Chapter 1

Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed

the Course of Science and Technology

Introduction
This section presents an overview of how science and technology evolved from
ancient times to the present. It shows how man was able to develop crude technological
tools and eventually improve them through time to make his way of living more
convenient and the society more progressive.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Discuss the interactions between science and technology and society throughout
history
2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the
environment
3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history

A. General Concepts

What is Science, Technology and Society?

Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary course designed to

examine the ways that science and technology shape, and are shaped by, our society,
politics, and culture. It explores the conditions under which production, distribution and
utilization of scientific knowledge and technological systems occur;; and the effects of
these processes upon the entire society. History and philosophy of science and
technology, sociology and anthropology are greatly interconnected to the discussion of
STS because these are the very factors that molded the development of science and
technology as we know it today.

Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical

expositions and experimental and empirical activities that generates universal truths.
Technology, on the other hand is the application of science and creation of systems,
processes and objects designed to help humans in their daily activities. The
development of science and technology has brought immense progress in society and
men. Scientific knowledge and technology influences individuals and society. Better
understanding of science and technology is essential to know the unique attributes of
each enterprise, then addressing their implications for society.
Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions
that we engage in to understand the nature of things and to create things. It is also
defined as a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large
social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the
same political authority and dominant cultural expectations (Science Daily).

Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps

address issues and problems that are of concern to the general population. Scientific
and technological principles have been and continue to be applied to solve problems
that people experience in their day-to-day aspects of living. But scientific findings must
be applied at the right scales. The impact of technological breakthroughs on people,
society and the environment must be critically assessed to preserve its value.

Figure 1 The Interrelationship of science, technology and society

Source: Ihueze et al., 2015. researchgate.net

A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only technology but also
human values, social organization, environmental concerns, economic resources,
political decisions, and a myriad of other factors. These things sits at the interface
between the three fields and can also be solved (if they can be solved at all) by the
application of scientific knowledge, technical expertise, social understanding, and
humane compassion.

In the past, science is learned as an independent study from other fields. It

focuses on the scientific methods, natural processes and understanding nature. But in
the current global scenario, science is studied holistically, often in an interdisciplinary
method, emphasizing systems rather than processes, synthesis more than analysis and
predicting nature’s behavior in order to have useful application in solving contemporary
problems.
2
The scientific data that have built up a considerable base of knowledge led to a vast
portfolio of useful technologies, especially in the 21 st century, to solve many of the
problems now facing humankind (UNESCO, 1999).

To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become more

multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and
integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands
that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as history and
philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of
cultural values.

The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is expanding. While

recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the history of the human species, in
some instances the impact has been harmful or the long-term effects give causes for
serious concerns. A considerable measure of public mistrust of science and fear of
technology exists today. In part, this stems from the belief by some individuals and
communities that they will be the ones to suffer the indirect negative consequences of
technical innovations introduced to benefit only a privileged minority. The power of
science to bring about change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution
both in what they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social
consequences of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of
their work and explain to the public and policy makers alike the degree of scientific
uncertainty or incompleteness in their findings. At the same time, though, they should
not hesitate to fully exploit the predictive power of science, duly qualified, to help people
cope with environmental change, especially in cases of direct threats like natural
disasters or water shortages.

The Role of Science and Technology

1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound
effects on economic development;;
2. key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions
underpin economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and
infrastructure;;
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new
sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and
nano-technology. Products are transforming business practices across the
economy, as well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most
remarkable breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and
applications arising when these technologies converge.
4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries
5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by
growing and developing their economies, and those that are not.
6. engine of growth
7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic
engineering
Historical Antecedents in the World

Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly understand where
we are in science today is to look back at what happened in the past. The history
of science can teach us many lessons about the way scientists think and
understand the world around us. A historical perspective will make us appreciate
more what science really is.

From Ancient Times to 600 BC

Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing practices
and metal tradition. Some of the earliest records from history indicate that 3,000
years before Christ, the ancient Egyptians already had reasonably sophisticated
medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C., for example, a man named
Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of medicine. Most historians agree that
the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would try
one remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried
didn’t work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time
they should try a different remedy. Despite the fact that such practices sound
primitive, the results were, sometimes, surprisingly effective.

The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other

ancient nations because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian civilization –
the papyrus. The papyrus is an ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus
plant, a reed which grows in the marshy areas around the Nile river. As early as
3,000 years before Christ, Egyptians took thin slices of the stem of the papyrus
plant, laid them crosswise on top of each other, moistened them, and then
pressed and dried them. The result was a form of paper that was reasonably
easy to write on and store. The invention of this ancient form of paper
revolutionized the way information was transmitted from person to person and
generation to generation. Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and other races
wrote on clay tablets or smooth rocks. This was a time-consuming process, and
the products were not easy to store or transport. When Egyptians began writing
on papyrus, all of that changed. Papyrus was easy to roll into scrolls. Thus,
Egyptian writings became easy to store and transport. As a result, the knowledge
of one scholar could be easily transferred to other scholars. As this accumulated
knowledge was passed down from generation to generation, Egyptian medicine
became the most respected form of medicine in the known world. Papyrus was
used as a writing material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued
to be used to some extent until around 1100 AD.

Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and for papyrus,
other cultures had impressive inventions of their own. Around the time that
papyrus was first being used in Egypt, the Mesopotamians were making pottery
using the first known potter’s wheel. Not long after, horse-drawn chariots were
being used.
As early as 1,000 years before Christ, the Chinese were using compasses to aid
themselves in their travels. The ancient world, then, was filled with inventions
that, although they sound commonplace today, revolutionized life during those
times. These inventions are history’s first inklings of science.

The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)

The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as historians can
tell, they were the first true scientists. They collected facts and observations and
then used those observations to explain the natural world. Although many
cultures like the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Chinese had collected
observations and facts, they had not tried to use those facts to develop
explanations of the world around them.

Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th

century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In circa 385 BC,
Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student Aristotle begins the "scientific
revolution" of the Hellenistic period culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries with
scholars such as Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus
and Archimedes.

This period produced substantial advances in scientific knowledge,

especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and
astronomy;; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems,
especially those related to the problem of change and its cause;; and a
recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural
phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.

The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier

Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research,
in their scientific investigations. This was passed on from ancient Greek
philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European
Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.

Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific
flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the
fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era
to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to
have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809)
with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from
various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to
gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic
language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began.
Science and
technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and
technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt,
India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous
improvements, innovations and inventions.

Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject

areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Scientific inquiry was
practiced in other subjects like alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy,
geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics and zoology.

Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as well as

the goal of understanding. Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla, which
is the direction in which to pray, botany is applied in agriculture and geography
enabled scientists to make accurate maps. Mathematics also flourished during
the Islamic Golden Age with the works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al
Kashi that led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic
numerals.

There was also great progress in medicine during this period. Al-Biruni,
and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the preparation of
hundred of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Islamic
doctors describe diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical
Greek medical knowledge.

Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and others

studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticized Aristotle’s
view of motion.

The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated by

historians. The traditionalist view holds that it lacked innovation, and was mainly
important for handing on ancient knowledge to medieval Europe. The revisionist
view holds that it constituted a scientific revolution. Whatever the case, science
flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean and further afield, for
several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.

Science and Technology in Ancient China

Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific

innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific
disciplines including the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, military
technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy.

Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that include the
compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing. These were considered as
among the most important technological advances and were only known to
Europe
1000 years later or during the end of the Middle ages. These four inventions had
a profound impact on the development of civilization throughout the world.
However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other Chinese
inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on
Chinese civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the
technological interaction between East and West.

As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press
were the three great inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder
blew up the knightly class, the compass discovered the world market and found
the colonies, and the printing press was the instrument of Protestantism and the
regeneration of science in general;; the most powerful lever for creating the
intellectual prerequisites.”

The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)

The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement of the
Renaissance, which was considered by many as the Golden Age of Science.
During the Renaissance period, great advances occurred
in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, anatomy,
manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was
accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention
of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.

Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the
early phase of the Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear
has argued for a two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific
Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the
natural knowledge of the ancients;; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th
century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.

But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness.

There were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for
classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the
universe. Renaissance philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and
deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same
time, Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an
animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics.
Science would only be revived later, with such figures as Copernicus, Gerolamo
Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.

The most important technological advance of all in this period was the
development of printing, with movable metal type, about the mid-15th century in
Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually called its inventor, but in fact many
people and many steps were involved. Block printing on wood came to the West
from China between 1250 and 1350, papermaking came from China by way of
the Arabs to 12th-century Spain, whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting
was the origin of the new printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his
contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—seem to have taken the final
steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press. The invention
spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in the 1470s,
and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of Europe had produced some
six million books. Without the printing press it is impossible to conceive that the
Reformation would have ever been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise
of a new science, which was a cooperative effort of an international community,
would have occurred at all. In short, the development of printing amounted to a
communications revolution of the order of the invention of writing;; and, like that
prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life. The communications
revolution immeasurably enhanced human opportunities for enlightenment and
pleasure on one hand and created previously undreamed-of possibilities for
manipulation and control on the other. The consideration of such contradictory
effects may guard us against a ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of
the Renaissance or of historical change in general.

The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)

The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was characterized by

radical reorientation in science, which emphasized reason over superstition and
science over blind faith. This period produced numerous books, essays,
inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and
French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and
respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline.
The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.

The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the key

natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to
1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his
“Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human
Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and
philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances.

In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural

sciences is regarded as the main exemplification of, and fuel for, such progress.
Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment in his Principia Mathematica consists in
the comprehension of a diversity of physical phenomena – in particular the
motions of heavenly bodies, together with the motions of sublunary bodies – in
few relatively simple, universally applicable, mathematical laws, was a great
stimulus to the intellectual activity of the eighteenth century and served as a
model and inspiration for the researches of a number of Enlightenment
thinkers. Newton’s
system strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of nature as an
orderly domain governed by strict mathematical-dynamical laws and the
conception of ourselves as capable of knowing those laws and of plumbing the
secrets of nature through the exercise of our unaided faculties. – The conception
of nature, and of how we know it, changes significantly with the rise of modern
science. It belongs centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to
contribute to the new knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical
framework within which to place and interpret this new knowledge.

Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840)

The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were closely
connected. It is difficult to show any direct effect of scientific discoveries upon the
rise of the textile or even the metallurgical industry in Great Britain, the home of
the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly was a similarity in attitude to be
found in science and nascent industry. Close observation and careful
generalization leading to practical utilization were characteristic of both
industrialists and experimentalists alike in the 18th century.

What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful
observation and experimentation might improve industrial production
significantly. The science of metallurgy permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to
industrial specifications, the science of chemistry permitted the creation of new
substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial importance, and that
electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor.
Until that period science probably profited more from industry than the other way
around. It was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a
search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics. Most
importantly, as industry required ever more complicated and intricate machinery,
the machine tool industry developed to provide it and, in the process, made
possible the construction of ever more delicate and refined instruments for
science. As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and
molecules, electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and
nebulae and galaxies, instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with
phenomena. A large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe
nebulae was as much a product of 19th-century heavy industry as were the
steam locomotive and the steamship.

The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the

development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to the
problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science.
Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting
science even more directly, by making financial grants to scientists, by founding
research institutes, and by bestowing honors and official posts on great
scientists. By the end of the 19th century the natural philosopher following his
private interests had given way to the professional scientist with a public role.
The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological,
socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes included the following:
(1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of
new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal,
the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine, (3)
the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom
that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy,
(4) a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed
increased division of labor and specialization of function, (5) important
developments in transportation and communication, including the
steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and (6)
the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes
made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass
production of manufactured goods.

20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age

The 20th century was an important century in the history of the sciences. It
generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research – often thanks to the
introduction of novel research methods – and it established an intimate
connection between science and technology. With this connection, science is
dealing now with the complexity of the real world. The scientific legacy of the
20th Century gave proof of the revolutionary changes in many areas of the
sciences – in particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences
and earth and environmental sciences – and how they contributed to these
changes.

The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the

interdisciplinary aspects become ever more important in scientific research. The
common denominator of the sciences is the notion of discovery, and discovery is
an organised mode of observing nature. Twentieth century cosmology greatly
improved our knowledge of the place that man and his planet occupy in the
universe. The “wonder” that Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought,
today extends to science itself. Questions now arise on the origin and on the
whole, its history and its laws.

The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s

formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) including the unifying concept of
energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 . He made many more
contributions, notably to statistical mechanics, and he provided a great inspiring
influence for many other physicists.

In the second half of the 20th century several branches of science

continued to make great progress and we here list physics, chemistry, biology,
geology and astronomy. For example, there was the development of the semi--
conductor
(transistor), followed by developments in nanotechnology that led to great
advances in information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub--
atomic particles provided a great leap forward.

Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline contributing to all
today’s basic natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry and biology. Although it
took a hundred years since Clausius’s time for it to be fully recognized that all
biological processes have also to obey the laws of thermodynamics, the border
between the origin of the living and the non-living worlds has now at last been
blurred. The year 1953 was an important landmark for biology with the
description by Crick and Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic
information (Rosch, 2014).

Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter

and we are well on the way to an ever more consistent and unitary understanding
of the entire structure of natural reality, which we discover as being made up not
only of matter and energy but also of information and forms. The latest
developments in astrophysics are also particularly surprising: they further confirm
the great unity of physics that manifests itself clearly at each new stage of the
understanding of reality.

Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of genetics,
allows us to penetrate the fundamental processes of life and to intervene in the
gene pool of certain organisms by imitating some of these natural mechanisms.
Information technology and the digital processing of information have
transformed our lifestyle and our way of communicating in the space of very few
decades. The 20th century has seen medicine find a cure for many life--
threatening diseases and the beginning of organ transplants.

It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results that

have broadened our knowledge and influenced our world outlook: from progress
in computational logic to the chemistry of materials, from the neurosciences to
robotics. Scientific research not only gives expression to the strength of
rationality in explaining the world and the way in which this is done. The
application of scientific knowledge can induce changes of environmental and
thus living conditions. It is these aspects, the interrelations between scientific
progress and social development, which together with insights into the
epistemological structure and the ethical implications of science play an
important role in the life and the work of scientists.

Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the blurring of

boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It’s a fusion of
advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D
printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies. It’s
the collective force behind many products and services that are fast becoming
indispensable to modern life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route
to a destination, voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri,
personalized Netflix recommendations, and Facebook’s ability to recognize your
face and tag you in a friend’s photo
(https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-is-the- fourth-industrial--
revolution-4IR.html).

As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth Industrial

Revolution is paving the way for transformative changes in the way we live and
radically disrupting almost every business sector. It’s all happening at an
unprecedented, whirlwind pace.

The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on

the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can
“think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information,
drawing conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from
spotting patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on
your phone.
New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They
enable computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the
advent of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their
information from anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing
technologies now in development will eventually make computers millions of times
more powerful. These computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create
highly complex data models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new
materials.
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset)
that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical
worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally
experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate
phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
and other text.
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop
new technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new
pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes,
and cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example,
are working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal
and commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home,
technological advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated.
They are used in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and
human assistance.
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with
less tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs
can be customized to ensure a perfect fit.
Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials,
promise to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy,
construction, and healthcare.
The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that
monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels
— being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for
businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected
products, allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor
marketing campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such
as farmers putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform
decisions such as when to fertilize.
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market
sector, spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and
improvements in battery storage capacity.
B. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

The current state of science and technology in the country can be traced back to
its historical development and the latent events that helped shape it since the pre--
colonial period to contemporary time. What we have or lack today in terms of science
and technology is very much an effect of the government policies that had been enacted
by past public officials in trying to develop a technological society that is responsive to
the needs of time.

Pre-Spanish Era.

There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-colonial time but
analysis from archeological artifacts revealed that the first inhabitants in the archipelago
who settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made simple tools
or weapons of stone which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and
polishing hard stones. This very primitive technology was brought by primal needs of
survival by hunting wild animals and gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest. They
learned that by polishing hard stones, they can develop sharp objects that are useful in
their day to day activities. From this early, we can see that technology was developed
because of a great necessity.

Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are learning what can
be harnessed from the environment. They have come to understand that when clay is
mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before sun drying, it hardens to an
object that can also be useful to them. And because clay is moldable, it can be shaped
into various objects.

As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to extract, smelt and refine
metals like copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and consequently fashion them
into tools and implements. At this point, the inhabitants of the country are showing a
deeper understanding of their nature because they were able to obtain valuable
resources from nature.
As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and learned
to settle in areas near the water source, they also learned how to weave cotton,
engaged themselves in agriculture and are knowledgeable on building boats for coastal
trade.

From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that primitive Filipinos are
practicing science and technology in their everyday lives. The ancient crafts of stone
carving, pottery and smelting of metals involves a lot of science, which is understanding
the nature of matter involved. The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice
Terraces The smelting of metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the
composition of alloy and the optimum temperature that will produce the metal with
acceptable tensile strength. All in all, the primitive Filipinos were living in perfect
harmony with nature and they obtain from it what is just needed in their everyday life
through a very simple science of understanding how mother nature operates
Spanish Colonial Era.

As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in

the country can be traced back to the Spanish regime because they established
schools, hospitals and started scientific research that had important consequences in
the development of the country. These schools, which are mostly run by Spanish friars,
formed the first Filipino professionals. The The 3 highest institution of learning during
this time was the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas.

But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its intervention and
meddling to the government propelled by fear of intellectual awakening among Filipinos
have greatly hindered the progress of these professionals to further enhance their
knowledge, conduct scientific investigations and contribute to the advancement of
society. But a few of persistent Filipino scientists succeeded by educating themselves
abroad. One notable example of course is our national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal.
Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a
scientist, a doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan), a
journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a doctor and scientist, he had
extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to operate his mother’s blinding eye.
When he was deported in Dapitan, his knowledge on science and engineering was
translated into technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of
households in the area. Dr. Jose

Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among his contemporaries.
But it cannot be said that there is no contribution to science and technology among the
Filipino men and women during the Spanish era. The charity hospitals became the
breeding ground for scientific researches on pharmacy and medicine, with great focus
on problems of infectious diseases, their causes and possible remedies. And in 1887,
the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created and whose functions were
to conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen
examinations for clinical and medico-legal cases. Its publication, probably the first
scientific journal in the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas
showed the studies undertaken during that time.

As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the natural
resources of the country through agriculture, mining of metals and minerals and
establishing various kinds of industries to further promote economic growth. As such,
scientific research on these fields were encouraged by the government. By the
nineteenth century, Manila has become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities
were introduced to the city. However, little is known about the accomplishments of
scientific bodies commissioned by the Spanish government during this time. Because of
limited scientific research and its consequent translation to technology during the
Spanish regime, none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved into a
primary agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the researches
undertaken on
this field, but was largely because of the influx of foreign capital and technology which
brought modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production.

American Period

If the development in science and technology was very slow during the Spanish
regime, the Philippines saw a rapid growth during the American occupation and was
made possible by the government’s extensive public education system from elementary
to tertiary schools. The establishment of various public tertiary schools like the
Philippine Normal School and University of the Philippines provided the needs for
professionally trained Filipinos in building the government’s organization and programs.
The growth and application of science were still concentrated on the health sector in the
form of biochemical analyses in hospitals. The government supported basic and applied
research in the medical, agricultural and related sciences. The University of the
Philippines Los Baños opened the College of Agriculture in 1909 while the University of
the Philippines – Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and Veterinary
Medicine in 1910. The College of Medicine was opened four years later.

During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified Filipino physicians
who held teaching positions in the College of Medicine, whereas most of the early
instructors and professors in other colleges such as in the sciences and engineering
were Americans and foreigners. Capacity building programs that include sending
qualified Filipinos abroad for advanced training were conducted to eventually fill up the
teaching positions in Philippine universities. Moreover, the American colonial
government sent Filipino youths to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and
lawyers in American colleges to further capacitate the Filipinos in various fields.

However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and technology
courses like veterinary medicine, engineering, agriculture, applied sciences and
industrial-vocational courses. The enrollment in these courses were dismal that the
government had to offer scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these
courses stemmed from the Filipinos’ disdain toward manual work that developed from
the 400 years under Spanish colonization. The Filipinos then prefer prestigious
professions at that time like priesthood, law and medicine.

The government provided more support for the development of science and
created the Bureau of Government Laboratories in and was later changed to Bureau of
Science. It was composed of a biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum
laboratory for the production of virus vaccine, serums and prophylactics, and a library.
The bureau was initially managed by American senior scientists but as more Filipinos
were trained and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills, they eventually took over
their positions. The Bureau of Science served as the primary training ground for Filipino
scientists and paved the way for pioneering scientific research, most especially on the
study of various tropical diseases that were prevalent during those times like leprosy,
tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Another great contribution of
the Bureau of Science to the development of science and technology in the country
was the publication of the
Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published researches done in local
laboratories and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the
Philippine society. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the
Philippines until World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research
Council of the Philippines was established.

Commonwealth Period

When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth government

was established, the Filipinos were busy in working towards economic reliance but
acknowledge the importance and vital role of science and technology for the economic
development of the country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific
research and invention…” The short-lived Commonwealth Government was succeeded
by the Japanese occupation when the Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing
situations during the time of Commonwealth period to the Japanese regime had made
developments in science and technology practically impossible. This is also true when
World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in ruins. The government had
to rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country.

Science and Technology since Independence

In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and was
placed under the Office of the President of the Philippines. However, the agency faced
lack of financial support from the government and experienced planning and
coordination problems. In a report by the US Economic Survey to the Philippines in
1950, there is a lack of basic information which were necessities to the country's
industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget for scientific
research and low salaries of scientists employed by the government. In 1958, during
the regime of President Carlos
P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which established
the National Science Development Board (NSDB).

The Philippine government focused on science and technology institutional

capacity-building which were undertaken by establishing infrastructure-support facilities
such as new research agencies and development trainings. However good these
projects were, it produced insignificant effects because of lack of coordination and
planning, specifically technology planning, between concerned agencies which hindered
them from performing their assigned functions effectively. This was aptly illustrated in
the unplanned activities of the researchers within the agencies. Most areas of research
were naively left to the discretion of the researchers under the assumption that they
were working for the interests of the country. They were instructed to look for
technologies and scientific studies with good commercialization potential. Without clear
research policy guidelines, researches were done for their own sake, leaving to chance
the commercialization of the results.
Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved establishing more state
funded manual and trading schools which would eventually become the current state
universities and colleges. The trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and
technicians that helped in shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an
agricultural based nation. Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to
college and university status, they produced much of the country’s professionals,
although there was a great disparity on the low proportion of those in agriculture,
medical and natural sciences with those from teacher training and commerce/business
administration courses which had higher number of graduates. The increase in the
number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists and
engineers. These organizations were formed to promote professional interests and
create and monitor the standards of practice.

As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and
training of scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to
the conservative nature of self-regulation by the professional associations. Because of
specialized training, vertical organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison between
professions, professional associations have been unable to perceive the dynamic
relationship between science, technology and society and the relevance of their
training to Philippine conditions.

Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s

During these years, the government gave greater importance to science and
technology. The government declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution
that the “advancement of science and technology shall have priority in the national
development.”

On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in

Bicutan, Taguig as the site of the Philippine Science Community. Then in 1969, the
government provided funds to private universities to encourage them to conduct
research and create courses in science and technology. The government also
conducted seminars for public and private high school and college science teachers,
training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate science scholars,
and workshops on fisheries and oceanography.

In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied research and
the main objective was to generate products and processes that were supposed to have
a greater beneficial impact to the society. Relative to this, several research institutes
were established under the National Science Development Board (NSDB) which
includes the Philippine Coconut Research Institute and Philippine Textile Research
Institute. Moreover, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under
NSDB, explored the uses of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the
pool of scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos
assisted 107
institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study
nuclear science and technology, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors,
engineers and technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the
National Grains Authority was created and it was tasked to improve the rice and corn
industry and thereby help in the economic development of the country. This was
followed by the creation of Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the
progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country. The
Marcos administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and
Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National
Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to
ensure the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972. On the
following year, the Philippine National Oil Company was created by virtue of
Presidential Decree No. 334, s. 1973, to promote industrial and economic development
through effective and efficient use of energy sources. To strengthen the scientific culture
in the country, the National Academy of Science and Technology was established
under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976. The National Academy of Science and
Technology was composed of scientists with “innovative achievement in the basic and
applied sciences” who will serve as the reservoir of scientific and technological
expertise for the country.

In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on applied research. In
1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority
(NSTA) composed of four research and development Councils;; Philippine Council for
Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD);; Philippine Council
for Industry and Energy Research Development (PCIERD);; Philippine Council for
Health Research and Development (PCHRD) and the National Research Council of the
Philippines (NRCP). NSTA has also eight research and development institutes and
support agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached agencies
of NSDB which have themselves been reorganized.

The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high
calibre scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and
colleges. Hence, measures have also been taken towards the improvement of the
country’s science and manpower. In March 1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued
by the President which provided for the establishment of a national network of centers
of excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence, six new institutes were created: The
National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences Research,
Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the
establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree
No. 901 on 19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in
government and encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers.

In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and Technology
Authority was replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science
and technology a representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine
Development Plan for the years 1987-1992, science and technology's role in economic
recovery and sustained economic growth was highlighted. In this period, science and
technology was one of the top three priorities of the government towards economic
recovery.

With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive Order 128
signed on 30 January 1987, the functions and responsibilities of DOST expanded
correspondingly to include the following: (1) Pursue the declared state policy of
supporting local scientific and technological effort;; (2) Develop local capability to
achieve technological self-reliance;; (3) Encourage greater private sector participation in
research and development. moreover, funding for the science and technology sector
was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992.

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science and
technology body in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing central
direction, leadership and coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of
formulating policies, programs and projects to support national development. The
Science and Technology Master Plan was formulated which aimed at the modernization
of the production sector, upgrading research activities, and development of
infrastructure for science and technological purposes. A Research and Development
Plan was also formulated to examine and determine which areas of research needed
attention and must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be
pursued were, development of local materials, probability of success, potential of
product in the export market, and the its strategic nature. The grants for the research
and development programs was included in the Omnibus Investment Law.

During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in personnel
specializing in the science and technology field. In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000
competent scientists and engineers in the Philippines. Adding to the increase of
scientists would be the result of the two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in
Visayas and Mindanao which promotes further development of young kids through
advance S&T curriculum. The government provided 3,500 scholarships for students who
were taking up professions related to S&T. Priority for S&T personnel increased when
Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439) was
established. The award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for
people who have been influential in the field of S&T.

Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the “Science and
Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)”, a program that was significant
to the field of S&T. It identified seven export products, 11 domestic needs, three other
supporting industries, and the coconut industry as priority investment areas. The seven
identified export products were computer software;; fashion accessories;; gifts, toys,
and houseware;; marine products;; metal fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The
domestic needs identified were food, housing, health, clothing, transportation,
communication, disaster mitigation, defense, environment, manpower development, and
energy. Three additional support industries were included in the list of priority sectors,
namely, packaging, chemicals, and metals because of their linkages with the above
sectors.
In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws and projects were
implemented which concerns both the environment and science to push technology as
a tool to increase the country’s economic level. This is to help increase the productivity
from Science, Technology and Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor people.
Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the coined term used in helping the Philippines
to be an innovation hub in Asia.

The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education
system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses in science,
technology and mathematics in their curriculum. This helps schools produce get more
involve in this sector. Private sectors were also encouraged to participate in developing
the schools through organizing events and sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and
innovators can be produced through this system.

Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of Science
and Technology and Innovation (STI) index, citing the country’s strength in research and
commercialization of STI ideas (DOST, 2018). However, a study by the Philippine
Institute for Development Studies highlighted the weak ties between innovation-driven
firms and the government, and it also identified the country’s low expenditure in
research and development (R&D). This is the reason the government is now extending
all its efforts to reach out with the private sector, explaining that STI plays an important
role in economic and social progress and is a key driver for a long-term growth of an
economy. Technology adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit from
innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog
obsolete technologies. Technology adoption, the official said, allows a country’s firms
and citizens to benefit from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch
up and even leap-frog obsolete technologies.

Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology

Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital, there are some
science and technology-intensive research and capacity-building projects which
resulted in products which are currently being used successfully and benefits the
society.

One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into space
its first micro-satellite called Diwata-1. It was designed, developed and assembled by
Filipino researchers and engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts. The
Diwata (deity in English) satellite provides real-time, high-resolution and multi-color
infrared images for various applications, including meteorological imaging, crop and
ocean productivity measurement and high-resolution imaging of natural and man-made
features. It enables a more precise estimate of the country’s agricultural production,
provides images of watersheds and floodplains for a better understanding of water
available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The satellite also provides
accurate information on any disturbance and degradation of forest and upland areas.
The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards
(NOAH), which uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology. Project NOAH
was initiated in June 2012 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and
disasters. The project developed hydromet sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard
maps, which were generated by light detection and ranging technology for flood
modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning with a lead time of at
least six hours in the wake of impending floods. The country is now training the
Cambodians on this technology, as part of the partnerships among ASEAN countries,
just like in the case of Japan which assisted the country’s scientists and engineers in
building its first micro-satellite.

Another hope lies in the so-called Intelligent Operation Center Platform.

Established through a collaboration between the local government of Davao City and
IBM Philippines Inc., the center resulted in the creation of a dashboard that allows
authorized government agencies, such as police, fire and anti-terrorism task force, to
use analytics software for monitoring events and operations in real time.

Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country

DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions, established advanced

facilities that seek to spur R&D activities and provide MSMEs access to testing services
needed to increase their productivity and competitive advantage.

One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. The center
houses advanced equipment for failure analysis and materials characterization to
address advanced analytical needs for quality control, materials identification and R&D.
Closely related to this facility is the Electronics Products Development Center, used to
design, develop and test hardware and software for electronic products.

There are also high-performance computing facilities that perform tests and run
computationally intensive applications for numerical weather prediction, climate
modeling, as well as analytics and data modeling and archiving.

The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core facility that
combines basic and applied research for the development of health diagnostics,
therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive products, and improved crop varieties.

The country also has drug-discovery facilities, which address the requirements
for producing high-quality and globally acceptable drug candidates. She said the
Philippines also has nanotechnology centers, which provide technical services and
enabling environment for interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in various
nanotechnology applications.

There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to degrade, graft, or
crosslink polymers, monomers, or chemical compounds for industrial, agricultural,
environmental and medical applications. The Philippines could also boast of its Die and
Mold Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool and die
sector through the localization of currently imported dies and molds.

These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a culture that
embraces STI as a sure path to growth.
D. Paradigm Shift

What is a paradigm?

A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly accepted

views about a subject, conventions about what direction research should take and how
it should be performed.

The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the

practices that define a scientific discipline at a certain point in time." Paradigms contain
all the distinct, established patterns, theories, common methods and standards that
allow us to recognize an experimental result as belonging to a field or not.

Science proceeds by accumulating support for hypotheses which in time become

models and theories. But those models and theories themselves exist within a larger
theoretical framework. The vocabulary and concepts in Newton’s three laws or the
central dogma in biology are examples of scientific “open resources" that scientists have
adopted and which now form part of the scientific paradigm.

Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. For example, a modern Chinese
medical researcher with a background in eastern medicine, will operate within a
different paradigm than a western doctor from the 1800s.

A paradigm dictates:

what is observed and measured

the questions we ask about those observations
how the questions are formulated
how the results are interpreted
how research is carried out
what equipment is appropriate

Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that they are
undertaking the most rational path to learning about objective reality. But science, much
like any other discipline, is subject to ideological idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and
hidden assumptions.

In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply entrenched paradigm

invariably ends up reinforcing that paradigm, since anything that contradicts it is ignored
or else pressed through the preset methods until it conforms to already established
dogma.

The body of pre-existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the collection
and interpretation of all subsequent evidence. The certainty that the current paradigm is
reality itself is precisely what makes it so difficult to accept alternatives.
What is a Paradigm Shift?

"The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the
usual developmental pattern of mature science" - Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions.

Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: https://thesaurus.plus/

The shift from one paradigm to another occurs when enough anomalies to the
current paradigm build up, causing scientists to question the foundational principles
upon which their worldview rests. During “normal science,” when the current paradigm
is in place, these anomalies are discounted as acceptable levels of error. However,
during “revolutionary science” or a paradigm shift, these anomalies become the center
of attention as scientists attempt to construct a new world view that incorporates and
explains them. This period of intense focus on explaining anomalies and developing a
new paradigm is considered “revolutionary science,” and it is sparked by a “crisis”
where the old paradigm fails explain key anomalies or outliers. Once a new paradigm is
developed, however, there is a return to “normal science” under the new worldview.

Figure 2 Paradigm Shift

Source: https://edtosavetheworld.com
An Example of a Paradigm Shift

Many physicists in the 19th century were convinced that the Newtonian paradigm
that had reigned for 200 years was the pinnacle of discovery and that scientific progress
was more or less a question of refinement. When Einstein published his theories on
General Relativity, it was not just another idea that could fit comfortably into the existing
paradigm. Instead, Newtonian Physics itself was relegated to being a special subclass
of the greater paradigm ushered in by General Relativity. Newton’s three laws are still
faithfully taught in schools, however we now operate within a paradigm that puts those
laws into a much broader context.

Interestingly, Kuhn’s theory itself was something of a game changer at the time,
since scientists were not accustomed to thinking of what they were doing in such
metaphysical terms. Kuhn’s theories are today understood to be part of a greater
paradigm shift in the social sciences, and have also been modified since their original
publication.

Kuhn later conceded that the process of scientific advancement might be more
gradual. For example, Relativity did not completely prove Newton wrong, but merely
reframed his theory. Even the Copernican revolution was a little more gradual in
replacing Ptolemy's beliefs.

The concept of paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and Aristotelian views
of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge could only be based upon what is
already known, the basis of the scientific method. Plato believed that knowledge should
be judged by what something could become, the end result, or final purpose. Plato's
philosophy is more like the intuitive leaps that cause scientific revolution;; Aristotle's the
patient gathering of data.

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