GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

MODULE NO. 1
GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL
ANTECEDENTS OF STS

Introduction
According to Theodore Roosevelt, “The more you know about the past, the better prepared you
are for the future”. This means that understanding the basic ideas and past events is a cornerstone of
every learning endeavor. Science, Technology, and Society is one of the courses in the newly implemented
General Education subjects coined by CHED on its Memorandum Order No. 20. It is an interdisciplinary
course which immerses students to the realities and issues related to it.
Module 1 explores the fundamental concepts of the subject and the underlying facts on how
science and technology evolves as what it is now. The module highlights the technologies that were
developed during the ancient times. It explores the description and purpose of the said technologies that
aid the everyday endeavor of the ancient people. At the end of this module, it is hoped that you will learn
to appreciate and critique the life and technologies of our ancestors.

Instruction to the Learner

As you go along with the module, you are required to read the links cited at the end of each topic to
enhance your understanding and submit the activities and quizzes attached to it considering the rubrics
and the date of submission. Your creativity and originality is highly expected.

Time Frame: 2 weeks/ 3 hours per week

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students should have:
1. Determine inventions and discoveries of the ancient civilizations that impacted the world through
time
2. Displayed their ideas on the relationship of science, technology, and society
3. Appreciated how ancient technologies were developed by the ancient people.
Lessons/Contents
This module contains the following topics:
1. General Concepts of Science, Technology, and Society
2. Ancient Civilizations in the World
Mesopotamian Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
Egyptian Civilization
Mayan Civilization
Chinese Civilization
Greek Civilization
Roman Civilization
Persian Civilization
Aztec Civilization
Inca Civilization
Lesson 1: General Concepts of STS

We have been hearing the word science”, “technology and “society” since elementary and high school
years. Yet, do we really understand the meaning of these words? In this lesson, we will define each
terminology.

What is science?
SCIENCE comes from the Latin word “scientia” which means “knowledge”. The earliest roots can be
traced back to Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt around 3500 t0 3000 BCE. Their contributions to
mathematics, astronomy and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy which also influenced
the Roman Empire. However, these influenced declined when the Roman Empire fall during the onset of
Middle Ages. Yet, the Muslim world preserved it during the Islamic Golden Age.
Science can be defined as:
a. Idea – Science is an idea since it discusses about theories with organized explanations and
observations about events that occur in the natural and physical world.
b. Intellectual activity – Science is an activity which involves human’s capacity to think and analyze
things. It undergoes an organized observation and experimentation.
c. Body of knowledge – It means that science is broken down into different subject or discipline
which generally have one goal which is to understand and learn the physical world. For example,
chemistry is separated to physics, and physics is separated from botany, yet, they have common
goal which is to understand the physical world.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

d. Personal and social activity – It means that science is human activity in order to attain better
understanding of the world they live in. All human endeavors gearing towards survival and
improvement of life is considered as science. For example, continuous search for COVID-19
vaccine is a science which is considered as personal and social activity.

Four common characteristics of that categorize something as science:

1. Focuses on the Natural world – It means that science deals with the things present in our
natural world. Science observes and examines the components of the physical universe
around us from the minute atoms to the gigantic galaxies. It also studies from microscopic
virus, bacteria and to all plant and animal kingdom. It also covers the natural forces at
work on those things. However, science doesn’t include supernatural forces and afterlife.
2. Goes through experiments- It means that science undergoes a process known as
scientific method to test, examine and analyze observations and facts. It goes from
observation, asking of questions about observation to gather information, forming of
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and predictions by experiments, analyzing the data, and
forming conclusions and recommendations. Experiment is important in science in order to
check the validity, reliability and effectiveness of the data. Example is the creation of
medicine to diseases which goes through careful test and experimentation.
3. Relies on Evidence- It means that science needs evidences in order to check the
credibility of a certain claim. Scientist actively seeks evidence to test their ideas even if the
test is difficult. Evidences determine the acceptance or rejection of the scientist’s claim or
ideas.
4. Passes through the scientific community – It means that science needs scientific
community which is responsible for testing and checking the validity of the ideas or claims.
This community also scrutinizes the ideas and providing suggestions and
recommendations to improve the study. If the idea passes through the scientific
community, it means it is accepted and will be added to the pool of knowledge.

Division of Modern Science:

1. Natural Sciences – It studies nature in a broader sense. It includes biology, chemistry, and
physics.
2. Social Sciences – It study on individuals and societies. It includes economics, psychology,
and sociology
3. Formal Sciences – It study on abstract concepts. It includes logic, mathematics, and
theoretical computer science.
4. Applied Science – These are disciplines that are using existing scientific knowledge for
practical purposes such as engineering and medicine.
What is technology?
TECHNOLOGY comes from the Greek word “techne” which means art or craft and “logos” which
means study. Technology can be defined as:
a. As technics – It refer to material products of human making or fabrication. In
anthropological term, it called “material artifacts”. In engineering term, it is called
“hardware”, produced by a person or group of persons. The subcategories of technics
include tool, devices, machines, implements and utensils.
b. As technology – It refers to the complex of knowledge, methods, materials and a
constituent part used in making a kind of technic. Example is in manufacturing of
automobile which includes brake technology, engine technology, carburetor technology
and transmission technology.
c. As a form of human cultural activity – It is a type of endeavor to which certain people,
technologists and machinists as well as professional engineers are practitioners.
d. As a total societal enterprise – It refers to the societal enterprise of technology that is the
complex of knowledge, people skills, organizations, facilities. It means that the technics,
processes and technologies are taken together and in relationship to one another are
devoted to research, development, production and operation of technics.

What is society?
SOCIETY is defined as:
It is defined typically as a group of people with the same race living in a community built and
founded by themselves, with a set of beliefs, culture, religion, laws and an installed government and
leaders. They are people with the same goal and working together towards that goal in the spirit of
unity and togetherness.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Activity no. 1:
In a short bond paper with 1 inch margin each side; create a poster which reflects the relationship of
science, technology and society. At the back of the paper, write a maximum of ten sentences that correspond
to your explanation of the said poster. Your work will be graded based on the rubric attached on the last page
of this module.

LESSON NO.2: HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

One cannot detach science and technology in our everyday life. Indeed it plays a vital role in forming
the society even in the ancient times as it is said, “Necessity is the mother of inventions”. People of the ancient
era developed their technology based from their needs and from what their environment could provide in
order to continuously sustain life. Their innovativeness and adaptation to their environment enable them to
stay above the surface. Their ideas passed throughout generations become the principles of the modern
people.

In this lesson, we will be getting to know or somehow recall the top 10 ancient civilization in the world
with their technologies.

1. Mesopotamian Civilization
It refers to the civilizations that originated from northeast of Zagros Mountains and southeast by
Arabian Plateau. These countries are the present day Iraq, Syria and Turkey. Mesopotamia mean “land
between rivers”, Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and it is known as the first civilization in the world.
Mesopotamians are polytheistic which makes them construct their temple known as ziggurat. Only the
priest and priestess worship their gods which include the god of the moon “nanah”. Sargon the Great built
the first empire of the world and King Hammurabi was the first king who organized their society by the
rule of law known as Code of Hammurabi. Mesopotamian society is patriarchal. That is, the father is the
head of the family.

MESOPOTAMIAN TECHNOLOGIES
 Cuneiform
It is a simple picture drawn in a wet clay or mud, or carved into stone slabs. A stylus is
used to create the markings. For drawings in wet mud or clay, the stylus is pressed
against it and will be sun-dried to retain the drawings.
It was used by Sumerian in Mesopotamia for trade and business transaction record
keeping.
 Sailboat
Primitive sailboat of Mesopotamia has a body made of wood out from tree planks
which were joined together. It has sails were square in shape and made of cloth.
It is used to travel and transport goods between two rivers Tigris and Euphrates. It is
also used for fishing as it is one of their livelihoods.
 Wheel
Mesopotamian wheels are created from wide slabs of a big tree trunk which will be cut
into a huge circle. Then, a chisel is used to create holes for an axle to be placed.
It is used for pottery making, irrigation and milling grains. Later on, they discovered
that it could be incorporated to a platform to be used in transportation.
 Chariot
It is a carriage made up of wood with bent rim and two wheels maneuvered by more
than one horse with standing persons served as drivers.
It is used as personal transportation and war vehicles.
 Plow
It is made of wood and is heavier in mass.
It is used in tilling the soil for farming
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Sexagemal System
It is a counting system with a base of 60.
It is used in trade, business transactions, and astronomical and mathematical
observations.
 Map
It is a simple sketch in clay tablets which depicts their trading routes, hunting grounds,
and military campaign.
 Time
Mesopotamians quantified the time using sexagesimal counting system which helps
them devised the units of time as 1hour=60 minutes, 1 minute=60 seconds.

Further Readings is advised:

Adhikari, S. (2019, November, 20). Top 11 Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia. Retrieved
from https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/mesopotamia-history/top-11-inventions-and-
discoveries-of-mesopotamia/
Friedman, A. (2018, December, 25). The Use of the Sail in Ancient Mesopotamia. The Classroom.
Retrieved from https://www.theclassroom.com/use-sail-ancient-mesopotamia-10077.html
Forbes, M. (2020, August, 1). 10 Mesopotamian Inventions That Will Surprise You. The Collector.
Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/mesopotamian-inventions/

Mark, J. J. (2018, March 15). Cuneiform. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/cuneiform/

Plubins, R. Q. (2013, March 06). Chariot. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/chariot/

2. Indus Valley Civilization

It refers to the civilization that dwell around the basin of Indus River around 330-1900 BC. Northeast
Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India is the current location of this civilization. Indus Valley is one
of widespread civilization.
Ancient Indus Valley Technologies:
Ancient Indians are good astronomers and mathematicians. They possessed an impressive amount of
scientific knowledge in those fields including the field of medicine.

 Mathematics
According to Dutta (2002), ancient Indians gave the world the gift of numeracy by
developing the following:
Decimal Counting System – It is a counting system with a base of 10.
Concept of Zero – It was developed by Aryabhata who uses it for the first time
in a counting.
Binary Numbers – It is a set of numbers 1 and 0.
Fibonacci sequence – It is a sequence of numbers where the first two numbers
is repeated and the succeeding number is the sum of the
previous two number.
Moreover, Algebra, Trigonometry, Geometry and Calculus are branches of mathematics
which has Indian origin.
 Atomic Theory
Maharishi Kanad is an Indian scientist who speculated that a small undistracted
particle exists therefore formulated the atomic theory for the first time before John
Dalton. He called it “anu” which could be in motion and stationary.
 Heliocentric Theory
Aryabhata is an Indian mathematician who first propounded sun-centered theory by
known as ‘aud Ayaka system’ wherein he computed the days from dawn. He also noted
that the earth revolves daily on its axis and the stars motion is due to the earth’s
rotation by having computations on the duration of lunar eclipse and estimation of
Earth’s circumference.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Plastic Surgery
Sushruta is an Indian physician who authored the comprehensive textbook, Sushruta
Samhita on ancient surgery. According to Saroshe (2016), Sushruta developed surgical
strategies in rhinoplasty by dissecting a living skin from the cheek and placing it on the
nose. The skin from the cheek will be divided into two parts which will be inserted to
the tube of castor-oil plants to keep it elevated and form its shape. Wine is used as
anesthesia.
 Cataract Surgery
Sushruta is an Indian physician who first performed a cataract surgery. The operation
is known as couching or reclination in which the lens with cataract will be pushed from
the pupil into the rear of the eye and out of the field of vision with the use of a curved
needle. Later, the eye will be soaked in warm butter and will be covered with a cloth
which serves as bandage.
 Ayurveda
It means “science of life” which aims to create balance in body, mind, spirit and social
wellbeing of a person. It means holistic healing and believes in the connectedness of
the mind, body and spirit. Its ultimate aim is to promote good health and not fight
diseases.

Further Reading is advised:

Ascaso, F. The History of Cataract Surgery. Retrieved from
https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/42710/InTech-The_history_of_cataract_surgery.pdf
Astronomical System of Aryabhatta. Retrieved from
https://speak2world.wordpress.com/2014/10/08/astronomical-system-of-aryabhatta/
Avagyan, A. (2010). The Fibonacci Sequence. Retrieved from
https://spark.parkland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=ah
Dutta, A. (2002). Mathematics in Ancient India. Retrieved from
https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/007/04/0004-0019
Joyce, D. (2006). Outline of the History of Mathematics in India. Retrieved from
https://mathcs.clarku.edu/~djoyce/ma105/india.pdf
Ratini, M. (2019, March, 20). What is Ayurveda?. WebMD Medical Reference. Retrieved from
https://www.webmd.com/balance/guide/ayurvedic-treatments
Saroshe, S. (2016). Sushruta: The Ancient Indian Surgeon. Hektoen International Journal of Medical
Humanities. Retrieved from https://hekint.org/2017/01/22/sushruta-the-ancient-indian-
surgeon/
Sinha, M. Maharishi Kanad Discovered Atomic Thoery 2600 Years Ago, Not Dalton of England. My
India My Glory. Retrieved from https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2017/10/07/maharishi-
kanad-discovered-atomic-theory-2600-years-ago-not-dalton/

3. Egyptian Civilization

This civilization dwell near the Nile River, the longest river in the world, around 3100-2686
B.C. Egypt’s major highlight in history is the construction of the pyramid found in Giza. The largest
pyramid is the pyramid of King Khufu at Giza. Smaller pyramid was for King Khafre, son of Khufu and
the smallest is King Menkure’s pyramid. The Egyptians were polytheistic. They have number of gods
associated with heavenly bodies and natural forces. King Menes united the Upper Egypt and Lower
Egypt and created the first royal dynasty. Pharaoh, originally means “great house or palace” is the
most common titles of Egyptian monarchs. Pyramids were built dedicated for the dead. A large
pyramid for the pharaoh’s burial; smaller pyramids for his family, rectangular pyramids for pharaoh’s
officials. Egyptians believed that human beings had two bodies – physical and spiritual. For them, if the
physical body is preserved (mummification), the spiritual one could return. Egyptians married at a
young age (girls at 12 and boys at 14). Monogamy was the rule unless the wife was childless. Parents
arranged marriages for their children. The purpose of marriage is to produce children especially sons
who could carry the family. However, daughters were not ignored. Four queens became pharaoh like
Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII.
Ancient Egyptian Technologies:
 Paper
The word paper comes from the Greek word “papyrus” which basically coined after the
Egyptian word “papuro” which means “royal” or “belongs to the pharaoh”.
Ancient Egyptian invented a writing sheet from the plant papyrus which primarily grew near
the Nile River.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Farmers harvested papyrus by cutting the bottom portion of the plant. The stem of papyrus
will be sliced to get its pith. The pith will be pounded by a hammer to soften it which will then
be arranged and pounded again to make a sheet. Finally, it will be sun dried and rolled up.
It is used as writing sheet where hymns, religious text, official document, etc. were written. It
serves as a record –keeping material.
 Hieroglyphics
It is the ancient Egyptian writing system which comes from the Greek means holy writing,
coined from the word “medu netjer” means “the gods’ words”.
Hieroglyphics was composed of logograms for words, phonograms for sounds, and
determinatives to represent meaning which is placed at the end of the word.
 Makeup
Ancient Egyptians are particular with their physique and cleanliness. They invented an eye
make-up known as “kohl” coming from a ground galena, and malachite mixed with oil to create
a cream.
Aside from make-up, they also applied different cosmetics like ointments, oils, and cream for
sun protection, for skin softening, for preserving a youthful appearance and prevent the skin
from wrinkles.
 Wigs, Perfumes and Deodorants
Ancient Egyptian wigs were made of human hair or horse hair, with plant fiber or sheep wool
to add volume. They were covered it with resin and beeswax to have a stiff quality and braided
appearance. Moreover, they also created perfumes which are made from frankincense, myrrh,
mastic, pine resin, cinnamon, cardamom, saffron, juniper, mint, flowers, roots, herbs and
spices. Their deodorant is a mixture of lettuce, myrrh, incense and herbs. Some other also used
fruit juices with spices and frankincense.
Wigs were used to protect their head from direct heat of the sun while perfumes and
deodorant were used to eliminate body odor.
 Breath Mints and Toothpaste
Ancient Egyptians toothpaste is a combination of a powdered mint, rock salt, pepper, and dried
iris flower. They also invented breath mints which they chew throughout the day. Breath mint
is a mixture of a ground frankincense, cinnamon, melon, pine seeds, and cashew then mixed
with honey which serves as a binding ingredient. This mixture will be heated with fire and will
be formed like candies once it cooled.
These practices were used to prevent tooth decay.
 Calendar
Ancient Egyptian utilized three types of calendar. The first calendar is known as lunar calendar
which consists of 12 lunar months. The second calendar is called solar calendar or civil
calendar which consists of 365 days broken down as 12 months with 30 days each month, and
each month consists of 10 days each week. The third calendar is consist of 25 solar year with
309 lunar months
Lunar calendar is utilized in tracking religious festivals while solar calendar is used for
administrative purposes, and the last calendar is for tracking the long period of time.
 Clock
Ancient Egyptian first developed a time keeping device and divided the day into hours. They
developed a clock to be used in the day and another is used in the night.
Sundial is a half-circle flattened stone with one hole at the bottom center and 12 rays directed
from that center separated with about 15° apart. The hole will be inserted with a metal which
then cast a shadow that determine the time of the day.
Water clock is cone-shaped vessel usually made up of stone with a small hole at the bottom
which allows a water to drip at a constant rate.
Sundial is used to tell the time during the day where the sun is up while water clock is utilized
during the night where the sun is out.
 Black Ink
Egyptian black ink is made up of charcoal mixed with oil and water. They mixed it with plant
gum which serves as a binding ingredient. Moreover, red ink is also present which comes from
an iron oxide derived from plants
It is used for writing in paper.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Ox-Drawn Plow

Egyptians are farmers too like Mesopotamians. They developed farming technologies like the
plow drawn by a group of oxen. This plow is made of bronze for it to easily break the soil
before planting.

Further readings is advised:

Bellis, M. (2019, March 23). History of First Clocks. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/history-
of-sun-clocks-4078627
Bryner, J. (2013, March 20). Ancient Egyptian Sundial Discovered at Valley of the Kings. Live Science. Retrieved from
https://www.livescience.com/28057-ancient-egypstian-sundial-discovered.html
Danzing, R. (2010, September 22). Pigments and Inks Typically Used on Papyrus. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved from
https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/community/blogosphere/2010/09/22/pigments-and-inks-typically-
used-on-papyrus/
Evans, A.(2019, April,3). Ancient Egypt: Birthplace of the Modern Calendar. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/ancient-egypt-birthplace-of-modern-calendar-43706
Mark, J. J. (2017, May 04). Cosmetics, Perfume, & Hygiene in Ancient Egypt. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved
from https://www.ancient.eu/article/1061/
Mark, J. J. (2009, September 02). Literature. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/literature/
Scoville, P. (2015, July 02). Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/Egyptian_Hieroglyphs/
Wendorf, M. (2019,April 23). Ancient Egyptian Technology and Inventions. Interesting Engineering. Retrieved from
https://interestingengineering.com/ancient-egyptian-technology-and-inventions

4. Mayan Civilization
This civilization is found in Central America which includes the present day Yucatan Peninsula,
Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico, and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El
Salvador and Honduras. It is civilization that dwells around 2600 BC to 900 AD. Their major contribution
to the world is their complex understanding of Astronomy. Mayans are farming people who cleared the
dense rain forest in Central America. Mayan cities were built around a central pyramid topped by a shrine
to the gods. They were animists. Maya city states were often at wars. Ordinary soldiers captured during
wars became slaves. War leaders and captured nobles were used for human sacrifice. Maize was the basic
food for the Mayan homes. Cacao beans were the source of their chocolate drinks and cacao beans were
used as money. Maya practiced human sacrificed as a way to appease the gods. Human sacrifices were also
used for special occasions. War captives were tortured and beheaded. Maya wrote on bark, folding it like
an accordion, and then covering the outside with thin plaster. Maya also wrote onto clay, jade, bone, shells
and stone monuments.
Ancient Mayan Technologies:

 Rubber
Rubber developed by Mayans comes from a milky, sap-like fluid found mostly in rubber trees,
blended it with juice from morning glory vines which contains a chemical that makes solidified
latex less brittle. They utilized it to make a bouncy elastic ball which was used in the game
called Pok-a-tok.
 Glyphs
Glyphs is Mayan writing system which is a combination of pictures or symbols to describe or
represent a word, sound or even a syllable. It is used to convey messages usually written in
stone slabs, tree barks and pillars.
 Calendar
Tzolkin (sacred calendar) - It is composed of 260 days, 13 weeks with 20 days.
Haab(solar calendar) - It is composed of 365 days, 18 months with 20 days each month. The
five extra days at the end of the year is considered as dangerous days.
Long Count –This cyclical calendar tracks the longer periods of time. Therefore it can take
account dates far in the future or in the past.
 Art
They made craftsmanship in an assortment of materials, including wood, jade, obsidian,
earthenware production, etched stone landmarks, stucco and finely painted wall paintings.
 Mathematics
Vigesimal system which means 20- base counting system is developed by Mayans. It had only
three images: zero (shell shape), one (a dot) and five (a bar).
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

It is used in business transaction and counting.

 Hallucinogenic Drugs
Hallucinogenic cactus, plants and mushrooms in order to initiate daze during rituals while
Jimson weed, wild tobacco, water lily and Salvia divinorum were used to have psychoactive
effects.
It is still used by shamans during rituals.
 Chocolate Drinks
Ancient Maya first harvested cacao beans, fermented and dried them, roasted them, removed
the shells and ground them into paste. Then, they mixed the paste with water, cornmeal, chili
peppers, and other spices, and then poured the spicy, bitter mixture back and forth between
two containers to create a frothy head.
It is a delectable drink offered to visitors or used during rituals offered to gods and were
considered as "god food".
Cacao beans were used as cash.
 Ball Court
It is the Mayan version of a stadium. It is a rectangular flat surface in the middle of two parallel
stone walls. Each wall large vertical stone rings set high into the walls. The rectangular ground
has three or four circular stone markings which symbolizes the entrance of the underworld.
It is used as a venue for rituals, and ceremonial game called Pok-a-tok where the loser’s life
will be sacrificed to the gods.
 Astronomy
Mayans computed the most accurate lunar month, solar years, movement of planet Venus by
their careful observation of the sun, moon and planets for a long period of time. They build
temples pointed and aligned to the sun especially during midsummer, midwinter and
equinoxes making to track the season of planting and harvesting of their crops.

Further readings are advised:

Artal, F. (2014). Hallucinogenic drugs in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Cultures. Retrieved
from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2173580814001527
Arthistory.net. Ancient Mayan Art. Retrieved from http://www.arthistory.net/mayan-art/
Bikos, K. How does Mayan Calendar work? Retrieved from
https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/mayan.html
Canadian Museum of History. Maya Civilization. Retrieved from
https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/maya/mmc05eng.html
Cartwright, M.(2014). Maya Writing. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/article/655/maya-writing/
Cartwright, M. (2013, September 16). The Ball Game of Mesoamerica. Ancient History
Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/article/604/
How Stuff Works. The History of Chocolate. Retrieved from
https://recipes.howstuffworks.com/food-facts/history-of-chocolate1.html
Kaufman, R. (2010). Aztec, Maya were Rubber-Making Master? Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/6/100628-science-ancient-maya-
aztec-rubber-balls-beheaded
Shuttleworth, M. (2010, April 7). Ancient Mayan Astronomy. Retrieved Sep 13, 2020 from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/mayan-astronomy

5. Chinese Civilization
This civilization dwells near Yellow River (Huang He) and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The densely
cultivated valleys of these two rivers began to emerge as one of the food producing areas of the ancient
world. Only 10% of the total land area is suitable for farming. Instead, it consists of mountains and deserts
which make the country isolated from other parts of Asia. Different dynasties ruled China: Xia Dynasty,
Shang Dynasty, Zhou Dynasty, Qin Dynasty and Han Dynasty. Chinese believes in ancestor worship and
Mandate of Heaven in ruling the dynasty. There are three philosophies that is practiced by Chinese:
Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Legalism was adopted by the the first emperor of China, Qin
Shihuangdi of Qin Dynasty. Qin Dynasty is where the name China came from. Moreover, Han Dynasty
adopted Confucianism and established career service examination for citizens applying for government
position.
Ancient Chinese Technologies:
 Paper
Primitive Chinese paper making technology used soaked and pounded plant fibers which were
dried in sheets on wooden frames or screens. Chinese experimented different raw materials
like bamboo, stems of grasses, vegetable matter, hemp, tree bark, rags, and rattan until they
discovered the boiled bark of mulberry tree which became the primary raw material of paper.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

After that, Chinese high quality paper was traded in the Silk Road. Special paper was made
from rice, wheat straw, sandalwood bark, hibiscus stalks, and seaweed.
It is used to spread literature and literacy, making books, maps and making of paper money.
 Movable Type Printing
It is a type of printing invented by Bi Sheng. Movable type of printing uses individual characters
carved in clay blocks which can be arranged and glued in an iron plate for printing. These blocks will
be kept and rearranged for another printing. In printing, an ink will be applied over the block and the
paper will be pressed against it.
It is used for book production, paper money printing and information dissemination.
 Gunpowder
It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter or potassium nitrate. It can be made by mixing 15
parts of saltpeter, 3 parts of charcoal and two parts of sulfur.
It was used as firecrackers as Chinese believe that it will relinquish bad spirits. Later on, it is used as
weapon by putting it in the tip of arrows and spears.
 Compass
Ancient Chinese compass used a lodestone and a bronze flat slab. The lodestone which resembles the
needle in today’s compass was a spoon-shaped, and located at the center of the flat slab of bronze.
When the slab is set into motion, the spoon-shaped will moved seeking the south direction. South
direction means the handle of the spoon is in south and the scooped-form is in the north.
 Alcohol
Jiu- is a Chinese term for alcohol. Ancient Chinese typically developed yellow and white wine. Yellow
wine contains 20% alcohol which comes from the fermented millet or rice grains. White wine or Shao
Jiu or Baijiu is a distilled alcoholic drink which means “hot or burned” liquor. It is stored in 4-5 years to
develop its taste and has more than 30% alcohol in volume. White wine usually came from the aged
yellow wine or sorghum beans.
Yellow wine usually utilized as spiritual offerings to Chinese ancestors. White wine is usually served
on the table of families and restaurants together with food.
 Tea Production
Tea ceremony is part of Chinese celebration since tea is first cultivated in China. According to legend,
Emperor Shen Nung discovered it when a blossom of the tea tree drifted into his cup of boiling water.
Later on, tea leaves were blanched into hot water to produce a good drink since it is also good to
one’s health. Tea is made from the leaves of the tea plant Camellia sinensis.
 Silk
Ancient Chinese first discovered and processed silk in making cloth. Chinese grows silkworms by
feeding them with mulberry leaves. When the worms laid its eggs and become cocoon, they collected
and heated them. As it continually heated, the cocoon gives off a fiber which is known as silk. Chinese
women collected silk and weaved it to make a cloth. This high- priced fiber was traded to other
civilizations therefore creating the Silk Road.
 Umbrella
Chinese carpenter Lu Ban created the first umbrella which was inspired from the lotus leaves used by
Chinese children as rain shelter. The framework of the first umbrella was made up of mulberry bark
and bamboo of at least five years old covered with silk or oil-treated-paper.
 Acupuncture
Acupuncture is known as Chinese Medicine. It is a therapy which uses different kinds of needles
which will be inserted into specific sites of the body. It is used to relieve pain, to cure illnesses and to
create balance of the health condition.

Further Readings is advised:

Bellis, Mary. (2019, November 20). The Compass and Other Magnetic Innovations. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/compass-and-other-magnetic-innovations-1991466
Carr, K. (2017, June 7). History of Gunpowder: Gunpowder in Ancient China. Quatr.us Study Guides. Retrieved from
https://quatr.us/china/gunpowder-ancient-china.htm
Cartwright, M. (2017, September 15). Paper in Ancient China. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/article/1120/
Cartwright, M. (2017, July 28). Silk in Antiquity. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/Silk/
Gao, S. (2017, May 30). A Brief History of Baijiu, the Ancient Chinese Liquor. Culture Trip. Retrieved from
https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/a-brief-history-of-baijiu-the-ancient-chinese-liquor/
Parkinson, R. (2019, June 6). Ancient Chinese Tea History and Fascinating Facts. The Spruce Eats. Retrieved from
https://www.thespruceeats.com/origins-of-chinese-tea-694325
Tejada, R.(2017, Dec. 3). Movable Type-The very first printer and a brief look at its history. Retrieved from
https://medium.com/@RossAlTejada/movable-type-the-very-first-printer-and-a-brief-look-at-its-history-
4228bde57e9a
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2020, April 6). Acupuncture. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/acupuncture
Wu, A. (2019, March 6). Chinese Paper Umbrellas. China Highlights. Retrieved from
https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/culture/paper-umbrella.htm
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

6. Greek Civilization
The Mycenaean created the first Greek civilization. Mycenae is the first Greek State. Since Greece is not
gifted with agricultural land, the search for farmland and growth of trade resulted in colonization where
Thrace and Byzantium (Istanbul) became their colonies. Two rival city-states developed were Sparta and
Athens. Sparta was a military state while Athens was a democratic state. Greeks believe in many gods
where they built temples like Parthenon in honor to the goddess Athena. Three great Greek philosophers –
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle became the foundations of Western Philosophy. The major contribution of
Greek civilization is the creation of democratic government.

ANCIENT GREEK TECHNOLOGIES

 Architecture and Arts
Ancient Greeks are good in architecture and arts. They built strong and huge columns and stadiums
which are still standing today like the Parthenon that withstands earthquake, cannon shots, and fire.
Greek columns were made of stone that replaced the whole tree trunk columns. Moreover Greek
stadiums were constructed to be a place where games were held. Their knowledge in making strong
columns was incorporated in making stadiums. Furthermore, Greeks also created human and animal
sculpture which were usually carved out from wood, stone, bronze or marbles.
 Medicine
Ancient Greeks believe that illnesses are god’s punishments to them. Yet things changed when
Hippocrates studied and conducted experiments relating to diseases which give him the idea of
treating diseases. In honor of his endeavor, the Hippocratic Oath which contains the doctor-patient
confidentiality was named after him.
 Cartography
Ancient maps of Mesopotamia were drawn into stones and clay tablets. Ancient maps also appeared in
China were drawn on wooden blocks and on silk cloth which shows their territories. However, ancient
Greeks in the person of Anaximander draw the first paper map which was used for navigation.
 Mathematics
Greek Mathematics mostly came from the influence of Mesopotamian, Indus Valley and Egyptian
civilizations. Pythagoras theorem of right triangle on trigonometry came from the idea of the
Egyptians who perfectly built the pyramid. Euclid, a Greek mathematician who wrote the book on
geometry entitled, “The Elements” was just a compiler of the mathematical ideas which he gained in
living Alexandria, a part of Egypt. Moreover, they developed their own numeral system called
Herodianic Numeral which is base of 10 and almost similar to the counting system of Indus Valley and
Egyptian civilization. Though Greek mathematics started this way, they later on developed their own
like Thales’ Intercept Theorem of geometry. Most works of Greek mathematicians laid the foundation
of the mathematics we know today. Exodus developed the Method of Exhaustion and Archimedes
applied it, Apollonius on conic sections, Hipparchus on trigonometry, Heron on Heron’s Formula of
Scalene Triangle, and Diophantus on Diophantine equation in algebra.
 Alarm Clock
Plato invented the first alarm clock which was adopted by Ctesibius. Plato’s alarm clock is made up of
four water vessel in which the water will be filled from the top and drip to the bottom using a hole
inserted by a tube. The third vessel contains has a tiny hole which makes it sound like a kettle when
the water drip into it.
 Archimedes Screw
It is a machine use to raise water. This machine consists of a circular pipe with a spiral inside it and
inclined at 45 and dipped into the water source.
 Odometer
It is used to measure the distance travel by a vehicle. The ancient odometer is connected to a chariot
wheel. At each mile that the chariot travels, a pebble is drop from it into a box. Therefore, the number
of pebbles represents the distance of the travelling vehicle.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Further readings is advised:

Arkell, E. (2014, July 1). Plato Invented the First Alarm Clock. Science History. Retrieved
from https://io9.gizmodo.com/plato-invented-the-first-alarm-clock-1598405582
Bellis, M. (2019, April 6). The History of the Odometer. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-odometers-4074178
Briney, A. (2019, October 7). The History of Cartography. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/the-history-of-cartography-1435696
Cartwright, M. (2012, October 30). Column. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://www.ancient.eu/column/
Cartwright, M. (2018, March 15). Ancient Greek Sculpture. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Sculpture/
History of Mathematics: Contribution of Ancient Greek Civilizations. Retrieved from
https://www.digitmath.com/greek-mathematics.html
Violatti, C. (2013, September 24). Greek Mathematics. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/article/606/

7. Persian Civilization
Persian people are people who lived in southwestern Iran. Cyrus created a powerful Persian state that
stretched from Asia Minor to India. Cyrus emancipated the Jews to Israel. Cyrus son Cambyses invaded
Egypt. Darius added a new Persian Empire in western India, Thrace in Europe and mainland Greece,
therefore creating the world’s largest empire. Darius divided the empire into 20 provinces named
“satrapies” ruled by the governor called “satrap”. Each satrap collected taxes, provided justice and
recruited soldiers. Efficient communication system were sustained throughout the empire and officials
easily travelled through a well maintained roads dotted with way stations that provided food, shelter, and
fresh horses. Persian King had the power of life and death. Persian Empire depends on military. Persian
Empire declined due to the polygamy of the kings. The sons of the kings struggle to the throne. Persian
religion is Zoroastrianism-the first monotheistic religion. Zoroaster is the prophet and Ahuramazda was
the supreme god.

PERSIAN TECHNOLOGIES:
 Qanat
It is an underground channel that carries fresh water from the elevated source such as mountain
spring to the lower portion such as farms and houses.
It is used for the irrigation of crops and for drinking water.
 Taxation System
Achaemenid Taxation is the Persian taxation system where subjects were required to deliver
gifts. Moreover, countries under Persian Empire were also required to give tribute and a portion
of their agricultural crops based on the size of their harvest. Satrapies were also obliged to pay
silver taxes. However, Persians were not required to pay taxes since they are the ruling class.
They only pay in kind.
 The Concept of Human Rights
Cyrus Cylinder is the first declaration of human rights by Cyrus the Great of Persia to the
Babylonians. Stipulated in the cylinder that Cyrus abolished slavery and servitude, and gave
right to religion, therefore, imposing equality to them.
This document is written in cuneiform and sketched on clay.
 Postal Service
Ancient Persian developed the first postal system to deliver messages throughout the empire.
Messenger from the first station relay the messages through night and day riding on a horse
and stopped on the next station where messages is given to another messenger. The next
messenger who will be riding on another horse will continue to deliver the message to the next
station until it will reach to the receiver.
 Backgammon
It is one of the oldest board games in the world developed by Ancient Persians. This game uses
a board with 24 triangles lined in parallel opposite corner, two dice, and 30 pieces. It is played
by two players with 15 pieces each player and two dice. The 15 pieces will be placed in
strategic points in the board and the movement of these pieces depends on the resulting
number after the dices are rolled. The pieces is moved from right to left, down to up, and left to
right until all the pieces is removed from the board. The victor of the game is the one who
removes all the pieces from the board.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid is one of the most famous Persian discoveries. Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Jakarta
al-Razi, was the first to discover sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is transparent to dark brown oily
liquid which combined totally with water. Its color depends on the amount of sulfur present
into it. This liquid have number of uses which includes as cleaning agent to metals, gasoline
and petroleum, as electrolyte in lead storage batteries, and in making explosives, glues,
pigments, and dyes. Though it has number of uses, this liquid is dangerous when it will not be
handled responsibly. Immediate medical attention is advised for its effect is severe to our
body.
 Battery
It is clay jar which measures5-6 inches high which contains an iron rod enclosed with a copper
cylinder. This iron rod inside the clay jar is attached to an asphalt plug to keep it in place. Vinegar is
used to produce 1.5 to 2.0 volts.
 Yakhchal(Refrigerator)
It is called ice-pit use to store food during summer season. Yakhchal is a large dome made of
mud bricks which is 2 meters thick at its base, 60 feet tall and 5000m3 underground spaces.
 Guitar
The earliest version of the modern day guitar exists in the form of the tar or lut – a wooden
instrument on which strings were plucked to produce music. Its name depends on the number
of strings in the said instrument.
 Chess
The oldest surviving chess pieces came from the Persian lands, thus reinforcing the belief that
chess originated in Persia.

Further Readings is advised:

Backgammon. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon
Bekhrad, J. (2018, June 18). Iran’s Ancient Engineering Marvel. Retrieved from
http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20180619-irans-ancient-engineering-marvel
Dandamayev, M. (2014, February 7). Achaemenid Taxation. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved
from https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-taxation
Earth Architecture. (2009, September 4). Yackchal: Ancient Refrigerator. Retrieved from
https://eartharchitecture.org/?p=570
Guy, P. History of Guitar. Retrieved from
https://vietnamclassical.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/history-of-guitar.pdf
How to play Backgammon. Yellow Mountain Imports. Retrieved from
https://www.ymimports.com/pages/how-to-play-backgammon
How to Play Shatranj: The Chess of the Ancient World. Ancient Chess. Retrieved from
http://www.ancientchess.com/page/play-shatranj.htm
Parthian Battery(Ancient Iranians, Inventor of Battery). Iran Chamber Society. Retrieved from
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/parthian_battery.php
Noury, M. (2010, April 15). First Iranians Who Founded the First System of Postal Services. The
Iranian. Retrieved from https://iranian.com/2010/04/15/first-iranians-who-
founded-the-first-system-of-postal-services/
Simonin, A. (2012, January 18). The Cyrus Cylinder. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved
from https://www.ancient.eu/article/166/
Sulfuric Acid. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-
technology/chemistry/compounds-and-elements/sulfuric-acid

8. Roman Civilization
Rome is located 18 miles (29km) inland on the Tiber River which gave Rome a route to the sea.
Romans established the “republic” where leader is not a monarch and some citizens have the right to vote.
Romans ruled Italy after a successful continuous warfare with the enemies. Early Rome was divided into
two groups – patricians (wealthy landowners who became a ruling class) and plebeians(less wealthy
landowners, small farmers, craftspeople, and merchants). Men in both groups were citizens and could
vote, but only the patricians could be elected to office. All Roman upper class children were expected to
learn to read. The father is the chief figure in providing education of his children. Fathers arrange the
marriages of their daughters. Roman male can marry at the age of 14 and Roman females at the age of 12.
However divorce was introduced and became easy to obtain.
Ancient Roman Technologies

 Concrete
Ancient Romans built strong structure which made from the concrete they developed. Their
concrete is a mixture of lime and volcanic rocks to create a mortar. For building underwater
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

structures, the mortar and volcanic tuff will be enclosed in a wooden form. The reaction of the
seawater on it will make the cement strong.
 Newspapers
Acta Diurna is the world’s first newspaper created during the reign of Julius Caesar. This
depicts the important events in Rome like gladiator games, government decisions, and
astronomical readings. It is posted on walls so that everyone can read. This makes
communication and information easy.
 Julian Calendar
This calendar was established by Julius Caesar with the astronomer Sosigenes. It contains 365
¼ days, 12 months in a year with 30 or 31 days each month except February with 28 days.
Leap years is repeated on February 23 making no February 29 in Julian calendar. Orthodox
church still used the Julian calendar.
 Surgery Tools and Techniques
Some ancient Roman surgical tools are vaginal speculum, bone levers, rectal speculum, forceps,
scalpels and many more. These tools were used at different purposes.
 Roman Numerals
It is a numeral system developed by ancient Romans during the time of Julius Caesar. These
consist of letter symbols to correspond the Hindu Arabic numbers. The downside of Roman
Numerals is that it cannot express fractions and decimal numbers.
 Aqueducts
The development of aqueducts by the ancient Romans is considered as great engineering feats.
This water system consists of pipes, tunnels, canals and bridges. It is used to bring water from
its source to the populated areas.
 Grid-based cities
Cities in ancient Rome is carefully planned in order to impose uniformity of landscapes and
flow of traffic. The typical Roman provincial town have two wide streets that goes through
north to south and east to west which intersect at a central forum where public businesses and
markets are located. Major streets extends where Roman transportation network and postal
system are situated.
 Arches
Ancient Roman developed arches. Arches are curve-shaped structure that connects two
columns of concrete. The span of the columns widen due to the attached arch above it. With
this, wide spanned aqueducts, church windows, and stadiums were made possible.

Further Readings is advised:

Gurgel, A. (2018, September 6). Rome’s “Acta Diurna”, the World’s First Newspaper. Retrieved
from http://www.carmentablog.com/2018/09/06/romes-acta-diurna-the-worlds-first-
newspaper/
Jones, P. (2019, June 28). Architectural Basics: The Roman Arch. Retrieved from
https://medium.com/@chrisjones_32882/architectural-basics-the-roman-arch-
cd6242dd6e39
Pruitt, S. (2018, August 29). The Secret of the Ancient Roman Concrete. History Stories. Retrieved
from https://www.history.com/news/the-secrets-of-ancient-roman-concrete
Roman Aqueducts. National Geographic. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/roman-aqueducts/
Surgical Instruments from Ancient Rome. Retrieved from
http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/romansurgical/
The Editors of Encyclopedia Brittanica. (2019, July 1). Julian Calendar. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/Julian-calendar
The Streets of Rome. Retrieved from https://publications.newberry.org/makebigplans/rerouting-
metropolis/transportation-burnham/streets-rome
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

9. Aztec Civilization
Aztecs were people who arrived and lived in the Valley of Mexico. In 1325, they were driven into the
swamps and islands of Lake Tetzcoco and established a capital at Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Aztec
state was authoritarian. The monarch, who claimed lineage with the gods, held all power. A council of
lords and government officials assisted the Aztec ruler. Male children in noble families were sent to temple
schools which emphasis military training. Once adults, males would select a career in military service, the
government bureaucracy, or priesthood. Male and female slaves were sold in the markets. Aztecs believed
in many gods. They practiced human sacrifice in order to delay the final destruction of the world.

Aztec Technologies:
 Construction Ideas
With respect to Aztec’ s location which is swampy island where anything built would subside,
Aztecs install closely packed wooden piles surrounded by volcanic stones so that the
structures built above it will not sink.
Causeways were also built to connect the island and main land. Causeways were made of piled
rocks, sand, and dirt which were supported with large wood to stabilize it. They also put
bridges that would open up for boat passage.
 Chinampas
Chinampas are artificial lands built by Aztecs for farming. It is created by putting large reed
mats filled with the lake’s sediments, mud, soil, rotting vegetation, and manure from nearby
areas which will be attached to posts with its edge composed of woven twigs. They also plant
fast growing trees at the corner in order to keep the land from being eroded.
Chinampas were planted with maize, squash, and beans.
 Double Aqueduct
Aztecs’ aqueduct is composed of two pipes which are made up of wood, and stone and lime.
Their aqueducts are purposely made like this to make it easy for them to maintain its
cleanliness. When the other pipe is already dirty, they will divert the water to the other pipe
while the first pipe is being cleaned or repaired.
Aqueducts are made to bring fresh water from the springs of Chapultepec to the Aztec
community located in the Lake Tetzcoco.
 Dike or Dam
Aztec’s dikes are made up of sticks, weeds, and stones with doors that could be moved up and
down to control the water behind it. The dike is 16km long, 20m wide and 12 ft. It is used to
control the water from the lake getting inside their community.
 Vigesimal System and Two-Cycle Calendar
Aztec mathematics is the same with the Mayan civilizations. It is also a combination of dots or
combination of dots and bars used to represent a number. However representations like flag is
used to indicate 20, 400 is fir tree, and 8000 is bag.
Aztec calendars are also the same with the Mayans yet they just change the name of each
month. Their time is divided into 13 hours day and 9 hours night which is according to their
gods.
 Medicine and Surgeries
Ancient Aztec surgeon was Texoxotla-Ticitl. Surgery mainly performed by draining abscesses
which were then washed with urine and covered with lime and herbal medicine. Circumcision
and mastitis uses obsidian knives. Wounds in bone surgery were mended with hair or
vegetable fibers. Pain is relieved using plants and hallucinogenic mushrooms. Hemorrhages
were contained with Commelina pallida. Tree bark sap and root juices were also used in
wounds.
 Mandatory Education
Aztec Empire is imposed universal compulsory education regardless of social status. Aztec
children started their formal education at the age of 14. Boys and girls went to school
separately. There is also a separate school for poor and noble boys. Telpochcalli – the school
for the poor where they were trained in military, civics, history and religion. Calmecac – the
school for nobles where they are trained in military training with religion, governing,
astronomy, math, architecture, history and poetry.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Further readings is advised:

How did Aztecs Build Causeways? Retrieved from https://www.reference.com/history/did-
aztecs-build-causeways-e5b56bbaa2c95b63
Orozco, H. (2000, February). Surgery in Mexico. Retrieved from
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/390523
Rank, S. (2020, September 26). Aztec Agriculture: Floating Farms Fed the People. History on
the Net. Retrieved from https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-agriculture-
floating-farms-fed-the-people
Rank, S. (2020, September 26). Aztec Education: Learning at Home and School. History on the
Net. Retrieved from https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-education-at-home-
and-school
Stodola, J.( Mathematical Contributions of Mayas, Aztecs and Incas: A Native Curriculum Unit
for Middle and High School. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED057930.pdf
Villasenor, J. The Remarkable Hydrological Works of the Aztec Civilization. Retrieved from
http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a164/iahs_164_0003.pdf

10. Inca Civilization

Inca were only a small community in the area of Cuzco, a city located at 11,000 ft in the mountains of
southern Peru. Pachacuti, Inca leader, launched a campaign of conquest until the entire region became
under their control. Inca means ruler.

TECHNOLOGY OF THE INCA CIVILIZATION

Stonewalls
Incas stonework is considered as best in the world. Their walls made up of stones perfectly fit
together that even a strand of the hair can enter. Incas stonewalls is made up of Yucay
limestone, green Sacsayhuaman diorite porphyry, and black andesite. These stones were
quarried and shaped by pounding and brought to site by rope, lever, and ramp. Finished walls
were implemented with grinding stones and sand.
 Waterworks
Inca civilization is located on mountain where they built highly impressive waterworks that
supplied water to the community including their agricultural fields. They carved stone canals
from the main fountain where it flowed to the other 16 small fountains with a catch basin on
the side of the mountain. With this water flowed to the sloped canal, entered into the city, to
their agricultural land and was controlled by small wall opening.
 Road System
Inca principally built two main highways that stretched from north to south. One path is
directed to the coast and the other going to the highlands. These roads were made of a piled
flattened stones with small stone walls at the edge which served as markers and protectors.
 Message Delivery System
Inca relay messages through a “chasqui” who runs from one station to another known as
“tampu”. A chasqui is a physically fit young boy trained to relay messages over the community.
Chasquis usually brought tampu which will be sounded to alert the next chasqui in the other
tampu. The messages sent were in form of quipu or it could be a word relayed from the source
of the message to the succeeding chasquis.
 Rope Suspension Bridge
Inca suspension bridge consists of braided cables of natural fiber to form the floor and the
handrails. At first, Inca searched and collected the natural fiber to be used for the bridge, then
women weaved and braided it to create the rope. Once the rope is created, the men laid the
rope for the bridge and weaved its handrails. The four ends of the bridge is attached to a stone
for its stability.
 Terraced farming
Inca practiced terraced farming. In doing this, they piled up stones first as its walls which
absorbed the heat during the day and keep the temperature balanced during the night. The
terraced are layered with gravel and fine sand and more gravel and more fine sand to contain
the moisture, and it is topped with good fertile soil where they planted their crops like
potatoes. Yet corn, beans and squash were also planted which they called “three sister”.
GE 7 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

 Khipus(Quipu)
This is used to convey messages as it is brought by Chasquis to the receiver of the message. It is
also used as record keeping where it is believed that the knots in the quipu symbolized their
number system.
Quipu is a cord with knotted strings on it where one knot has varying distance from each other,
that is, sometimes closer to each other and sometimes one knot is far from the rest.

Further Readings is advised:

Brown, J. Water Supply and Drainage of Machu Picchu. Retrieved from
http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/machu/machu.pdf
Cartwright, M. (2014, March 13). Inca Architecture. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Inca_Architecture/
Cartwright, M. (2014, September 08). The Inca Road System. Ancient History
Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/article/757/
Echegaray, L. (2017, April 25). The Chasquis and Communication in the Inca’s Time.
Retrieved from http://cuzcoeats.com/chasquis-communication-incas-time/
Franco, M. Top 5 Incan Inventions. How Stuff Works. Retrieved from
https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/inventions/5-ancient-incan-
inventions.htm
Q’eswachaka: The last Inca suspension bridge. (2017, June 12). Peru Rail Blog.
Retrieved fromhttps://www.perurail.com/blog/qeswachaka-the-last-inca-
suspension-bridge/