,

socio-demographic, socio-economic and socio cultural factors.

iii. Preparedness for floods was measured in terms of measures taken before and after

the flood events.

iv. Emergency responses were measures taken during the flood events.

v. Insufficient food supply was measured in terms of households having to survive

on less than two meals a day.

3.5 Sampling techniques and sample size

3.5.1 Sampling technique

Given the very large size of the District, areas of study were selected using a multi-stage

sampling process. In view of the important role of institutional factors in influencing

community responses, the administrative ladder of division and location and sub location

was used for selection of study areas (Table 3.2). Based on meteorological information

on the extent and frequency of flooding, 3 frequently flooded divisions, Nyando, Miwani

and Lower Nyakach were selected out of the five divisions based on most-prone,

medium-prone and least-prone categories, 3 most-prone locations and 3 medium-prone

locations, one from each division were selected out of the total 17 locations. The most-

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prone category consisted of areas that experience extensive high frequency of flooding;

the middle-prone category consisted of areas that experience moderate flooding and the

least-prone category consisted of areas that experience little or no flooding incidences.

A list of most frequently flooded sub-locations having experienced floods in recent years

was drawn from the 3 most-prone locations and two selected from each location.

Following a similar approach, 6 medium-prone sub-locations, 2 from each medium-prone

location were also selected. The reason for selecting high prone and medium prone

(termed low for purposes of comparison) categories was to give a wider coverage to the

sample and to see if there were any significant differences between the two risk levels.

Identification and selection of respondents was divided into two groups; flood area

residents, in order to analyze perceptions and response from the perspective of local

citizens, and institutional representatives chosen in order to analyze perceptions and

response from the perspective of decision makers and their respective institutions. Simple

Random Sampling procedure was used to identify households selected to participate in

the interview.

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Table 3.2: Selection of study area using the Nyando District administrative ladder

Population Households
Administrative
Location Sub-location (Division (Division
Division
total) total)
Nyando Wawidhi/ Kakola Magina
K. Ahero

Kochogo Kochogo North 64,511 14,029

Kochogo central
Miwani Ombeyi Ahero Irrigation
Scheme
Kore

58,029 13,982
N.East Kano Kabar West
Ramulla
Lower Nyakach North Nyakach Gem Nam
Gem Rae

N. East Nyakach Agoro West 49,247 11,149

Agoro East

3.5.2 Sample size determination

The river basins cover an area of 3517 square kilometres of Western Kenya and have

about 258,738 (35%) persons from Nyando District residing within (Mungai, 2002).

The sample size for all the sub-locations was computed using the fisher formula:

n =Z2 pqD/d2 (Fishers et al, 1998)

Where, N = the sample size

Z = the standard normal deviate (1.96), which corresponds to 95% confidence interval.

P = persons living in Nyando District at risk of flooding = 258,000

q = total population in Nyando District (332,137) – residents at risk of flooding

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d = the degree of accuracy = 0.05

D = heterogeneous population (most prone and medium prone) = 2

Thus, N = (1.962*0.22*0.78)2/0.052 = 528

Stratified and Proportional Sampling Methods were used to identify individual study

participants (Table 3.3). These techniques were used to assure representation on the

relative size of the data.

Table 3.3: Summary of results of Stratified and Proportional Sampling

Stratum by Stratum by Percentage Sample size

Households
Division Sub-location in sample in sub-
(Division
household locations
total)
population (households)
Nyando (households)
 Most prone Magina 18% 95
(High risk) K. Ahero
14,029
(36%)
 Medium prone Kochogo North 18% 95
(Low risk) Kochogo central
Miwani
 Most prone Ahero Irrigation 18% 95
Scheme
Kore 13,982
(36%)
Kabar West 18% 95
 Medium prone
Ramulla
Lower Nyakach
 Most prone Gem Nam 14% 74
Gem Rae 11,149
 Medium prone Agoro West (28%)
14% 74
Agoro East
39,160 100% 528

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3.6 Study Population

The study targets all rural populations at risk of flooding. The accessible population for

this study was the Nyando District communities at risk of flooding. The sample

population was composed of 528 households, 6 selected government officials, 5 project

managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with disaster management in the area and 7 focus

group discussions; 3 groups of women to accommodate the different age categories and

socio-economic status, 2 groups of men to accommodate the different age categories and

socio-economic status and 2 groups involving teaching staff of both primary and

secondary schools. The main sampling unit was the household.

3.6.1 Inclusion criteria

a) Adult residents in the selected divisions who were at risk of flooding

b) Local government officials connected with and working on disaster management

c) Project managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with flood management in the area.

3.6.2 Exclusion Criteria

a) Residents in the selected divisions who were not at risk of flooding.

b) Residents in the other divisions that were not in the sample population.

c) Local government officials not connected with disaster management.

d) Project managers of CBO‟S and NGO‟S that were not dealing with flood

management in the area.

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3.7 Construction of research instruments

This research adopted both quantitative and qualitative techniques using pre-tested house

hold questionnaires, desk reviews, focus group discussions and in-depth individual

discussions. The advantage of using such an approach was that both forms of data

collected complemented each other. For example, interviews could not be rigorously

analysed as quantitative data. However, they offered possible interpretations to trends

found within the numbers.

Likewise, questionnaires provided a large amount of nominal data to highlight the major

trends and empirical findings. However, they did not enable more abstract relationships

to be interpreted, for which the qualitative dimension was more suited. Therefore,

combining the two approaches gave a more realistic interpretation of people‟s

knowledge, perceptions, behaviour and attitude to flood risks. Furthermore, it helped to

minimise the limitations of each form of data collection.

3.7.1 Household questionnaire

The questions were designed in such a way that it was able to capture both nominal and

ordinal data. It was used to measure a number of variables including: traditional flood

knowledge, risk perception, community social cohesion, coping action and attitude

towards external support. The survey was designed to take no longer than 30 minutes to

complete, in order to encourage as many people as possible to participate. The layout of

the questions, which predominantly involved choosing from a list of options also made

the questionnaire easy to respond to. Provision for additional responses was made where

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appropriate so as not to restrict people‟s responses unduly. The identical survey was used

in both high and low risk levels.

3.7.2 Interview guide for key informants

A total of 11 In-depth interviews were conducted. Arrangements were made to conduct

the half-hour long semi-formal interviews at the respondents‟ homes and offices. The

conversations were taped and brief notes were also taken (in case of technical failure).

The interview schedule guided the conversation but where additional interesting and

useful points emerged these were further pursued. In addition, several questions were

tailored to each interviewee. Key informant discusions provided a cross sampling and

triangulation of public views and concerns.

3.7.3 Focus group discussion

A total of 7 focus group discussions were conducted. Arrangements were made to

conduct the one and half hours long semi-formal discussions at the chiefs‟ camps, the

DO‟s office and in classrooms at nearby local primary schools. The discussion schedule

guided the moderator but where additional interesting and useful points emerged these

were further pursued. The FGD‟s were conducted from the 19th to the 30th of May 2006.

On average, there were 8 participants per FGD.

3.8 Pilot study

Located 80 km from Kisumu City are Gem-Rae and Gem-Nam sub locations in Nyando

District. These areas were purposively selected for the pilot study because they border

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river Awach and are prone to frequent flash floods. The research instruments were pre-

tested prior to the main study on 30 households of similar characteristics as the target

population but which were not included in the final study. The main reasons for carrying

out the pilot study were to test the instruments regarding ambiguity, sensitivity and

appropriateness. Apart from providing accuracy to the tools, the preliminary study helped

to estimate the time it would take to complete an interview session.

3.8.1 Validity of instruments

Prior to taking the survey into the field, it was vetted by a number of sources. An

informal pretest of the survey was carried out with 30 subjects and the data collection

tools were structured around the responses derived from the pilot study. A professional

translator used to translate the instruments from English to Dholuo before the interviews.

Weaknesses detected in the instruments during the pre-testing were corrected in order to

refine them so as to enhance validity. In cases of any flaws and bias, the instruments were

modified for more clarity and accuracy. Validity was also enhanced through triangulation

because of the use of multiple data collection methods.

3.8.2 Reliability of instruments

To achieve standardization, four research assistants were trained to participate in the data

collection of the study. They were given training on the objectives of the investigation,

introduction to survey procedures and sampling procedures. They were also conversant in

English, Kiswahili and Luo (the local language). In both risk levels, the direct contact

with participants provided additional qualitative information that was useful in

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understanding their responses. Field assistants worked in pairs for accuracy and the

researcher (self) accompanied each group on alternate days

Complementing the household survey, FGDs and Key informant interviews were

undertaken with a range of representatives. These interviews were conducted in the local

language and where difficulties, Kiswahili and English were used. All FGDs and in-depth

individual interviews were audio recorded (to carry out an accurate content analysis of

the verbal responses) and notes taken.

All data collected was checked after completion of each interview to make sure that all

questions were asked and the answers recorded clearly. The same information was

counter checked by the researcher at the end of each day. All the survey data was entered

into the statistical analysis program SPSS. Two identical files were created to guarantee

separation of data for each risk level. Once all cases were entered, these files were then

merged to allow for comparison. To avoid interpreter biases the researcher (self) entered

all the data. After the first few cases were entered, a thorough review of the entry process

was undertaken to check for accuracy and consistency.

3.9 Data Collection Techniques

The questionnaires and FGDs involved selected community members. In-depth

individual discussions included local government officials involved in flood management

and project managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with flood management in the area.

Before conducting the interview the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the

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respondents and assured them of confidentiality. The interviewer/moderator read out each

question to the respondents/participants and checked the correct answer in the instrument

for the close-ended items while for the open-ended, brief field notes were taken. Audio

tapes were also used to record key informant and FGD discussions.

Photo 3.1: Selection of participants for FGD discussion (Chief‟s camp)

3.10 Ethical considerations

Permission to carry out the research was sought from the ethical board of Kenyatta

University and relevant authorities of the Ministry of Education Science and Technology,

the district and local government. Target respondents were given adequate explanation on

the purpose of the research and thereafter given time any questions or seek clarification.

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All respondents were taken through the required informed consent procedures. This was

done at the point of recruitment and at the start of each interview/discussion.

3.11 Data Analysis Methods

Three classes of data exist within the survey: data that categorizes and describes people,

data that categorizes behavior of people and data that reveals perceptions, attitudes,

opinions and beliefs. Typical topics used to address this data include: knowledge,

perceptions, behavior, attitude and demographics. This data were analyzed using the

computer package, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 11.5 and

Excel spread sheets.

Descriptive statistics was used to analyze continuous and categorical data. This was

presented in form of frequencies and percentages. The Chi-square test was used to

determine associations between the dependent and independent variables for categorical

data. It was also used to establish differences between high risk and low risk groups. The

level of significance was fixed at 0.05 (p=0.05).

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Introduction

This chapter contains detailed presentation and discussion of data analysis and the results

of this study. The findings are presented under the following major headings:

demographic and socio-economic characteristics; traditional knowledge; flood risk

perception; coping mechanisms; and attitude towards external assistance. The main

determining factor of response was the proneness of a particular place towards floods.

4.1.2 Socio demographic characteristics, education and socio-economic status

4.1.2.1 Age and sex of respondents

Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented, with slightly larger

numbers in the lowest age bracket 18-25 and 41-50 categories accounting for

117(22.1%) and 116(22%) of the respondents, respectively (Table 4.1). The oldest age

bracket was 60 and above years which accounted for 71(13.5%) of the respondents. The

proportion of ages of males to females was about 43.8% and 56.2% in all age groups.

4.1.2.2 Marital Status of respondents

The findings of this study showed that majority the respondents 353(67.9%) were

married and living with their spouses, Table 4.1. A further, 114(21.1%) were widowed,

56 (8.6%) were single, while 0.8(1%) were divorced. The age and gender distribution is

summarized in Table 4.1.

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Table 4.1: Age, gender and marital status of respondents

Variable Category Low risk High risk Total

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
(%) (%)
Age 18-25 65 12.3 52 9.8
26-32 33 6.3 34 6.4
33-40 39 7.4 38 7.6
41-50 56 10.5 60 11.4
51-60 38 7.2 42 8.0
60+ 33 6.3 38 7.2
Total 264 50% 264 50%
Gender Male 102 19.3 129 24.4
Female 162 30.7 135 25.6
Total 264 50% 264 50%
Marital status Married 174 33 179 33.9
Single 34 6.4 22 4.2
Divorced 1 0.4 1 0.4
Separated 1 0.4 2 0.8
Widowed 54 10.2 60 11.4
Total 264 50% 264 50%

4.1.2.3 Educational levels of the respondents

Most studies indicate that there is a positive relationship between education and

knowledge and practices of people. Educational levels of the respondents are presented in

Figure 4.1.

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Figure 4.1: A comparison of educational levels between male and female respondents

In general, the findings showed that 99(18.8%) had not gone to school at all and an

overwhelming 86(86.9%) were women. Only a quarter 129(24.5%) of the participants

had gone beyond primary level and among these, 124(23.5%) had completed secondary

education while 17(3.3%) had some post secondary education. The low levels of

education could be attributed to high poverty levels and lack of motivation to pursue

higher education.

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4.1.2.4 Main source of income in household

The survey indicates the main occupation of a majority 350(66.3%) to be subsistent

farming. A larger proportion of the respondents in the high risk areas were farmers 201

(38.1) as compared to those in the low risk areas 164(31.1). A small proportion

73(13.9%) consisted of large scale farmers and business people. A mere 68(12.9%) were

grouped under the unemployed category and these included the jobless, students and

housewives. The remaining 37(6%) of the respondents grouped under professional

workers included teachers, medical workers, owners and skilled artisan; carpenters,

mechanics, fishermen, vegetable vendors etc Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Socio-economic characteristics of respondent in the study area

Variable Category Low risk High risk

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Main occupation Subsistence Farmer 162 30.7 188 35.6
Large scale Farmer 2 0.4 13 2.5
Business 35 6.6 23 4.4
Housewife 15 2.8 11 2.1
Student 8 1.5 9 1.7
Professional Worker 13 2.5 6 1.1
Skilled artisan 16 3.0 2 0.4
Jobless 13 2.5 12 2.3
Total 264 50% 264 50%
Income <2500 202 38.3 178 33.7
2501-5000 36 6.8 46 8.7
5001-10000 11 2.1 22 4.2
10001-20000 9 1.7 9 1.7
20001-30000 3 0.6 5 0.9
30001-40000 1 0.2 3 0.6
40001+ 2 0.4 1 0.2
Total 264 50% 264 50%

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4.1.2.5 Household family income

The modal gross family income was below 2,500Kshs. which represents a huge

proportion 380(72 %) of the households (less than a dollar a day putting them below the

poverty line). A larger proportion of respondents in the low risk areas 202(38.3%) fell in

this category as compared to those in the high risk areas 178 (33.7%) Nearly 115(21.8%)

had a monthly income of between 2501Ksh and 10,000Ksh. while a mere 33(6.3%)

earned above 10,000Ksh. During the flood season, income was supplemented in a small

way through the sale of livestock, farm produce and fish.

4.1.2.6 Incomes of males Vs females

In this study the incomes of the males were compared to those of the females. The study

findings showed income levels to be rather low among the females as compared to their

spouses. A majority of the females 232(78.1%) earned less than 2500 shillings per month

compared to 148 (64.1%) of their male counterparts. The findings further indicate a

significantly smaller proportion of women 50 (16.8%) compared to males 32(13.9%) and

8(2.7%) females to males25 (10.8%) in the 2501-5000 and 5,000-10,000 income

categories respectively. A mere 7(2.3%) of the females were represented in the 10, 000+

categories which is less than one third of 26(11.2%) of their male counterparts. The

results are summarized in Figure 4.2.

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Figure 4.2: A comparison of income levels of the male and female respondents

4.1.2.8 House types

It was observed that a high proportion 449(89.0%) of the wall structures were made of

mud. Nearly 47(8.9%) of walls were made of stone or brick 8.4% while a smaller

proportion 5(1%) were of timber. A mere 7(1.3%) of the walls were constructed with

mats and reeds in the high risk areas. Results further indicate that a huge proportion

442(83.2.9%) of the house structures had iron sheet roofing whilst a mere 68(12.9%) and

17(3.2%) had their roofs thatched with grass and Makuti (reeds), respectively (Table 4.3).

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Table 4.3: Wall structure and roof types of households

Variable Category Low risk High risk

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
(%) (%)
Household wall Mud 224 42.4 225 46.4
structure
Stone/Bricks 36 6.8 11 2.1
Timber 4 0.8 1 0.2
Mats/reeds 0 0 7 1.3
Total 264 50% 264 50%
Roof Types Iron sheets 218 41.4 224 42.5
Grass 34 6.5 34 6.5
Makuti (reeds) 11 2.1 6 1.1
Total 264 50% 264 50%

4.1.2.9 Length of residency

Slightly over half 280(53%) of the respondents had been living in study area for more

than 20 years in both high and low risk areas. Nearly 107(20.3 %) had residents for over

10years while a mere 58(11%), 37(7%) and 17(5%) had been residing in the area for 6-10

years, 4-6 years and 2-3 years respectively. The smallest fraction 19(3.6%) had been in

Nyando District for less than a year. They were either newly married, or had recently

relocated to the area due to business or employment (Table 4.4 shows details).

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Table 4.4: Length of residency of study population in Nyando District

Length of Low risk High risk

Residency Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
(%) (%)
1yrs 14 2.7 5 0.9
2yrs 7 1.3 6 1.1
3yrs 9 1.7 5 0.9
4-6yrs 21 4.0 16 3.0
6-10yrs 33 6.3 25 4.7
10-20 yrs 51 9.7 56 10.6
20+yrs 129 24.4 151 28.6
Total 264 50 264 50

4.1.3 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting

Findings of the study revealed that a high proportion 252(95%) of respondents in the high

risk areas had knowledge of traditional flood forecasting and warning. Correspondingly,

huge majority of respondents in the low risk areas 230(87.1) also reported having some

local knowledge on flood forecasting and warning. Results are summarized in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Local knowledge of flood forecasting and warning

Local knowledge of flood Low risk High risk

forecasting and warning Frequency percentage Frequency percentage
1 Yes 230 87.1 252 95.5
2 No 34 12.9 12 4.5
Total 264 100 264 100.0

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4.1.3.1 Main source of traditional flood information

A huge proportion 357(73.8%) of the interviewees in the study reported getting flood

information mainly through personal observation. They observed changes in weather

pattern and river levels. A summary of these results are presented in Figure 4.3.

80 75.4
72.1
70
60
Percentage (%)

50
40.8 Low risk
40 High risk
30 26.7

20 14.2
11.7
10 4.9 5.3

0
Personal Old people Relatives Friends
Observation
Source of flood information

Figure 4.3: Sources of traditional flood information in the community

Smaller proportions of the respondents 163(33.7%), 46(9.5%) and 41(8.5%) received this

information from elderly residents, relatives and friends, respectively.

4.1.3.2 Traditional flood warning systems

In order to implement some of the traditional flood mitigation practices based on the

understanding of climatic changes as described above, the following early warning

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indicators have been used by the Nyando communities in the study area (Table 4.6).

Awareness of flood indicators was significantly higher in the high risk areas.

4.1.3.2.1 Behavior of human beings, animals and plants

The physical appearance and behavior of both domestic and wild animals were

considered important indications of future events. Table 4.5 shows respondents in both

low risk 28(11.7%) and high risk areas 43(17.6%) having reported that when the elderly

people experienced aches/pains in joints/bones (Del gi choke maremo)), it was an

indication of approaching floods. Loud distraught noises from domestic animals, the

siting of unusually large number of cow egrets (Okok), loud and persistent croaking of

frogs (ogwal) and movement of ants (ochunglo) to higher ground were other signals of

impending floods.

4.1.3.2.2 Knowledge of weather pattern

When and when not to expect rains helped to reach conclusions on the probability of

flooding and the subsequent course of action on the part of local community. This

involved predicting probability of future flood events by watching for changes in the rain

pattern. Heavy rain in the area accompanied by strong winds blowing from the river

towards the hills (yamo makudho matek) was considered by half 242(50.5%) of the

respondents in both risk areas to signal the approach of heavy rains. Heavy rains in

Kericho and Nandi Hills was believed by nearly 201(38.1%) in both risk levels to be

clear signs of impeding flash floods usually experienced as a result of the ensuing runoff.

If heavy rain was accompanied by lightning and thunder on the river (mil gi mor mar

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polo), it was a signal that it will definitely flood. High temperatures during the wet season

were also mentioned as another sign of heavy rainfall.

4.1.3.2.3 Knowledge on nature of river

Changes in the river constitution were considered important indicators of eminent

flooding. Bursting of river banks due to heavy rain in the area or runoff from the Nandi

Hills was reported as one of the main causes of flooding in the study area. As one

respondent in the FGD put it; “When the amount of water flowing in the river increases

alarmingly, we know there is a possibility that it will flooding and therefore take

appropriate action”.

Change in the color of the river water was another sign of approaching floods mentioned

by the respondents. As described by one of the respondents; “When the river turns a dirty

brown with a lot of debris (yugi), we know the floods are fast approaching from the

Nandi Hills and will be here in less than 24 hours. These are the deadly flash floods that

come without warning sweeping everything on their path including people, animals,

crops, trees, furniture etc”.

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Table 4.6: Summary of traditional early warning flood indicators

(Multiple answer response)

Traditional Knowledge Indicators Low risk High risk

Behavior of humans,
Freq. % Freq. %
plants and animals
Old peoples bones aching 28 12.2 43 17.1
Large numbers of cow 32 13.9 34 14.2
egrets sited
Loud persistent croaking 17 7.3 35 14.6
of frogs
Domestic animals making 1 0.4 1 1.7
loud distraught noises
Movement of ants to 0 0 10 4
higher ground
Knowledge of weather
pattern
Heavy rains in the area for 109 45.6 133 54.5
long periods of time
Heavy rains in Nandi Hills 87 35.7 114 47.7
Lightning and thunder on 30 12.3 42 17.6
the river
Temperatures higher than 29 11.9 31 13
usual
Strong winds blowing 20 8.2 30 12.6
from river to the hills
Knowledge on nature
of river
Rising of the river 66 27 123 51.5
Debris in the river 34 14.2 139 58
Noise level of river 18 7.4 33 13.9
increases
River turns dirty brown 4 1.6 23 9.6
Knowledge of flood
cycles
Knowledge of seasons 0 0 5 2
Knowledge of flood cycles 0 0 4 1.5

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4.1.3.2.4 Knowledge of flood cycles

Knowledge of flood cycles was the least common traditional early warning indicator

mentioned by a mere 9(3.5) of mostly elderly respondents residing in the high risk areas

(Table 4.5). Until very recently, multiyear cycles of drought and rain were regarded as a

strong indication of the weather that might be expected in a given year. These were

products of centuries of observations handed down through oral tradition. The most

commonly cited indicator for floods by focus group discussion participants was the cycle

of 5 years; i.e. 1992, 1997/98, 2002/3. During each of these cycles, floods were observed

in these communities. These cycles represented longer-term weather patterns in the

region as observed over past centuries.

4.1.3.3 Use of traditional knowledge

The results show that for about half of the respondents in both risk levels, traditional

knowledge remained the most trusted flood detection technique in the area, as

summarized in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Use of traditional knowledge in the study area

How much do you rely on Low risk High risk
traditional flood information? Frequency percentage Frequency percentage
1 Very much 126 47.7 135 51.5
2 Somewhat 88 33.3 75 28.4
3 Not much 47 17.8 49 18.6
4 Not sure 3 1.1 5 1.9
Total 264 100 264 100

On the current flood warning systems, participants acknowledged that it was difficult to

accurately predict flash floods using scientific methods and that is why the relied more on

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traditional alerts; “What we consider official information is received from the local

administrators at barazas organized by the chief or assistant chief. Most of this

information is very general and just concentrates on flooding zones but not what to

expect”.

4.1.4 Existing perceived risk of flooding to public health

Respondents were asked to indicate their perceptions on 5 items associated with flood-

related risks to health. The resulting perceptions of risk have been classified into five

areas: Social environment, threats to personal health, lifestyle choices, environmental

sanitation and housing conditions. The results are summarized in Table 4.8.

4.1.4.1 Perception of risk to personal health

The profile of perceived “high risk” to personal/community health varied from one risk

level to the other. Table 4.8 shows that epidemics and casualties/death received higher

risk evaluations in the high risk areas as compared to the low risk areas.

4.1.4.2 Perception of risk to food security

There were high risk ratings for damage to crops in both high and low risk areas at

252(95.5%) and 244(92.4%) respectively. Flooding was associated with damage to

livestock by a huge proportion 188(71.2) of respondents in high risk areas. Moderate and

low risk evaluations were recorded for famine in the high and low risk areas,

respectively.

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Table 4.8: Perceived presence of health hazards as a result of flooding

(Multiple answer response)

Items of risk perception Low risk High risk

Personal/community health Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Epidemics 84 31.8 117 48.3
Casualties/loss of life 11 4.2 61 23.1
Food security
Disruption of food supply 244 92.4 252 95.5
Loss of livestock 119 45.1 188 71.2
Famine 67 25.5 110 41.7
Social environment
Displacement/Homelessness 5 1.9 174 65.9
Disruption of schooling 24 9.1 65 24.6
Disruption of transport 25 9.5 65 24.6
Disruption of communication 16 6 24 9
Burying the dead made difficult 0 0 8 3
Housing conditions
Damage to shelter 196 74.2 250 94.7
Wet/Damp floor 24 9.1 83 31.4
Sweep away belongings 15 5.7 71 27
Collapse of wells and toilets 21 8 44 16.7
Cooking made difficult 5 1.9 23 8.7
Environment/sanitation
Contamination of water supply 86 32.6 123 46.6
Land degradation/Soil erosion 7 2.7 36 13.6

4.1.4.3 Perception of risk to social conditions

Considerable differences in perception of risk to health were found in the area of social

environment. A majority 174(65.9%) associated homelessness with flooding compared to

a mere 5(1.9%) in the low risk areas. In both high and low risk areas low risk ratings

were recorded for disruption of transport, communication and delays in burying of the

dead.

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4.1.4.4 Perception of risk to housing conditions

Floods were perceived by a high proportion 250(94.7%) of respondent in the high risk

areas and a majority 196(74.2%) in the low risk areas to cause damage to shelter. Other

risks to health associated with floods included sweeping away belongings, collapse of

wells/boreholes and toilets, wet/damp floors and difficulties with cooking due to scarcity

of firewood and charcoal. The risk ratings for these items were considerably higher in the

high risk areas as compared to the low risk areas.

4.1.4.5 Perception of risk to environment/sanitation

Nearly, 109(39.6%), an average of respondents in both risk levels perceived the quality of

water to decrease during the flood season as a result of contamination. Land degradation

due to soil erosion and gully formation was cited by a mere 43(8.2%).

4.1.4.6. Perceptions on ways of managing flood risks

Respondents were presented with seven statements on management and control fo flood

risks. The mean profile score is indicated in figure 4.4. It is noted that respondents in both

high and low risk areas viewed flooding as more or less inevitable and the likelihood of

controlling its occurrence low. Further analysis revealed that a huge proportion of the

interviewees from both risk levels strongly agreed to the statements that flood preventive

measures are better than relief aid 502(95.1%) and that in the event of a flood, they would

like the establishment of a special fund to give them instantaneous emergency and relief

488(92%).

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A high proportion 447(84.6%) of respondents in both high and low risk levels perceived

modern technology to be the preferred solution to solve flood problems and this was

perceived to require huge financial resources to implement. Further results indicate that a

majority 399(76%) of respondents perceived floods to a natural phenomena as apposed to

being divine punishment or „acts of God‟.

Flooding is inevitable

Flood hazard could be reduced

by man-made structures

Huge investments is needed

for flood intervention

Flood preventive measures are

better than relief aid

The state should establish

financial reserves to help
victims
People are capable of
controlling the
occurrence of floods
Modern technology is the best
way to solve flooding
problems

Floods are natural

phenomena
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

High Risk 2-3.5: Disagree, 3.6 -5: Agree

Low Risk

Figure 4.4: Perceptions on methods of flood prevention and control

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4.1.5 Behavior associated with flood risk management in Nyando District

4.1.5.1 Coping with damage to shelter

In the study, one of the most serious and direct effects of the flood was damage to shelter.

A huge proportion 222(85.7%) of respondent in the high risk areas and slightly below

half 115(46.7%) in the low risk areas experienced complete or partial damage to their

homes. In addition, items such as utensils, furniture and food were washed away by fast

flowing flood waters. The destruction of these houses resulted in many villagers being

made homeless.

To prevent flood waters entering their homes, it was observed that all homesteads

528(100%) had houses built on raised lands or earthen platforms. The walls and entrances

were elevated so flood water could not reach the plinth, (Photo 4.1). To protect their

homes and farms, a huge proportion 442(83.7%) of the households in both high and low

risk areas dug trenches around the compound while nearly 101(41.6%) and a high

proportion 203(76.9%) in low and high risk areas, respectively planted trees and sisal

fences around their homesteads to break/reduce the flow of flood waters and to prevent

erosion.

During the floods, in homes that were still flooded but occupied, measures taken to

protect property by a huge proportion 342(92.8%) of residents in both risk levels

included, raising items that could be easily destroyed by water like clothes, firewood,

children etc. to higher surfaces like tables and cupboards. During a female FGD

discussion, two female participants gave the following comments: “During the flood

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season, it is our responsibility to ensure that our children are safe. We make them play,

eat, and sleep on raised surfaces like tables where they are safe from the flood water; we

cook on top of tables or other raised surfaces; we store household items and food from

our granaries on platforms in the main living room”. To protect the house collapsing

from high volumes of waters, nearly 44(11.2%) of households drilled holes through the

walls to allow flood water to flow through

Table 4.9: Survival strategies to deal with damage to shelter adopted by residents before,
during and after the flood season
(Multiple answer response)

Main coping strategies Low Risk High Risk

Preparation Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Built on raised land or earthen platforms 264 100 264 100
Dug trenches around homestead 210 87.9 232 79.5
Planted trees and sisal around homestead 101 41.6 203 76.9
Piled mud around homestead 89 33.7 150 56.8
During flooding
Evacuated (Went to live with relatives, 24 16.6 114 64.9
neighbors and friends; rented house)
Raised furniture, firewood, food, etc. 129 89.6 213 95.9
Drilled hole through wall 11 7.6 33 14.8
After flooding
Repaired damaged house 139 96.5 159 71.6
Built temporary shelter 0 0 11 5%
Built afresh 5 3.48 52 23.7

The study found out that during extreme flooding, a majority 144(64.9%) of the families

interviewed in low-lying areas (high risk) were forced to evacuate their homes and move

to higher ground. Many of the families affected were those forced to build close to the

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river banks due to land shortage as a result of increase in population. They used canoes

and makeshift rafts to sail to safety people and property that had been marooned in the

floods. The displaced households were accommodated by relatives and neighbors who

live on higher ground while others sought refuge in temporary flood shelters put up by

the government and NGO‟s at the government district offices, schools and churches.

Others lived in lived in rented motels and apartments.

Photo 4.1: Picture showing a house with a raised floor and a boat on stand by for
evacuation of people and property during extreme flood conditions.

Once the floods subsided the displaced households moved back to their damaged houses.

“Once we move back, we then build a fire from cow dung around or in the front yard of

the house. This helps to keep the ground dry after the flood recedes, providing us with dry

ground where we can cook and keep dry.” Results further indicate that a huge proportion

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298(84%), had to repair their homes an average from both risk levels and a quarter

52(23.3%) of household in the high risk areas were forced to build afresh. A mere

11(5%) in the high risk areas were still living in temporary shelters during the survey

period.

Additionally, of the households interviewed, 437(82 %) were reluctant to permanently

move from the flood zones. Among the major reasons given were attachment to ancestral

land, poverty, farms not severely affected and the fact that they had gotten used to living

with the floods. The results are indicated in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10: Reasons for staying in a flood prone area

(Multiple answer response)
Low Risk High Risk
Major reasons for staying in flood area
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Ancestral home 152 59.8 172 70.5
Poverty 66 26 109 44.5
Farm not severely affected 70 27.6 7 2.9
Fear of social set up breaking 13 5.1 12 4.9
Used to living with floods 17 6.7 31 12.7

Accumulated property 7 2.8 18 7.3

Availability of water 3 1.2 8 3.3

4.1.5.2 Coping with food shortage

A huge proportion 246(95%) reported food shortages in the high risk areas while a high

proportion 79.5% were similarly affected in the lower risk areas. Table 4.11 indicates that

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main survival strategy to deal with shortage of food was to buy food from the market. In

an attempt to make food stocks last longer, households reduced food taken at meal times

and skipped meals. Some household mentioned giving children priority over adults.

When food stocks ran out households received food and monetary assistance from their

relatives, the Government and the NGOs.

Members of few households looked for alternative employment to supplement income

but because the problem was widespread, opportunities were greatly reduced during the

flood season. It was only in extreme conditions that a mere 2(0.8%) of household in the

high risk areas ate carcasses of livestock that had drowned in the flood waters while a

similar 2(0.8%) resorted to trading their assets for money and food.

Table 4.11: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of food in the study area
(Multiple answer response)

Coping strategy Low risk High risk

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Bought food 163 83.2 205 80.4
Reduced food intake per meal 32 16.3 89 34.9
Skipped meals 29 14.8 55 21.6
Assisted by relatives 19 9.7 52 20.4
Children given priority 14 7.1 50 19.6
Looked for alternative employment 17 8.8 9 3.5
Government assistance 5 2.6 15 5.9
NGO assistance 2 1.0 4 1.5
Ate animals that drowned 0 0 2 0.8
Sold livestock and assets 0 0 2 0.8

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4.1.5.3 Coping with clean water shortage

Results indicate that only 142(26.9%) of the respondent interviewed had access to clean

piped water. This access was however reduced during flooding due to contamination.

Consequent shortage of clean water supply adversely affected about 70.3% and 47.1% of

the households interviewed in the high risk areas and low risk areas respectively. Results

further indicate that households that relied mainly on rivers/streams as their main source

of water experienced the highest proportion 113(88.3%) of water shortage followed by

slightly over half 129(54%) of households whose main water source was wells/boreholes.

A young man explained that “Rivers and streams are also used by animals as their

source of water which has sometimes led to their contamination.”

Table 4.12: Relationship between shortage of water and main water source
Household total Shortage within water source
Main water source
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Communal tap 142 26.9 45 31.5
Well/Borehole 238 45.1 129 54.0
River/stream 148 28 113 88.3
Total 528 100.0

To deal with the water shortages, results in Table 4.13 indicate that about half 91(49.2%)

of households in high risk areas and nearly 36(31.3) in the low risk areas boiled water.

Other strategies included harvesting rain in water tanks, use of water purifying tablets and

borrowing or buying tap water.

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Table 4.13: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of water

(Multiple answer response)

Low risk area High risk area

Coping strategy
Frequency percentage Frequency percentage
Boiled drinking water 36 31.3 91 49.2
Collected rain water 39 34.2 71 38.6
Used water purifying tablets 32 28.1 59 31.9
Used uncontaminated borehole water 32 28.1 31 16.8
Borrowed/ Bought tap water 15 13.3 37 20
Used flood water (without treating) 8 7.2 12 6.5

A community elder pointed out that in extreme conditions households 20(6.7%) were

forced to drink flood water without boiling because the firewood was too wet to light;

“this kind of water makes the population prone to the water borne diseases since they

drink from the source directly without further treatment.”

Photo 4.3: Picture shows harvesting of rainwater into a water tank; addresses problem
of shortage of clean water and reduces incidences of waterborne disease.

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4.1.5.4 Main source of water in household

The study established that well/boreholes 238(45.1%) followed by rivers/streams 148

(28%) were the major sources of water both for drinking and domestic use. A significant

140(94.6%) of rivers/streams users lived in the high risk areas. Slightly below a quarter

142(24.2 %) had access to communal, piped tap water. Further discussions established

that access to clean piped water was a major problem and further diminished during the

flood season.

Variable Category Low risk High risk

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
(%) (%)
Main source of Communal tap 85 13.4 57 10.8
water
Well/Borehole 171 32.4 67 12.7
River/Stream 8 1.5 140 26.5

4.1.5.5 Health morbidity patterns

In the survey, an average 471(93.8%) of the respondents identified flooding with

prevalence of disease and ill health in their households whilst the rest (6.2%) had no such

incidence. The diseases that the respondents reported to have suffered from are presented

in Table 4.14.

Malaria was the single most widely recorded mosquito-borne disease mentioned by a

huge proportion 434(91.1%), an average of the respondents in both high and low risk

areas. Almost twice as many incidences of cholera, typhoid, dysentery and amoeba were

reported in the high risk areas when compared to the low risk levels. Athlete foot was

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mentioned by an average 40(8.5%) of the respondents in both risk levels. Pneumonia,

vomiting and fever were independently reported by an average 70(14.8%), 52(11) and

84(17.8%) of the interviewees, respectively, from the two risk levels.

Table 4.14: Summary of diseases suffered by respondents during the flood season
(Multiple answer response)

Low risk area High risk area

Disease
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Malaria 198 90.8 236 92.9
Typhoid 28 12.8 74 29.1
Cholera 29 13.2 64 25.2
Dysentery 33 15.1 54 21.3
Fever 22 10.1 62 24.4
Pneumonia 26 11.9 44 17.3
Vomiting 10 4.6 42 16.5
Athlete foot 11 5.0 29 11.4
Skin diseases (Others) 10 4.6 18 7.1
Bilharzia 7 3.2 21 8.3
Amoeba 6 2.5 14 5.5

4.1.5.5.1 Treatment of flood related ailments

A majority 291(62%) of respondents took their sick to government hospitals and health

centres. A common practice noted amongst slightly less than a quarter 98(21%) of the

respondents was self treatment. They acknowledged buying drugs from shops and drug

stores to treat themselves without going to qualified medical officers for proper medical

checkup. A mere 33(7%) were able to afford to take their patients to private hospitals

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while 38(8.1%) made use of traditional medicine. A mere 10(2.1%) of the respondents

mentioned getting treatment from community health care workers during the flood

season. The findings are indicated represented in Figure 4.5.

2%
7%
Government facilities
Drug store
8%
Traditional medicine
Private facilities
CHW

21%

62%

Figure 4.5: Average percentage of health care services sourced by households during the
flood season

According to the District Health officer, the central and local governments had stocked

the government health centers with anti malarial drugs which were being given free of

charge to malaria patients, to complement the governments program of the fight against

malaria. A health and hygiene promotion was being emphasized by Red Cross. The Red

Cross worker informed us that they had just launched an initiative to train community

health workers in avoidance and treatment of flood related ailments. Key information

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elicited included use of clean water, food hygiene, safe sanitation and the use of mosquito

nets to avoid mosquito bites.

The Kenyan government, under the ministry of Health, has also carried out a massive

campaign on the use of mosquito nets. However the nets are only distributed to pregnant

women and children below 5 years of age. With a majority 67% of the population in

Nyando District living below poverty levels, a large segment of the participants

complained that they were not able to afford the nets valued at the market price of Kshs.

500.

4.1.5.6 Injuries and death

Despite serious damage to housing and property, only 22(4.7%) households reported

direct loss of human life. Many of the deaths reported were as a result of drowning

14(82%). The number of deaths reported in high risk areas was 13(93%) and 1(7%) in the

low risk areas. A further 8 deaths were as a result of injuries resulting from walls, roof of

houses and trees collapsing on victims. Interviewees from two households reported death

of one member each as a result of snake bite and the other was killed by hippos. The

results are indicated in Table 4.15.

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Table 4.15: Summary of deaths related to flooding

(Multiple answer response)
Low risk area High risk area
Cause of death
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Drowning 1 20 14 82
Wall collapsed on victim 0 0 2 12
Roof collapsed on victim 1 20 0 0
Trees fell on victim 1 20 1 6
Snake bite 1 20 0 0
Killed by hippo 1 20 0 0
Total 5 100% 17 100%

4.1.5.7 Impact on rural livelihoods

4.1.5.7.1 Agriculture
Results from the analysis indicated that 246(95%) and 213(87%) of the respondents in

high and low risk areas, respectively, had their crop submerged or swept away by floods.

Table 4.14 indicates that the most common response to deal with loss of crop was to wait

for the next season to plant. Replanting immediately would have required adjusting

cropping seasons which depending on the time of the year would invite further damage

from drought or pests.

Households received seed donations from the government or borrowed seeds to plant

from relatives, neighbors and friends. Nearly 33(13.2%) and 14(6.5%) of households

from high and low risk areas, respectively, reduced the magnitude of loss in crops by

planting first maturing crops. Some households switched from growing vegetables and

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maize and instead resorted to planting rice, others opted to rent land on higher ground to

avoid expected future loses while others resorted to other businesses to supplement

income. A mere 2(1.2%) in the high risk areas sold livestock to buy seeds and only 1(1%)

household in both risk levels reported having put aside seeds in anticipation of such a

crisis.

Table 4.16: Coping strategies used to deal with loss of crop in study area

(Multiple answer response)

Low risk area High risk area
Coping strategy
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Waited for next season to plant 161 74.2 187 74.8
Government donated seeds 26 12 72 28.8
Borrowed seeds to plant from 11 5.1 34 13.6
relatives
Resorted to other businesses 27 12.5 18 7.2
Planted short duration variety of 14 6.5 33 13.2
crops
Rent agricultural land on higher 6 2.8 17 6.8
ground
Switched to growing rice 6 2.8 17 6.8
Sold livestock to buy seeds 0 0 2 1.2
Relied on reserved seeds 1 0.5 1 0.5

4.1.5.7.2 Livestock rearing

A high proportion (209(81%) of households interviewed experienced death of their

poultry and livestock in the high risk areas compared to slightly below half 115(47.7%)

of household in the low risk areas. To cope with loss of pasture the highest percentage of

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households moved their livestock to higher ground while other traveled long distances to

look for fodder for their animals. Other coping actions included replacing what had been

lost, treating livestock and selling weak and vulnerable animals before the onset of

floods. A summary of these results are presented in Table 4.17.

Table 4.17: Coping strategies to handle livestock during the flood season
(Multiple answer response)
Low risk area High risk area
Coping strategy
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Moved livestock to higher ground. 50 43.3 116 55.4
Traveled long distances to look for 41 35.3 103 49.3
fodder/pasture
Bought and replaced what has been 14 11.6 34 16
lost
Spray and de-worm livestock 12 9.8 32 15
Sold weak and vulnerable livestock 0 0 6 2.8

4.1.5.8 Effectiveness of strategies used to cope with flood risks

Respondents were requested to evaluate the effectiveness of their current coping

strategies. Results from the study indicate that on a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being most

effective and 4 not effective; a higher proportion 168(63.6%) of respondents in the low

risk areas perceived their responses to be effective as compared to150(56.8)of

respondents in low risk areas. Summary of the findings are indicated in Figure 4.6.

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Figure 4.6: Effectiveness of coping strategies in study area

4.1.5.9 Preparedness to deal with future flood events

The respondents were further asked whether they were prepared for the likelihood of a

future flood event. Results from the study indicate that on a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being

most very prepared and 4 not prepared at all; slightly less than half 121(45.9%) and

129(48.9%) of respondents in low and high risk areas, respectively, felt prepared to deal

with future flood events. The results are summarized in figure 4.7.

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Figure 4.7: Level of preparedness in the study area

4.1.6 External support

The prevailing emergency relief policy guidelines of Kenyan Government require that

local authority provide basic necessities such as food, shelter and medical care to disaster

victims. In this study,166(62.9%) of respondents in the high risk areas received external

support while a much smaller proportion 98(37.4%) received assistance in the low risk

areas. Government disaster programs accounted for a huge proportion 448(85.2%) of the

support received, while 115(28.1%) of the respondents received help from non

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government organizations. A mere 35(6.7%) were assisted by relatives, friends, church

organizations and private donations from well wishers (Figure 4.8).

100
90
80
70 Low risk
60
Percentage (%)

High risk
50
40
30
20
10
0
Government NGOs Local Relatives Private
Agencies Donations

Source of relief aid

Figure 4.8: Sources of support received during flood times in the study area

Discussions with key informants revealed that flood management initiatives at the district

are coordinated by the District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC) that has

incorporated all key government departments. The DDMC is represented at the location

and sub location levels. These committees, together with the chiefs and sub chiefs

organize, implement and oversee the food for work program introduced by the

government to engage the community in managing floods. The community members

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dig/clear trenches in exchange for food. Red Cross, VIRED, CREPP, World Vision and

ADRA have been the major non governmental contributors during flood disasters.

Photo 4.4: A woman in Ayweyo receives 2 Kgs. of maize as payment/incentive for

digging/clearing a water channel. This is an initiative of the government, The Food for
Work Program

4.1.6.1 Attitude towards relief aid

Results presented in Figure 4.9 indicate that a high proportion 208(79.1) of the

respondents in both high risk and low risk felt the assistance offered was completely

inadequate

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Figure 4.9: Satisfaction levels with the amount relief aid received

4.1.6.2 Attitude on coping without relief aid

The respondents were further asked to what extent they could survive without external

aid. On a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being most sufficiently and 4 not survive at all. A larger

proportion 162(61.6%) of respondents in the high risk areas felt they would not be able to

survive without relief aid in the event of a flood disaster as compared to 98(37.1%) in the

low risk areas. The responses are summarized in Figure 4.10.

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Figure 4.10: Perception of coping capabilities in the absence of external support

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4.2 Discussion

4.2.1 Socio-demographic information

Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented, with slightly larger

numbers in the lowest age bracket 18-25 and 41-50 categories accounting for

117(22.1%) and 116(22%) of the respondents, respectively. The oldest age bracket was

60 and above years which accounted for 71(13.5%) of the respondents. The number of

males of males interviewed were fewer, 231 (43.8%) compared to females 297 (56.2%.

This can be attributed to the fact that most male household members were engaged in

out-door work during the survey period.

The mechanism by which marital status affects coping mechanisms remains uncertain in

this study. The findings of this study showed that most of the respondents 353(66.9%)

were married and living with their spouses. Female headed households,

widows/widowers and their children are generally perceived to be more vulnerable to

floods as compared to their counterpart households with both spouses. This could be

explained by the fact that households with both spouses are better financially and

psychological placed and hence able respond to flood risks in a better mental and

emotional state than their single counterparts (SERA Project, 2000; Yamano & Jayne

2002). However this is not necessarily true in all cases as shown by the losses experienced

by majority of the households despite the fact that most of them had both spouses alive at

the time of this study. The results are similar to a study done by Rayhan and Grote,

(undated) in which gender of household head of flooded households in Bangladesh were

found to have no significant effect on vulnerability to flood risks . Analysis revealed no

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significant difference between marital categories and loss experienced in both high and

low risk areas.

The relationship between household resources and flood vulnerability is that coping with

and recovery from flood impacts demands financial reserves that can buffer the

household from negative flood impact (Nethengwe, 2007; SERA Project). The study

findings indicate a high degree of poverty and low incomes reflected in the employment

types where the majority of the people were in the informal sector. Most households were

depending on their farms for a livelihood, which is fairly typical of the general

population, as the area supports a large rural population. The modal gross family income

was below 2,500Kshs which represents 380(70%) of the households. These findings are

consistent with the national statistics that indicate high absolute poverty levels (67%) in

Nyando District, based on the 1999 census (Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2002)

The low-income levels among the study population and especially the females may be

attributed to low levels of education with only 41(13.9%) having gone beyond primary

level. Low education levels are associated with lack of well-remunerated employment

and therefore less social powers and fewer economic resources and physical capacity to

anticipate, survive and recover from the effects of massive floods. Higher family income

is of relatively greater benefit and often accompanied by a rise in expenditure on

preparation and protection strategies (Few et al., 2004).

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A larger proportion 71(29%) of the women had no formal education as compared to

13(5%) of their male counterparts. Further results showed that 77.5% of female income

per month fell in the <2500 category and they therefore had to depend on their spouses or

relatives for a livelihood. These circumstances have been found to affect the women‟s

ability to respond appropriately to flood hazards as well as their capacity to participate in

flood management at both household and community levels (Wiest et al., 1994; Few et

al., 2004; Bhatta, 2008).

4.2.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting

Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early flood disaster management had

enabled communities, particularly those living in flood prone areas to adopt and live with

extreme weather conditions for generations (UNEP, 2008). In the study, 482(83%) of the

respondents were aware of local ways of knowing whether it would flood or not and

465(80%) of these respondents acknowledged the use of the traditional knowledge These

results demonstrated that traditional strategies were considered a trusted source of

information and importance to this community.

Results from the study further indicated a significant difference between level of

awareness of traditional knowledge in the high and low risk areas (χ2=; 11.526 df =1;

p=.001) with a considerably larger proportion of respondents in the high risk areas being

more aware of traditional flood knowledge than those residing in the low risk areas. The

most likely explanation for the difference is flood experience. This supported

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observations by Jinchi, (2003) who concluded that people‟s level of flood experience and

their place of residence had an important impact on levels of flood awareness.

Discussions from the focus groups further revealed that majority of the young people and

those engaged in off-farm or non-farm activities did not feel confident about sharing

traditional knowledge. The reasons given were that the opportunity to learn from the

elderly was gradually becoming rare and they had not spent sufficient time in the field to

develop accurate forecasts. Interestingly, this did not seem to bother them. These

findings match those of study carried out by Eyob, (1999) in Eritrea in which most

young respondents interviewed associated indigenous knowledge with low prestige rural

life; believing it to be inferior.

It is generally accepted that traditional flood knowledge is in many cases preserved as an

oral tradition and is passed on by word of mouth (UN/ISDR, 2008). The study findings

contradicted this as only 163(38%) of the respondents received this information from

their elders. A huge proportion 357(73.8%) reported getting flood information mainly

through personal observation. This might be attributed to the processes of urbanization,

development and formal education contributing to the decreasing traditional practice of

passing on of early warning strategies by word of mouth.

4.2.2.1 Influence of demographics on awareness and use of traditional knowledge

The results in the study revealed the converge side to age and length of residency and that

was the benefit of experience. The association between these two demographic variables

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and awareness and use of traditional flood knowledge were found to be significant in

both high and low risk areas. The highest proportion of respondents with traditional flood

knowledge were in the 33 plus age groups and had lived in the area for more than 4 years

This could derive from a life spent in flood prone areas and the greater chance that older

people have more flood experience. The results are similar to those of a survey carried

out on flood victims of the 2002 Melde Flood in Eilenburgh (Kuhlicke, 2002) in which

respondents with extensive local flood knowledge were those who had lived in the area

for a long time and had experienced major floods in 1954 and 1974.

Occupation wise, farmers were more aware of traditional flood knowledge than the rest

of the categories. The difference in awareness of the information within the occupation

categories was found to be significant in both high (χ 2=; 47.309 df =21; p=.001) and low

risk areas (χ2=; 40.866 df =21; p=.001). These results imply that people whose

livelihoods are directly affected by flooding have more use for the local flood knowledge

which they apply to minimize loss. These results concur with those of a study done on

indigenous responses to flooding in Bangladesh (ITDG-B, 2001) in which a significant

number of the responses related to agricultural coping measures. The majority of

households engaged in crop production suffered loss of standing crops and loss of

employment during the period.

4.2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health

General findings from the study revealed that the degree of perceived risk of flood threats

to health was significantly higher among the respondents living in the high risk areas

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compared to those in the low risk areas. The demonstrated difference in perceptions is

undoubtedly attributable to the level of awareness of risk and the degree of exposure to

the health hazards. A similar perception of flooding described by Ockzyk (2004): flood

plain inhabitants generally perceive a risk from flooding only to the extent or magnitude

that they have previously experienced, thus leaving themselves vulnerable in the event of

a larger flood. Slovic et al., (1979) concluded that the memorability of past events play an

important role in the determination of how individuals will perceive and react to future

flood.

Results from this study also indicated that for this community, the advantages of their

location--close to the river with easy access to fertile land, water, and strong community

ties-far outweighed the health risks associated with flooding. Although flooding was

viewed as a recurring problem, the fact that the study established that a large segment of

the people interviewed 437(82.8%) were reluctant to permanently vacate their flood

prone land reinforces the fact that flooding is not perceived as a serious threat in the area.

These findings are similar to those of a study carried out in Tanzania (Gaston,

unpublished) which revealed that pressure to live in flood-prone areas, which typically

are surrounded by rich alluvial soils, abundant water supplies is on the increase as the

country‟s population increases. Similarly, following the 2000 Mozambique floods, where

livelihood of people depended on the flood plain, government action to relocate

vulnerable populations was met with a lot of resistance as the affected population moved

location but maintained temporary housing in the flood plains and eventually moved

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back. The people feared leaving and potentially losing their possessions or their property

claim. (Rojas, 1997; Few et al, 2004).

This implies that for this community, health is a luxury they cannot afford because their

immediate economic survival is at stake. The problem is often not simply a lack of

awareness, but rather, assessments of local risk based on experience that underestimates

the impact of accumulating risk (Few et al., 2005).

4.2.3.1 Perception on methods of managing flood risks

Despite the recurrent nature of the hazard, results showed that flood events were

perceived to be inevitable and fairly unpredictable especially in the high risk areas,

limiting scope for action and response. This might indicate the nature of flash floods and

lack of possibilities to prepare for the hazard. It could also point to increased

vulnerability that could be attributed to climate change thereby reducing the community‟s

ability to precisely predict and warn future flood events (Salick et al., 2007; Macchi et

al., 2008). Historical trends have allowed for reasonable predications of future weather

patterns. However, the increasing severity and frequency of floods over the last decade

have rendered this latter form of forecasting less reliable than it has been in the past. In a

number of studies conducted on climate change (Vordzorgbe, 2007; Few et al., 2007,

IPCC, 2007; Macchi et al., 2008;) climate experts confirm that intensity of flood events

has increased, especially around the Lake Victoria Region.

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Regarding floods control measures, flood preventive measures were elected as a priority

in both high and low risk areas. A relatively surprising outcome was the fact that in both

surveyed areas flood risk was perceived to be controllable with structural measures. This

was perceived to require huge investments to implement. When asked directly, most

respondents mentioned the dyke currently under construction to be the main reason

incidences of flooding had reduced in the area. These results displayed a growing belief

and dependency on the technical approach. This was noteworthy as a number of studies

on risk perception (Linnerooth-Bayer, 2002; Ikeda, 2003; APFM, (2006) had indicated

that an excess of confidence on the structural alternative performance in reducing flood

frequency may bias the decision-making process and eventually lead to an inadequate

occupation of flood prone areas, increasing flooding potential impacts in case of

structural failures. This suggested that it was not practical to reduce flood disasters only

by structural measures under the concept of need to control, because it had physical and

financial limitations.

Despite these findings, the need to attribute disasters to some supernatural was obviously

still felt by a substantial 129(24%). Bhutta (1999) and Bhatti, (2005) shed more light on

these views by stating that there are multiple interpretations of risks and disasters, yet the

divine element is dominant. People do recognize other tangible and structural factors

involved in disaster and relating disaster to natural forces is not just a religious expression

rather it reflects the social meanings of harm happening in certain time and space

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4.2.3.2 Demographic influences on perception of flood risks

Differences in occupation categories indicated that small and large scale farmers

perceived significantly higher levels of threat than the other occupation categories. This

could be as a result of huge losses being incurred directly affecting their livelihoods

4.2.4 Behavior associated with flood management

A considerably high percentage of respondents reported damage to their shelter in both

high and low risk areas. Traditionally, Luo houses are built from mud and thatch. These

are susceptible to damage by heavy rain, wind and flooding. The respondents seemed to

understand the dangers of using these housing materials but only few (considered rich)

could afford to build concrete houses with cemented walls.

To prevent flood waters entering their homes, it was observed that all homesteads had

houses built on raised lands or earthen platforms. The walls and entrances were elevated

so flood water could not reach the plinth. To protect their homes and farms, a huge

majority dug trenches around their compounds and planted trees and sisal fences around

the homesteads to break/reduce the flow of flood waters and to prevent erosion. These

results depict other studies of a similar kind done in flood prone locations (Del Ninno et

al., 2001; Few et al, 2005) in which housing techniques were adapted according to the

risk posed by floods and erosion.

Further findings showed that during extreme flood events, families affected vacated their

homes and moved to camps or were accommodated by relatives and friends. The study

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established that those who were accommodated in the temporary flood shelters put up by

the government and NGO‟S got the most assistance whereas the majority of those

accommodated by neighbors and relatives receive little assistance as coordinating widely

scattered households is usually difficult. After a few days away from their flooded

houses, displaced families always moved back to their homes. Gaston (unpublished) in

his study on flood risk management in Tanzania reported that flood victims always

moved back to their damaged houses and their safety remained a concern because the

structural stability of the houses were unknown. There was also the likelihood of

contracting diseases due to lingering stagnant water.

Respondents reported food and water shortages during the flood season. The study

indicated that the households had to borrow money and food in order to survive through

the flood season. Most people borrowed money from informal sources like relatives,

neighbors and friends. Quite a good number of households looked for alternative

employment to substitute income. In extreme conditions some households traded their

assets for money and food. Borrowing and selling of assets by families in distress are

coping actions that have been mentioned in findings of other researches (Jahan, 2000;

Few et al., 2004; Sharma, 2000).

Specific health risks related to flooding were reported by a huge majority of respondents

in both high and low risk areas. Malaria was the most commonly mentioned flood related

disease. Even though it was endemic in the region it was reported to be more prevalent

during and immediately after the flood season. The mosquito-borne disease could be

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related to favorable breeding conditions for mosquito larvae created by stagnant flood

waters.

Interviewees strongly associated flooding with increased incidences of cholera, typhoid,

dysentery, amoeba and fungal skin disease. The district public health officer claimed few

cases of cholera had been reported in the district but in the study it was ranked second

after malaria. It was observed that almost all households had shallow and temporary pit

latrines that easily fill up during the rainy season. This is the most probable way the

diarrheal diseases spread since the feces could easily have found their way in to water

sources such as wells, unprotected springs and rivers. Fungal skin disease; in particular

athlete foot could be associated with respondents being constantly in contact with flood

waters when performing domestic chores. This results are similar to those of Mungai et

al., (2004) in which Malaria epidemics was found to occur annually between May and

July in Nandi and Kericho upper parts of Nyando river basin after long rains with the

only exception being during the 1997/98 El Nino phenomenon which occurred during

end of 1997 and early 1998, and was followed by malaria epidemic. An upsurge in water

borne diseases like diarrhoea that normally coincides with flooding in the lower part of

Nyando river basin was also noted.

An issue that came up during the interview process was that conditions like vomiting and

fever were independently reported. Discussions with the district public health officer

confirmed to us that many people could not identify the difference between symptoms of

common ailments. These results were similar to those of a study carried out by Few et.

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al., (2005) in Vietnam in which respondents were not able to tell the difference between

dengue fever and other common fevers.

To deal with the diseases, respondents made use of both traditional and modern medicine.

A good number of respondents acknowledged buying drugs from shops and drug stores

to treat themselves without testing what they were suffering from. It was only when a

member of the household was gravely ill that appropriate medical care was sought. This

behavior is consistent with findings of Few et al., (2005) in Vietnam and can be

attributed to low levels of education.

Despite serious damage to housing and property, few households reported direct loss of

human life. Many of the deaths reported were as a result of drowning and injuries

resulting from walls, roof of houses and trees collapsing on the victims. Most of these

deaths were blamed on flash floods.

4.2.4.1 Preparedness and effectiveness of coping action

Generally speaking, neither respondents from the two risk levels displayed high levels of

preparedness. There were several reasons why the respondents may have been unwilling

to prepare for disasters. One reason was the dyke under construction. This was a highly

visible measure that may have generated perceptions of a flood free area and may have

largely contributed to reduced motivation to prepare. Another postulated reason was that

an individual‟s expectation of damaging disaster does not necessarily lead to

preparedness suggesting that the sense of being at risk does not in itself move people to

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action (Turner et al.,1986). In a similar study, Kaiser et al., (2004) indicated that no

correlation existed among personal experience and precautionary actions and that

knowledge about the risk does not automatically imply knowledge about the

consequences and precautionary actions as e.g. 90% of the persons estimated the

probability of a storm flood as very high, had not taken any personal preventive

measures.

Vulnerable people individually and collectively develop their own means, resources and

strategies to cope with flooding. All of these mechanisms, however, have financial, social

and/or opportunity implications (ISDR, 2004). A review of a preparedness program in

Bangladesh showed that vulnerable people had little or no surplus income to invest in the

measures that could protect them from flooding although they knew what to do (Alam et

al., 2007b cited in Pro Vention, 2008). To some extent results in Nyando followed the

same trend with slightly higher percentage of respondents in the low risk areas reporting

their coping actions to be more effective as compared to those in the high risk areas. Low

income levels and repeated destruction of assets, which function as a buffer, may have

compromised the ability to respond appropriately to subsequent floods. The frequency of

climate shocks exacerbates the fragility of poor people‟s assets and thus further

compromises recovery (Fuente, 2008).

Findings from the study further indicated a highly significant association between

preparedness and level of effectiveness of coping action in both low and high risk levels

at (χ252.822; df =9; p= .0001) and (χ231.833; df =9; p=.0001), respectively. The practical

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implication of these findings is that preparedness raises participant‟s levels of confidence

in their ability to cope with flood risks.

4.2.4.2 Demographic influences on preparation and effectiveness of coping action

It is generally accepted that there is a decreasing perception of hazard with age. The

explanations for this are that older people may consider themselves less vulnerable due to

their increased experience (Beringer, 2000). Alternatively, elderly residents are often

more sceptical about the danger and thus more likely to discount the risk (Mileti et al,

1975). To a certain extent the results for Nyando District did follow this trend with

respondents in the 40plus age categorise reporting significantly lower levels of

preparedness as compared to the younger age groups. Additionally, the 60plus age group

had the lowest percentage of those who felt their coping actions were effective.

Gender wise, the women reported considerably lower levels of preparedness 119(40%) as

compared to their male counterparts 127(55%). These findings are similar to those of a

study carried out in Pine Lake, Alberta area, Ontario (Murphy et al. 2005) in which men

appeared to dominate both outdoor and indoor preparedness. This could be attributed to

low income and education levels that may have reduced the women‟s coping choices.

The same would be implied for the income category in which respondents with incomes

in the 10,000+ categories reported being better prepared and their coping actions more

effective as compared to respondents in lower income levels.

These results also confirm findings of other studies (UNDP, 2007; Mitchell et al., 2007)

which indicate that although climate change affects everyone, it is not gender neutral.

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Climate change magnifies existing inequalities, reinforcing the disparity between women

and men in their vulnerability to and capability to cope with climate change. Studies by

Enarson, (2000) and O’Brien, (2007) have highlighted the fact that natural disasters could

also provide women with a unique opportunity to challenge and change their gendered

status in society. Women have been willing and able to take an active role in what are

traditionally considered ‘male’ tasks in responding to disasters, e.g. following Hurricane

Mitch in Guatemala and Honduras in 1998 (Schrader and Delaney, 2000).

It was interesting to note that respondents who had more education levels reported less

effectiveness of their coping action as compared to people with less education levels.

This could be due to lack of appreciation of local coping strategies. According to Faupel

and Styles, (1993) an explanation for this could be that education raises participant‟s

levels of expectations regarding what they should have been able to accomplish.

4.2.4 External Support

Respondents living in the high risk areas received nearly twice as much external support

compared to those living in the low risk areas. Despite receiving relief support majority

of the respondents in both high and low risk areas felt the aid was insufficient and

inappropriately (corruptly) handled and distributed. They were therefore forced to resort

back to household level adjustments to compensate for damages caused by the floods. A

study carried out in Krishna District West, Bengal by Nayak, 2007) described a similar

circumstance in which people were anxious to get relief material but there were lots of

complaints from the people that relief material had not so far reached them. In this

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particular case, the media was at the same time giving reports on the malpractices in

weighing the relief material, which was being supplied to the affected people.

One of the major concerns was the extent to which respondents were able to cope without

external aid. Findings from the study revealed that majority of the respondents living in

the high risk areas felt they would not be able to cope with future floods in the absence of

external support. Study findings further revealed that length of residency was the only

demographic variable that was found to be highly significantly associated with attitude of

the respondents towards external support in the high risk areas (χ2= 69.096; df =24;

p=0.001). Confidence in ability to survive without external aid increased as the length of

residency increased. A key issue emerging was the extent to which relief measures and

programs were able to strengthen the resilience of the communities to floods.

Findings from the study revealed that most relief agencies were offering emergency

supplies, but were reluctant to invest in pre-disaster and post-disaster phases. The main

explanation for this was lack of funding for long term projects. Key informants also felt

the government sponsored food for work program was creating a dependency syndrome.

Activities that were previously undertaken by community members on voluntarily basis

were now being performed in exchange for food. When food supplies delayed or ran out,

the people refused to continue working. Similar results were reported in a study carried

out by Wilk and Kgathi, (2008) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana in which heavy

reliance on government assistance increased especially among female-headed households

and high-risk households in the face of recurring flood regimes

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CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Major findings of the study

5.1.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented in the survey. From the

findings of the study, the main occupation of most households was subsistent farming.

Incomes were generally low among the respondent as employment patterns among the

respondents showed only a small minority of them as wage earners. These low-income

could be attributed to low levels of education with only a quarter of the respondents

having gone beyond primary level.

5.1.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting

Results of the study demonstrated that traditional flood knowledge does exist in the study

area and these traditional strategies are a trusted source of information and importance to

this community. Flood prediction was based on knowledge of weather pattern,

observation of changes in animal and insect activities, changes in the weather pattern,

river levels and flood cycles. Ancestral knowledge was regarded as playing a minimum

role since most respondents claimed they acquired their knowledge within their lifetime.

5.1.3 Existing perceptions of impact and management of flood risks

General findings from the study revealed that public health risks evoked significantly

higher degrees of anxiety in the high risk areas compared to the low risk areas. This was

attributed to the level of exposure to flood related health risks. Damage to shelter and

food insecurity were perceived to be the greatest flood related health risks. This flood

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related risks were perceived to be controllable with structural measures. This would

require huge investments to implement.

Despite the health risks, an overwhelming majority were still reluctant to permanently

vacate the area because they predominantly felt that the advantages of living there

outweighed the risks involved. To the area residents, health is a luxury they cannot afford

because their immediate economic survival is at stake. This implies that for this

community, the problem is often not simply a lack of awareness, but rather an assessment

of risk is based on the experience of having survived previous flood disasters that

underestimates future risks.

5.1.4 Response behavior towards health risks

Local coping strategies had both dimensions: innovative adjustability and passive

acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these indigenous actions were taken at the

household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. At the community level,

technical and engineering preparedness such as construction of dykes were seen to

dominate the mitigation approach. Given the financial limitations of the Kenyan

Government in completing structural measures, focus was mainly on small scale

mitigation efforts. It was noted that most local-level-collective response, even if

classified as community effort was officially organized by the central government for

example, digging and clearing of trenches and sandbagging weak points along the river

banks. The current food for work initiative was put in place by the government to support

these ventures.

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In terms of assessing individual ability to control the hazardous situation, respondents

from the two risk levels did not display high levels of preparedness. As a result, more

respondents in the low risk areas reported their coping actions to be more effective as

compared to those in the high risk areas. Women reported considerably lower levels of

preparedness as compared to their male counterparts while low income earners, elderly

respondents and those in the secondary-plus education categories reported less

effectiveness of their coping action compared to the other categories.

5.1.5 Attitude towards external support

Despite receiving some external support, respondents in both high risk and low risk felt

the assistance offered was completely inadequate and most of the community members

had to resort back to household level adjustments to compensate for damages caused by

the floods. Respondents who received relief aid indicated significantly higher levels of

dependency on external support compared to those who did not receive external

assistance. The dependency syndrome was seen to be created by relief agencies which

were offering emergency supplies, but were reluctant to invest in pre-disaster and post-

disaster phases. Key informants felt the government sponsored food for work program

was also responsible for creating the dependency syndrome.

5.2 Conclusion

From the above summary, the following can be concluded from this study:

 Significant distinctions could be drawn between the high and low risk areas.

Residents in the high risk areas had significantly higher levels of awareness and

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use of traditional knowledge. They were more aware of the nature of flood related

health risks they were exposed to and appeared better prepared for future flood

risk but were more dependent on external aid. On the other hand residents living

in the low risk area reported better success with their response mechanisms. The

demonstrated differences were undoubtedly attributable the degree of exposure to

the health hazards and socio demographic influences.

 The burden of diseases was significantly higher during the flood season but the

advantages of living in a flood plain seem to outweigh the health risks associated

with flooding. The result is a combination of innovative adjustability and passive

acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these indigenous actions were taken at

the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. Perception of risk

was based on the experience of having survived previous flood disasters an excess

of confidence on structural measures thereby underestimating the impact of

accumulating risk. This appeared to bias the decision-making process.

 Based on these findings, the study failed to accept the null hypothesis that the

level of exposure to risk does not influence traditional knowledge, perceptions of

flood risks, response mechanisms and attitude towards external support of

Nyando communities. There was evidence from these results to conclude that

level of exposure to risk does have an influence on awareness and use of

traditional knowledge, perceptions of flood risks, response mechanisms and

attitude towards external support of the Nyando communities.

 This study was envisaged to benefit the following groups of people: rural

communities living in flood prone areas, disaster managers, policy makers,

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researchers and scholars, and funding agencies. The potential utility of the project

was to reduce vulnerability; to strengthen capacity of the affected communities to

respond more effectively to flood emergencies and to provide insights into

possibility of a more integrated approach to flood prevention and coping with

loss.

5.3 Recommendations for implementation

The following are recommendations for future planning and implementation:

 Existing traditional knowledge is largely underutilized in the current flood

management strategies. The Kenya Government Disaster Management Unit

should promote the use of traditional flood knowledge to boost preparedness at

the local levels. It should also be noted that traditional knowledge on flood

forecasting cannot function independently; it needs to be supported by official

flood warning methods and a wider range of support and flood risk management

measures.

 The Nyando community needs to shift from the current perceptions and

preference for 'hard' defenses that are costly to implement. They should also

embrace non-structural measures that are low cost, have low maintenance

requirements and are ultimately more sustainable i.e Flood warnings should

include more information about possible protection measures. In addition,

different information leaflets could be distributed with flood mitigation options

for specific groups of people, e.g. elderly people or households with children.

This, however, does not necessarily diminish the importance of structural

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measures; rather it points to the necessity of combining structural and non-

structural measures in a way that minimizes loss and achieves the best results.

 There is need to Strengthen the capacity of extension services like Community

Health Workers (CHWs) who can be easily accessed by the community during the

flood season. The Ministry of Health should train CHW‟s on environmental

sanitation. During the flood season, they should be supplied with enough

medicine for flood-related illness and water treatment products.

 The Ministry of Water should extend clean water and sanitation services to all

households and to ensure a constant supply of clean water during the flood

season. Alongside these services, the Ministry should also educate the community

members on the key importance of good environmental health. This will help

keep to a minimum outbreak of waterborne diseases.

 The Government, NGO‟s and CBO‟s in dealing with disaster management in

Nyando District are currently focused on either emergency health preparedness or

post emergency relief. There is need for them to shift their mindsets from reaction

and charity to anticipation and preemption.

 The study highlights social differentiation in perception of risks and socio-cultural

and economic factors as barriers to effective coping and take-up of interventions.

This draws attention to the need for flood warning activities to be tailored to local

social contexts.

 Potential for climate change to intensify or alter flood patterns means that it is

likely to become a major additional driver of future health risk from flooding in

Nyando District. There is need for the Government Disaster Management Unit,

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NGO‟s, and CBO‟S managing flood disasters to educate the Nyando communities

on the global climate trends and see how local coping capacities can be improved

to prepare the communities for future flood events.

5.5 Recommendations for further research:

 Gender dimensions of vulnerability to flood hazards in areas severely affected

by HIV/AIDS.

 Community insurance to and property security in flood prone areas.

 Community –based risk communication and advocacy strategies.

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Environmental Change. GeoJournal, 70, 121-132

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109

Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. and Davis, I. (2004) At Risk: Natural Hazards,
People‟s Vulnerability and Disasters, Second Edition. London: Routledge.
Whitelaw, S., Baxendale, A., Bryce, C., Machardy, L., Young, I. and Whitney, E.
(2001) „Settings‟ based health promotion: a review. Journal of Health Promotion
International, 16, 339–353.
WMO, (2005). Natural Disaster Prevention and Mitigation. Working Together For a Safe
World. 14 p.
Yamano, T. & Jayne, T. (2002). Measuring the impact of prime-age adult death on
rural households in Kenya. Staff Paper 2002-26, pp 7-11. Department of
Agricultural Economics. East Lansing: Michigan State University
Yarnal, B., (1994). „Agricultural decollectivization and vulnerability to environmental
change: a Bulgarian case study. Journal of Global Environmental Change, 4:
229-243

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APPENDIX I

Map showing high and low flood risk areas sampled during the study in Nyando and
where Nyando is Located in Kenya

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APPENDIX 11: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE

Instruction to interviewer

 Thank the interviewee for agreeing to be interviewed.

 Share with him/her that the following information will be used to improve and
strengthen programmes on flood management in Nyando – his /her observations
are therefore very important.
 Reassure him/her that all responses will be kept private and confidential.
 Let him/her know that we appreciate all comments on these questions.
 Encourage the interviewees to ask any questions they may have, at any time
during the interview or after its completion.
 After completing the interview, thank the interviewee once again for cooperating
and for taking time to respond.

IDENTIFICATION

SUB-LOCATION: __________________________________________

DATE OF INTERVIEW __________________________________________

TIME OF INTERVIEW: START AT _______________ END AT _____________

Introduction
My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student at
Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along the Nyando
River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project to meet academic
requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions and response to this
perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of community flood hazard/risk
management strategies. Your household has been randomly selected to participate in this
confidential survey and your name and address will not be disclosed. Your response to this survey
is very important, as it will provide valuable information about flooding in your community. I
will request 30 minutes of your time to ask you a few questions to enable me complete the
questionnaire. I want to assure you that your answers and opinions will be treated in the strictest of
confidence.

Would you like to participate?

Yes………….. > Continue

No…………... > Terminate and thank respondent

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1) Questionnaire identification number (For official use only)

001 
I Demographics (Please complete this part fully)

002 Age 003 Gender 004 Marital status 005 Main occupation 006 Classification of
earning per month

a. 18-25  a. Male  a. Married  a. Farmer (subsistence)  a. Less than 2,500 

b. 26-32  b. Female  b. Farmer (large scale) 
b. Single  2,501-5,000 
 
b.
c. 33-40 c. Business person

d. 40-50  c. Divorced  d. House wife  c. 5,001-10,000 

e. 50-60  e. Student 
 10,001-20,000 
60 –above  Professional worker 
d. Separated d.
f. f.

e. Widow  g. Skilled artisan  e. 20,000-30,000 

h. Jobless 
f. Other (specify f. 30,001-40,000 
______________  g. 40,001 and above 
007 Level of education 008 House hold 009 Roof type 0010 Main 0011 Length
wall water source of residency
structure
No formal education
a.
1. Mud  1. Iron sheets  1. tap  a. 1 yrs 

b. Primary incomplete b. 2 yrs 
 2 .Timber  2. Grass  2. communal tap  c. 3 yrs 
Primary complete
c.


3. Cement/t/
3. Thatched/Makuti  3. well/borehole  d. 4-6 yrs 
d. Secondary incomplete
/bricks/stone  e. 6-10 yrs 
 4. Tiles/Asbestos  4. river/stream  f. 10-20 yrs 
Secondary complete 4. Other (specify) 
e.

 g. 20-above 
f. Post secondary incomplete
5. Other (specify)  5. other (specify) 

g. Post secondary complete

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
1.
How often do you think about floods?
0012

a. Always 
b. Often 
c. Not often 
d. Never 

2
What are the effects of flooding?
0013

a. Damage of physical structures 

b. Damage to crops and food supplies 
c. Damage to livestock 
d. Contamination of water supplies 
e. Causalities and Loss of life 
f. Epidemics 
g. Famine 
h. Disruption of schooling 
i. Transport disrupted 
j. Communication is disrupted 
k. Other 

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
3
What are the factors that contribute to these flood disasters in your area?
0014

a. Lack of awareness and information 

b. Transition in cultural practices 
c. Rapid urbanization 
d. Poverty 
e. Population growth 
f. Environmental degradation 
g. Location of settlement on flood plain 
h. Non resistant buildings and foundation 
i. Unprotected food stocks, standing crops and livestock. 
j. Other 


4 What are the most common ways of avoiding negative effects flood risks?
0015
(Preparation)

a. Dig/ clear trenches 

b. Raise floor of houses 
c. Pile mud around homestead 
d. Seal lower door entrance with mud 
e. Build dykes 
f. Plant trees/sisal 
g. Other 

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
5
What are the most common ways of dealing with floods?
0016

a. Evacuate to higher ground 

b. Dig trenches 
c. Rely on Government/NGO aid 
d. Raise what can be destroyed 
e. Buy food from the market 
f. Wait for another season to plant 
g. Remove excess water from the house 
h. Treat/Boil drinking water 
i. Rebuild/buy what has been destroyed 
j. Other 


6
Please rate the following assumed flood characteristics on a scale rate of 1-4
0017
(1. Low 2. Medium 3. High 4. Not sure)

1. Low threat 1 2 3 4 high threat

2. Certain not fatal 1 2 3 4 very fatal
3. Old risk 1 2 3 4 new risk
4. Evokes no anxiety 1 2 3 4 evokes anxiety
5. Influence possible 1 2 3 4 influence impossible
6. Happens seldom 1 2 3 4 happens often
7. Predictable 1 2 3 4 not predictable
8. Decrease in future 1 2 3 4 increase in future

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
7
I am now going to read out the following statements and would like you to
tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with them. 0018

1. Strongly agree, 2. Agree, 3. Not sure, 4. Disagree, 5. Strongly disagree

a. Flooding is inevitable and cannot be prevented 

b. Flood hazard could be reduced by man-made structures 
c. Huge investments is needed to reduce flood hazards 
d. Flood preventive measures are more important than emergency
relief and rehabilitation work. 
e. The state should establish financial reserves to help victims 
f. People are capable of controlling the occurrence of floods 
g. Modern technology is the best way to solve flooding problems. 
h. floods are a natural phenomena or „acts of God 

HOUSEHOLD BEHAVIOR DURING THE MOST RECENT FLOODS

8 Have you experienced floods in your life time?

0019 
a. Yes  (if yes, proceed to question below)
b. No  (if no, proceed to question?)


9
Which year did you experience the most recent floods?
0020



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
10
Did your family experience any damage to shelter
0021

a. Yes
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)


11
How did you deal with the damage?
0022

a. Build afresh 
b. Compact soft parts with mud 
c. Evacuate to higher ground 
d. Build temporary shelters 
e. Other 


12
Did your family experience loss of crops in the field?
0023

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)

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
13

How did you cope with the loss? 0024

a. Waited for next season to plant 

b. Rented land on higher ground 
c. Started growing rice 
d. Planted fast maturing crops (which one) indigenous crop? 
e. Bought food from the market 
f. Sought assistance from relatives 
g. Relied on Government/NGO aid 
h. Resorted to other businesses 
i. Other 


14
0025
Did your family experience loss of livestock?

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)


15
0026
What type of livestock did you loose?

Animal Number Lost (indicate)

a. Cows  
b. Goats  
c. Sheep  
d. Poultry  
e. Pigs  
f. Donkeys  
g. Other  

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
16

How did you cope with the loss? 0027

a. Bought and replaced what has been lost 

b. Reported loss to the chief 
c. Sold vulnerable stock before floods 
d. Treated livestock-sprayed and de-wormed 
e. No action taken 
f. Other 


17
Did your family experience any shortage of food during the floods?
0028

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)
c.


18
0029
If yes, how did you deal with the shortage?

a. Bought food from the market 

b. Reduced intake of food 
c. Skipped meals 
d. Was assisted by relatives 
e. Children given priority 
f. Other 

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
19

Did your family experience shortage of clean water during the 0030

floods?

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)


20

If yes, how did you deal with the shortage? 0031

a. Boil drinking water 

b. Collected rain water 
c. Used tap water 
d. Started using chlorine and water guard 
e. Used borehole water 
f. Other 


21
0032
Did your family experience any diseases that were more prevalent

during the flood times?

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)

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
22

If yes, what diseases? 0033

a. Cholera  b. Malaria 
c. Typhoid  d. Dysentery 
e. Athlete foot  f. Vomiting 
g. Bilharzia  h. Foot and mouth disease 
i. Fever  j. Pneumonia 
k. Amoeba  l. Other 


23
0034
How did you deal with the diseases?

a. Took the sick to Government dispensaries/hospitals 

b. Took the sick to private clinics/ hospitals 
c. Bought drugs from the store 
d. Used traditional medicine 
e. Used mosquito nets 
f. Other 

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
24
Was there any death in the family that can be attributed to the
floods? 0035

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)


25
If yes, what caused the death and how many members of the 0036

family did you loose?

a. One member 
b. Two members  Cause of death ---------------------------
c. Three members 
d. Other 

26
0037
Was schooling interrupted during the floods?

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)


27
0038
How did you deal with the situation?

a. Schools were closed 

b. Children stayed at home 
c. Children went to school during holidays 
d. Bought gumboots for children 
e. Community cleared the path off debris 
f. Other 

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
28

Generally, how effective is your household response in dealing with 0039

negative flood effects

a. Very effective 
b. Somewhat effective 
c. Not effective 
d. Don‟t now/Not sure 


29
0040
How can your responses be improved?

a. Government assistance 
b. Community education on how to live with floods 
c. Work harder to replace what is lost 
d. Government dispensaries to be improved 
e. Introduction of mobile clinics 
f. Store food reserves 
g. More community initiatives 
h. Plant trees 
i. Plant more crops 
j. Other 


30 Do you expect that you will experience flooding this year?
0041
a. Extremely likely 
b. Very likely 
c. Neutral (50/50) 
d. Extremely unlikely 

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
31
Are you prepared for the likelihood of a future flood?
0042

a. Very prepared 
b. Somewhat prepared 
c. Not very prepared 
d. Not prepared at all 


32
What plans do you have to deal with future floods?
0043

a. Evacuate when floods come 

b. Relocate to different area 
c. Rent land on higher ground 
d. Dig trenches 
e. Pile mud around the homestead 
f. Raise foundation of the house 
g. Digging dykes 
h. Store food 
i. Plant more rice 
j. Plant trees 
k. Other 


33
How likely is it that you will continue staying in this area in the next
0044
5 years?

a. Definitely stay 
b. Probably stay 
c. Definitely not stay 
d. Don‟t know 

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
34

If yes, why would you continue to live in flood prone area? 0045

a. Poverty 
b. Accumulated property 
c. Farm not severely affected 
d. Ancestral home 
e. Fear of social set up breaking 
f. Availability of water 
g. Used to living with floods 
h. Other 

TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND FORECASTING


35
When do you first become aware of the possibility of flooding?
0046

a. Official flood warning 

b. Unofficial or informal flood detection and warning process 
c. Form own judgment 
d. Don‟t know/not sure 
e. Other 


36
Do you have local ways of knowing whether or not it will flood?
0047

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes, proceed to question below)

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
37
Which traditional knowledge do you have that warns you of the
0048
likelihood of flooding?

a. When the old people bone‟s start to ache 

b. When the river levels start increasing 
c. Heavy rains in Kericho and the Nandi Hills 
d. Strong winds blowing from the river towards the Hills 
e. When it shines for long& temperatures are higher than normal
f. Certain movement and chirping of the cow egret 
g. Heavy rainfall in the area over long period of time 
h. Thunder and lightning on the river 
i. Certain way the frogs croak 
j. When noise level of the river increases 
k. When river water turns dirty brown 
l. Other 


38 Where does the above information come from?
0049
a. From old people 
b. Relatives 
c. Friends 
d. Own judgement 
e. Observing the rain pattern 
f. Observing river level 
g. Don‟t know 
h. Other 

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
39
Would you please rate how the following are useful as sources of
information? 0050

Most useful Adequate Inadequate Not useful

a. Friends/family    
b. Neighbour    
c. Radio stations    
d. Other (specify)    


40
How much do you rely on traditional flood information?
0051

a. Very much 
b. Somewhat 
c. Not much 
d. Don‟t know 
41
How much do you rely on official flood information?
0052

a. Very much 
b. To some extent 
c. Not much 
d. Don‟t know 

EXTERNAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS


42
0053
Did your household receive any help during the flood times?

a. Yes 
b. No  (if yes , proceed to question below)

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128


43
Where did the help come from?
0054

a. Relatives/families 
b. Local agencies 
c. Government 
d. NGO 
e. Other(Specify) 


44
What kind of external assistance did you receive?
0055

a. Food 
b. Temporary shelter/Tents 
c. Mattress 
d. Blankets 
e. Clothes 
f. Money 
g. Mosquito nets 
h. Medicine 
i. Structural measures 
j. Other 


45 To what extent does the assistance meet the need you hope
it will meet? 0056

a. Most sufficiently 
b. Sufficient 
c. In sufficient 
d. Not useful 

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129


46
To what extent can you cope without external assistance?
0057

a. Fully cope 
b. To a large extent 
c. To a small extent 
d. Not at all 

THE END

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130

APPENDIX II: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE

I. INTRODUCTION
My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student
at Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along
the Nyando River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project
to meet academic requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions
and response to this perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of
community‟s perceptions and response in flood hazard/risk management strategies. I am
talking to women and men living in Nyando District. The opinions and information that
you provide today will be helpful to us in planning a fresh approach to dealing with
floods in Nyando. Everything discussed here today will be confidential. The FGD will
last approximately 1:30 hours.

Other study notes – explain:

 That there feedback is important
 No „right‟ or „wrong‟ answers
 All views are valued and that they should speak their minds
 They should not worry if their views differ from other people present in the
session
 Mobile phones turned off ( if applicable)

II. WARM UP
Let‟s start by going around the circle and having each person introduce herself/himself. If
you like, you can tell the group your first name an d how many children you have

III. HISTORY OF FLOODS

1. Describe the pattern of flooding in this area. (Probe: timing, level and reason)
2. Tell us about how floods have affected you? – (Probe: What property or business
has been affected by the floods-at house hold and community levels)
3. Has the pattern changed in your life time? (Probe: how)

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131

IV. RISK PERCEPTION

1. What risks in general do you think result from flooding? (Probe: How they occur,
the most serious risks)
2. What health risks do you think result from flooding? (Probe: How they occur, the
most serious risks)
3. Who is most vulnerable to the floods? Why?

V. ACTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF RESPONSES

1. How do individual families (households) respond when faced with a flood

emergency?
2. How does the community respond when faced with a flood emergency? (Probe:
How efforts can be improved)
3. On average, how long after the rains start do men and women wait before taking
action?
4. What are some of the reasons that would make people choose a particular
response
5. How do women/men respond when faced with a flood emergency? (Probe: How
could these efforts be improved?)
6. How do women/men decide on the appropriate response to use?

VI. EARLY WARNING INFORMATION

1. How do you get most of your information about flood issues

2. Where could a man or woman go to get any information on imminent floods?
(probe for accessibility)
3. What type of information do you get from these sources?

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132

4. What do you think about this information (probe: adequate, reliable, timely, and
helpful?)
5. What sort of flood information would you like to receive?
6. How would you like to receive this information?

VII. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT

1. How do you believe flood decisions are made? Who is involved?

2. What are the factors that have influenced the present decisions made on flood
management?
3. How does the community influence flood decisions?
4. Do you feel the community‟s views have been given equal weight?
5. In your opinion, who are the key players in the decision making process?
6. Who do you think should be involved in the decision making process?
7. Are women involved in making flood decisions?
8. What is your understanding of the purpose of various local committees that deal
with flooding?
9. Which plan of action do you think will best reduce the flooding problem?

Thank you for participating in this FGD

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133

APPENDIX III: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR KEY INFORMANTS

I. Introduction
My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student
at Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along
the Nyando River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project
to meet academic requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions
and response to this perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of
community flood hazard/risk management strategies. I am talking to local officials who
are connected with and working on disaster management. Your opinion and information
that you provide today will be helpful providing data that assist in planning a fresh
approach to dealing with floods in Nyando. I assure you that your answers and opinions
will be treated in the strictest confidence and that in the analysis; the result of this
interview will be combined with the result of interviews with other people, so that no
individual can be identified. The interview will last approximately 45 minutes.

II. WARM UP
1. I would like to ask you some general questions about yourself. Firstly, could you
please tell me your name and age?
2. Could you please tell me in which GOK department or organization are you
working in?
3. What is your official designation in your department or organization?
4. How long have you been in this position?
5. What is the highest level of education you have completed?
6. How many different training courses have you attended on disaster management(
start with the most recent)

III. GENERAL FLOOD HISTORY

1. Tell me the history of flooding in Nyando district and the effects on the economy
and development
2. How have you been involved in the management of floods? (Probe: how local
authority respond to floods)

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134

3. What organizations are you involved in that deal with flood management? Probe:
At what level, what role the organizations play in flood management)

PARTICIPATION IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT

1. What has been the local authority‟s involvement in planning flood emergency
response?
2. How do you get most of your information about flood issues?(Probe: information
about impending floods, other flood issues and flood control proposals)
3. How do you believe flood decisions are made? Who is involved?
4. How does the community influence flood decisions?
5. What do you believe are the short term and long term goals for flood management
in Nyando?
6. How could these efforts be improved?

PERCEPTION OF CURRENT FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES

1. What are the factors that have influenced the present decisions made on flood
management?
2. In your opinion, who are the key players in the decision making process?
3. Who do you think should be involved in the decision making process?
4. Do you feel the community‟s views have been given equal weight in
influencing flood decisions? Why?
5. What is your understanding of the purpose of various local committees that
deal with flooding?
6. What do you think would be the most important way to get better protection
from flood risks?

Thank you for participating in this interview