APR 2019

1. Explain “Constitutive theory” in relation to statehood of a country.

(6 marks)
A state defines itself to mean a political unit composed of people, well-defined territory and a set of
governing institutions. The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States is commonly referred to
further for the definition of a statehood and was signed in Montevideo, Uruguay and was accepted as part of
customary international law. Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention further stipulates the form of a sovereign state
by laying down 4 requirements that need to be fulfilled in order to meet the criteria of a statehood in which are
permanent population, defined territory, government and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.
Regarding the statehood of a country, there are two theories in which are declarative theory and constitutive theory.
Following the constitutive theory, it refers to the theory of statehood in which a state is a person of
international law only if it is recognised as a sovereign state by other states. This shows that recognition has a
constitutive effect and that it becomes a necessary condition for the creation of the state or government. In
constitutive theory, there are two types of recognition; express recognition and implied recognition. The first is
express recognition and refers itself to recognition that has been made by formal declaration or statement. The
second is implied recognition in which the recognition is inferred from certain relations between the recognising
state and the new state or government. What this means is that, implied recognition is seen through the entry of a
diplomatic relation or the conclusion of a bilateral treaty that involves both the recognising state and the new state.
Therefore, constitutive theory refers to the theory of statehood in which a state may receive international
person recognition only if it is recognised as a sovereign state by other states. This is then able to be seen under two
different types of recognition, express recognition and implied recognition.

2. Concisely elaborate on 2 purposes of the United Nations (UN) as stated in its charter.
(6marks)
The United Nations was formed in 1945 after the 2nd world war by 51 countries who were committed to
maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly nations, promoting social progress, better
living standards and human rights. The United Nations is the successor of the League of Nations after it failed to
prevent the repetition of the first world war.
The two purposes of the United Nations that were stated in the Charter is firstly, to develop friendly
relations amongst the nations. This is to ensure that each nation remains peaceful amongst each other and prevent
from higher tension between two different states. By keeping friendly relations with states, the UN ensures that
countries are able to cooperate with one another in handling issues that affect globally. Furthermore, another purpose
of the United Nations stated in its charter is to be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations to achieve these
goals. In this, it shows that the establishment of the UN is to become the centre of the negotiations regarding global
issues between nations in order to be able to further improve conditions for all citizens around the world.

4. Define the term “international intergovernmental organization” (IGO). illustrate your

answer with 1 relevant example.
(6 marks)
Non-state actors are defined as individuals or organizations that have powerful economic, political or social
power and are able to influence at a national and sometimes international level but do not belong to or allied
themselves to any particular country or state. An international intergovernmental organization or IGO is a non-state
actor that has been created by the nation states. These organisations usually consist of three or more nations and
have been created and joined to solve shared problems which give them authority to make collective decisions to
manage problems on the global agenda. By this, state representatives gather to discuss matters that are of mutual
interest to the member states.
There are two types of IGO in which are global IGOs and regional IGOs. Global IGOs refers to
organisations that have a universal membership in which every state has a membership. This is seen in the United
Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO) or International Monetary Fund (IMF). Regional IGOs however
focus on a subset of states that are based on a particular interest or region. For example, the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the European Union (EU).
IGOs are formed for liberal institutionalism, in which it means it is the states’ interest to do so. By forming
IGOs, certain global or regional problems are able to be solved easily and are cheaper in terms of cost. Through
IGOs, each member state needs to correspond with each other and oversee other states to ensure that they are
honouring their commitments to acknowledge many of the problems.
For example, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was formed to coordinate the negotiations of tariffs and
to provide a mechanism for resolving disputes arising from trading partners. The WTO also monitors trade in
agriculture and manufacturing commodities.

MAR 2018
1. Define the concept of “Non-State Actors”. Illustrate your answer with 2 relevant
examples.
(6 marks)
Non-state actors define themselves to be an individual or organisation that have powerful economic
influence as well as political or social influence and are able to influence at a national or international level but do
not belong to or allied themselves with any particular country or state. There are 5 types of non-state actors in which
are substate actors, transnational actors, non-governmental organizations, insurgent belligerent@terrorists and
intergovernmental organizations.
The United Nations is a major international intergovernmental organisation (IGO). It was first created in
1945 and was created with 51 other countries who were committed to maintaining international peace and security,
developing friendly nations, promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights. / to encourage
resolution of international conflicts without war and to form policies on international issues. Following Article 1 of
the UN Charter, it shows the purpose of the establishment of the United Nations in which it is to help nations work
together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy and to encourage respect for
each other’s rights and freedom. Under the 6 organs, the United Nations is able to influence nations on matters of
mutual interest such as issues concerning humanity in the 21st century.
Other than that, ASEAN (association of southeast asian nations) is also a major example of non-state actors
or an IGO composed of 10 members as Timor Leste had just received consensus for ASEAN membership in
November 2022. It is a political and economic organisation that is aimed primarily at promoting economic growth
and regional stability. Following the ASEAN Charter, it stipulates that the ASEAN Constitution serves as a firm
foundation in achieving the ASEAN community by providing legal status and institutional framework for ASEAN.
It also codifies ASEAN norms, values and rules and sets clear targets for ASEAN and presents accountability and
compliance.

OCT 2018
1. Define the concept of “international intergovernmental organisation (IGO)”. Illustrate
your answer with 2 relevant examples.
(6 marks)
Non-state actors define themselves as individuals or organisations that have powerful economic influence
as well political and social influence and are able to influence at a national or international level but do not belong to
or affiliate themselves with any states. An international intergovernmental organisation (IGO) is a non-state actor
that comprises three or more nation states. This organisation is formed and joined by nation states to solve shared
problems which give them shared authority to make collective decisions to manage problems on the global agenda.
To do this, the state’s representatives gather to discuss matters of mutual interest. Usually these organisations have a
legislative body which creates legal acts and may be classified by scope and function. These IGOs play a significant
role by providing means of cooperation and multiple channels of communication among states.
The first major IGO is the United Nations. This IGO was created in 1945 and is a successor to the League
of Nations after it failed to prevent the repetition of the first world war. It was created with 51 countries who were
committed to encourage resolution of international conflicts without war and to form policies on international
issues. Following Article 1 of the UN Charter, the purpose of the IGO is to help nations work together to improve
the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy amongst the people and to encourage respect for
each other’s rights and lives. Under the 6 organs of the UN, they are able to influence nations on matters of interest
such as issues concerning humanity in the 21st century.
The second major IGO is ASEAN (Association of Southeast asian Nations). This IGO is composed of 10
members, with Timor Leste only just receiving the consensus for ASEAN membership in November 2022. This
IGO is a political and economic organisation that is aimed primarily at promoting economic growth and regional
stability. The ASEAN Charter lays down the firm foundation in achieving the ASEAN community by providing
legal status and institutional framework for ASEAN. It also codifies ASEAN norms, values and rules and sets clear
targets for ASEAN and presents accountability and compliance.

OCT 2017
1. Define and give 2 related examples of international Non-Governmental Organisations
(INGO)
(6 marks)
International non-governmental organisations are defined as private institutions that are independent of the
government. They are established by certain groups of individuals, businessmen or societal forces. There are 4 types
of iNGOs in which are transnational, government-organised, business and industry as well as donor-dominated.
INGOs not only provide analysis and expertise and serve as early warning mechanisms and help monitor and
implement international agreements and gather information on local conditions through contracts around the world.
INGOs usually emerge due to the government not responding to the needs of and demand of the people or from the
pressure from government policies.
An example of an international non-governmental organisation is Amnesty International. Amnesty
International is a campaign for internationally recognized human rights. It was founded in London, 1961 and
following the publication of an article in The Observers by two lawyers - Benenson and James. It conducts research
and generates actions to prevent and end grave abuse of human rights. Other than that, Amnesty International
demands justice for those whose rights have been violated.
Another example of an international non-governmental organisation is the World Wide Fund. The World
Wide Fund (WWF) primarily focuses their work on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of
the environment. It further focuses on the preservation of the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of
human impact on the environment. It is formerly named the World Wildlife Fund but only Canada and the United
States of America still use this name. This organisation was founded by Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh in
Switzerland in 1961.

2. Briefly discuss 2 aims of the United Nations as stated in its Charter.

(6 marks)
The United Nations is an international intergovernmental organisation in which 51 countries committed to
encourage resolution between countries of international conflicts without war and to form policies on international
issues. It was founded in 1945 after the second world war and was a successor to the League of Nations after it had
failed to prevent the repetition of the first world war from happening.
The first aim that has been stated in its Charter is to develop friendly relations with other nations. Through
this aim, the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among
States is borne. This sets the duty of states to cooperate with one another. Not only that, but through this aim, states
shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political
independence of any state.
The second aim that has been stated in its Charter is to help nations to work together to improve the lives of
poor people to conquer hunger, diseases and illiteracy and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms.
This is seen in the establishment of the World Food Programme (WFP) that helps with world hunger and is a food
assistance branch of the United Nations. Not only that, but the establishment of the UN Declaration of Human
Rights is a perfect example of this too as it sets out the foundation of what is expected in bestowing human rights
amongst all people equally. Furthermore, UNESCO also focuses on education, scientific research and cultural
research which helps nations to improve in their research and development.

To be a centre for harmonising the actions of the nations to achieve these goals - act as a middleman -
might seem to interfere but is actually very paternalistic.

MAR 2016
1. Briefly explain the definition of “non-state actors” (10 marks)

Non-state actors are defined as individuals or organisations that have powerful economic influence as well
as political and social influence and are able to influence national and international level but do not belong or
affiliate themselves to any particular country or state. According to Pearlman and Cunningham, non-state actors are
organised political actors that do not directly connect to the state but pursue aims that affect vital state interests.
Non-state actors have a base or headquarter in a certain state but their activities will not only be operating in the
state itself but also operate beyond the border of the state.
There are 5 types of non-state actors; sub-state actors, non-governmental organisations, intergovernmental
organisations, transnational actors and insurgent belligerent actors. These non-state actors are all indirectly
influential to a state at some point. A sub-state actor refers to groups of people or individuals with similar interests
not beyond the states that are able to influence the state’s policy. For example, this can refer to the automobile
industry in Malaysia in which the entering of multiple automobile industries in Malaysia can affect Malaysian
policy by enhancing tariff rates for foreign industries. Non-governmental organisations are organisations that are
made up out of volunteers from 2 or more states to promote their shared interests to influence the policies of state
governments and intergovernmental organisations. Intergovernmental organisations are organisations in which the
members are made out of states themselves for the purpose of liberal institutionalism. They create and join this
organisation in order to solve problems that impact each other globally and gives them authority to make collective
decisions to manage these global problems. Transnational actors are actors that function below the state level but
function across the state borders and can be seen as transnational corporations and multinational corporations or
non-governmental organisations. Insurgent belligerent actors are recognised in international law as subjects having
certain rights and duties. Normally, this rise from these insurgent belligerent actors comes from their struggle against
the State to which they formerly belonged to.
The advantages of having non-state actors are that they help in solving world crises. This can be seen in the
solving of world hunger by the establishment of the World Food Programme and Stop Hunger Now. Furthermore,
these non-state actors help gain the trust of the people. This is due to the fact that establishing non-state actors are
able to illustrate that there are organisations that advocate for human interests and that they can themselves get
involved in. However, there are the disadvantages of non-state actors which are the interference of veto power. The
veto power is held in the five more permanent members of the UN (China, Russia, France, USA and UK). This can
be seen in the way that the USA had vetoed 32 recommendations regarding the issue of Israel. From this, inequality
among the state members becomes apparent. Not only that, there are non-state actors implication of neutral ground.
This is seen in the principle of ASEAN in which it does not interfere with other country’s sovereignty. For further
illustration is the situation in Myanmar in which ASEAN cannot solve the problem of Rohingya because of the
ASEAN principle.
3. Describe the aims and the principles of the EU as a regional organisation. (10 marks)

The European Union is a unique economic and political union between 28 European countries. However,
the UK had recently left the bloc on 31st January 2020. The EU was created in the aftermath of the Second World
War and it was primarily to foster economic cooperation between Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, The Netherlands
and Luxembourg. It evolved into an organisation spanning policy areas from climate, environment and health to
external relations and security, justice migration. The European Union was originally named the European
Economic Community (EEC) but was changed to the European Union (EU) in 1993 as the union had evolved.

The aim of the European Union is to firstly promote peace, its values and the well-being of its citizens.
This

MAR 2015

2. Briefly explain the concept of ‘Non-State Actor’. State 3 main functions of ‘International
Non-Governmental Organisations’ (INGO) and illustrate your answer with relevant
examples.
(10 marks)
Non-state actors define themselves to be individuals or organisations that have powerful economic
influence as well as political and social influence and are able to influence on a national or international level and
are not affiliated or belong to any country or states. Usually non-state actors have a base or headquarters in a certain
state but do not only operate in that specific state, but also operate beyond the states.
The 3 functions of INGO are firstly that provide analysis and expertise, serve as an early warning
mechanism and help monitor and implement international agreements. These INGOs research the specific scope and
are able to present their findings and influence international agreements. For example, the Greenpeace corporation
carries out research regarding environmental issues in order to overcome and provide adequate solutions that help
influence international agreements. The second function of INGO is to alert a global network of supporters to
conditions requiring attention (relief solutions). This is in order to be able to provide aid to those in immediate need.
This can be seen in the Aman Palestin organisation, in which they primarily focus on bringing light to the issue in
Palestine and regularly aid Palestinians that are affected. The third function of an INGO is to gather information on
local conditions through contacts around the world. This gathering of information is able to allow INGOs to further
understand and access the situation as well as alert the public about the specific issue.

3. Explain the objectives and contributions of the International Court of Justice (ICJ). (10
marks)

The International Court of Justice is one of the six organs under the United Nations and it is the main
judicial body under the United Nations. It is situated in The Hague, Netherlands and is commonly referred to as the
World Court. The judges are elected by the General Assembly and Security Council for a period of 9 years. The
ICJ’s primary objective is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by States.
Therefore the court will decide disputes between countries based on the voluntary participation of the States
concerned. Meaning, if a state agrees to participate in a proceeding, therefore they are obligated to comply with the
Court’s decision. Not only that but the ICJ also has an objective to give advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by the UN organs and specialised agencies. If any UN organ needs referring to any legal questions in
the making of an agreement, then the ICJ is able to take over and give advice on the matter.
The contributions of the ICJ is most apparent in the case of the Malaysian-Singaporean Pulau Batu
Puteh-Pedra Branca dispute. In 2003 - Malaysia and Singapore had jointly seized the court of a dispute to determine
whether or not the sovereignty of Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge belonged to
either Malaysia or Singapore. The judgement was made later on the 23rd of May 2008 in which the Court had
indicated that the Sultanate of Johor had original title to Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Puteh. However, when the
dispute crystallised, the title had passed to Singapore as attested by the conduct of the parties. Furthermore,
regarding the contributions of an advisory opinion given by the ICJ is the recent legal advisory regarding the legal
consequences of the separation of the Chagos archipelago from Mauritius in 2019.

APR 2019
1. “Power is diffusing away from states to a much broader range of actors. According to a
recent roundtable hosted by the British Council, this has created a ‘diplomatic deficit’ in
the old structures of international relations; but it also presents opportunities for
countries willing to reach out to and through non-state actors”
(British Council, 2018)

Based on the quotation from the excerpt above:

a) Define the concept of “non-state actors”
(10 marks)
- Non-state actors are defined as individuals or organisations that have powerful economic influence as well
as political and social influence and are able to influence on a national and international level, however,
they are not affiliated with or belong to any particular country or state
- Do not fulfill the requirements of a state but give impact to a particular state especially to the rule-making.
- Usually have a HQ or base in a specific state but operate beyond the state
- Has five different types of non-state actors; IGOs, NGOs, transnational actors (tnc or mnc), sub-state actors
and insurgent belligerent actors.
- Igos are created by government states for liberal institutionalisation.
- Ngos are made up of volunteer members and are usually from 2 or more states that share mutual ideologies
- transnational actors refer to big corporations that operate across borders
- Sub state actors are domestic actors that impact the industry.
- Insurgent belligerent actors are acknowledged by international law as they are affected by the
incompetency of the country and uprise against their country because of it.

b) Discuss 2 positive impacts and 2 negative impacts non-state actors have on

Malaysia.
(10 marks)
+ positives
+ Can shine light on the specific issue ; Help find solutions faster than the government. Assisting on
issues that may have been overlooked by the government. wfp, wwf and who.
+ Help preserve diplomatic relations ; help in international trade and diplomatic ties. Asean and
united nations.

- Negatives
- Interference of veto power ; inequality among state members. Permanent members of UN (US,
russia, china, UK, france). E.g US vetoed 32 recommendations on the issue of Israel
- Implication of neutral ground; play lesser role in politicals . principle of asean is to not interfere
with other countries’ sovereignty. I.e asean and myanmar. Cannot solve problem of the rohingyas
because practice the ASEAN principles.
2. "As the UN marks the 70th anniversary of its founding this autumn, those imperfections -
and how the UN addresses them - have come to the fore as the organisation struggles to
define its role in the 21st century. Tensions between western governments, which see the
UN as bloated and inefficient, and developing countries, which regard it as undemocratic
and dominated by the rich, have rippled across the organisation as ballooning costs drive
the push for reform"
(The Guardian, 7 September 2015)

Based on the quotation above:

a) Identify TWO (2) main aims of the creation of the United Nations.
(10 marks)
- UN was created 51 state members in 1945 after the second world war
- Made to encourage resolutions between countries to resolve international conflict without war and
to commit to maintaining peace and security throughout the world
- Successor to the league of nations after it failed to prevent the repetition of the first world war.

- To develop friendly relations amongst the nation; declaration of the principle of intl law concerning
friendly relations and cooperation amongst the state. States refrain in their intl relations from the threat or
use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. The duty of states to
cooperate with one another
- To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, poverty and illiteracy
and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms. wfp . un declaration of human rights.
Unesco.

b) Discuss TWO (2) challenges faced by the United Nations in overseeing the world
today.
(15 marks)

- Keeping human rights ; different standards of human rights based on culture and belief. Lgbt rights. The
reservation of countries on certain treaties like convention of the elimination of all discrimination against
women (cedaw) becoz they do not agree on certain provisions. Not all states will upkeep the undhr
standard even if it is the agreed foundation of international human rights law. Difficult to maintain human
rights treaties because states are not bound to bid by the sanctions by un / not legally binded to follow un’s
decisions.
- Outdated structure ; permanent members have veto power. Outgrowing the number of members, therefore
more states should be permanent members as well. Other states can only pass non-binding resolutions.
Unequal power. The big five does not seem to have the intention to give up any power or share it with
more states.

MAR 2018
1. “Global leaders gathering at United Nations Headquarters in New York this week for the
annual round of top-level diplomatic talks known as the Genera Debate will shine a
spotlight on the needs of the world’s people, with discussion on vital issues such as
sustainable development and climate change, and set the stage for what the President of
the UN General Assembly has dubbed a “year of firsts,” which will see the negotiation
of the first intergovernmental compact on migration and the signing of the first
agreement on the elimination of nuclear weapons.”
(UN News Centre, 18 Sept 2017)

Based on the quotation from the news above:

a) Explain 2 main purposes for the creation of the United Nations.
(10 marks)
- To develop friendly relations amongst nations
- Declarations on the principles of international law on the friendly relations and cooperations amongst
nations.
- States shall refrain in their international relation from the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state
- The duty of states to work together
- To become a centre of harmonising the actions of the nations to achieve goals
- Acts as a middleman
- Can seem intruding but is actually paternalistic
- To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, poverty and
illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms
- Undhr
- Wfp
- Unesco

b) Discuss 2 challenges faced by United Nations in the international arena today. (10
marks)
- Keeping human rights ; different standards of human rights based on culture and belief. Lgbt rights. The
reservation of countries on certain treaties like convention of the elimination of all discrimination against
women (cedaw) becoz they do not agree on certain provisions. Not all states will upkeep the undhr
standard even if it is the agreed foundation of international human rights law. Difficult to maintain human
rights treaties because states are not bound to bid by the sanctions by un / not legally binded to follow un’s
decisions.
- Outdated structure ; permanent members have veto power. Outgrowing the number of members, therefore
more states should be permanent members as well. Other states can only pass non-binding resolutions.
Unequal power. The big five does not seem to have the intention to give up any power or share it with
more states.

CHAPTER 3

APR 2019
1. Summarily explain 2 types of terrorism.
(6 marks)

- Terrorism ; unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against the civilians, in the pursuit of
political arms
- Religious terrorism
- Motivated by religious ideology in God
- Violence is divinely inspired and approved
- Violence is necessary for achieving goals
- Abu sayyaf group (philippines) and boko haram (kenya)
- Global terrorism
- Includes domestic, nationalist, religious and state terrorist activities
- Interlinked terrorist attacks across the world
- Terrorist leader may direct a bombing around the world
- Al qaeda

MAR 2018
1. Briefly define “refugees” under international law.
(6 marks)
- Intl law - someone who seeks refuge in a foreign country becoz of war and violence or out of fear of
persecution
- non -refoulement is a core principle
- Becomes customary international law, no matter if didnt sign the refugee convention (embodied in art 33 of
the 1951 refugee convention)
- Refugee convention ; article 1
- A person who has well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular group or political opinion, and is outside the country of his nationality
- Outlines a refugee’s rights - freedom of movement, freedom of religion, right to work, education and
accessibility to travel documents
- Underscores a refugee’s obligations to a host government - refugees should not be returned or refouled to a
country where he or she fears persecution.

OCT 2018
1. Briefly elaborate 2 causes of terrorism.
(6 marks)
Political
- Terrorism has strong link w social injustice at the hands of the govt
- Usually joins becoz of some ill resentment against the government for what they did to their families
- UNGA states terrorism underlying reasons for its existence was racism and massive human rights
violations

Economic
- Poverty leads to terrorism
- Populations become vulnerable to to terrorist activity
- People who are deprived can create resentment and turn to terrorism to express outrage.
- WFP executive director Cousins - many young men struggle to provide for their families and terrorists turn
to vulnerability

2. Define the term “refugees” under international law.

(6 marks)
Intl law - someone who has taken refuge in another country due to war and violence or fear of persecution
in their own country
- non -refoulement principle is a core principle in intl law
- Becomes customary intl law, even if the country didnt sign the 1951 refugee convention must still abide to
this principle as per article 33 of the 1951 refugee convention
- Refugee convention article 1 further stipulates ‘someone owing to a well founded fear regarding his
identity or political opinion, is outside his own country
- Refugee convention outlines rights of refugee and refugee obligations to the host country.
OCT 2017
1. Briefly explain 2 different types of terrorism.
(6 marks)
- 7 types of terrorism; global, religion, national, state, domestic, left wing, right wing
- Global terrorism
- Links domestic, national, state, religion and domestic terrorism
- Interlinked terrorist attacks
- Al qaeda
- Religion terrorism
- Most dangerous
- Believe that their violence is well-precedented and is divinely inspired
- Motivated by religious ideology
- Violence is necessary to achieve goals
- Abu sayyaf group (philippines) and boko haram (kenya)

APR 2019
1. “We are now witnessing the highest levels of displacement on record. An unprecedented
68.5 million people around the world have been forced from home. Among them are nearly
25.4 million refugees, over half of whom are under the age of 18. There are also an
estimated 10 million stateless people who have been denied a nationality and access to basic
rights such as education, healthcare, employment and freedom of movement.” (UNHCR,
2018)

In relation to the excerpt from the article above:

a) Define the term “refugee” and “asylum seeker” under international law. (10 marks)

Refugee
- Refugee convention 1951 ; article 1
- Someone who owing to his own identity and political opinion is of fear of persecution is outside
the country of his nationality
- Outlines the refugee’s rights and the refugee obligations to the host of the country
- Non-refoulement principle
- Must be followed by all countries as it is customary intl law and is embodied in art 33 of the 1951
refugee convention
- Turkiye has the highest number of refugees

Asylum seeker
- A person who is looking to be recognized as a refugee but has not yet received formal refugee
status
- Refugee status has not yet been accessed
- Is protected by the United Nations convention relating to the status of refugees.
b) Discuss 2 achievable solutions to overcome issues relating to refugees. (10 marks)

- Local integration
- Granting refugee permanent right to stay in the host country
- Host governments must be prepared and fair in allowing refugees to have a permanent right to
stay in the country
- Most govts are unwilling
- Refugees had to integrate locally in africa through informal means with no firm legal status

- Resettlement in a third world country

- Participant countries agree to take a certain amount of refugees every year
- Number of countries who could be as small as nine countries
- Turkiye has the highest number of refugees

2. “Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right but a necessary foundation for a
peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. Unfortunately, at the current time, 1 in 5
women and girls between the ages of 15-49 have reported experiencing physical or
sexual violence by an intimate partner within a 12 month period and 49 countries
currently have no laws protecting women from domestic violence.”
(United Nations, 2018)

Based on the statement above:

a) Define the concept of “women’s rights”.
(10 marks)
- To attain equality and balance between women and men status
- Fundamental human rights - united nations values
- The international commitment on women’s rights - convention on the elimination of all
discrimination against women
- Defines what constitutes as discrimination against women
- Sets an agenda for national action to end such discrimination
- Article 1 ; defines discrimination against women ‘any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the
basis of sex which effects/has purpose to impair/nullify the status of women’
- Feminism - advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of equality of the sexes

b) Describe and give 2 examples of “women” issues.

(10 marks)
Article 11 - non-discrimination in employment and workplace
Article 16 - non-discrimination in marriage and family

Culturally
India: women pay dowry and submit to inlaws
China; preferred boys to carry down the name of the family
mauritians ; leblouh @ fattening of girls in order to deem more attractive to a suitor
Kayan ethnic ; neck rings @ only take off during wedding night. Create neck problems and spine problems

Implied beauty standards on women - much harsher on women than men

Discrimination in workplace becoz of ability to get pregnant, family responsibility and misogyny

c) Elaborate on 2 viable solutions to overcome women’s issues as noted in (b) above.

(10
marks)

Malaysia perlu amend code of practice in workplace

- Create proper procedure as there is no prosecution or sanction for offenders.

- Employer is not held liable for not providing a safe environment for workers
- Victims terpaksa pegang kepada penal code

Push awareness on sexism issue

OCT 2019
1. "Today, education remains an inaccessible right for millions of children around the world.
More than 72 million children of primary education age are not in school and 759
million adults are illiterate and do not have the awareness necessary to improve both
their living conditions and those of their children."
(Humanium, 2019)

Based on the statement above:

a) Define the concept of "rights for children" as provided for in the Convention on the
Rights of the Child 1989.
( 5 marks)
- Any persons below the age of 18, unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier
- Human rights - acknowledge the specific needs of minors for care and protection - defined as someone
younger than 18
- Vulnerable group
- Children should grow up in spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and solidarity

b) Describe and give TWO (2) examples of issues related to children's rights in Malaysia.
(10 m)

- Violence, neglect, abuse & maltreatment of children

- Marginalised & disadvantaged groups of children - undocumented children - minorities / rural children
- Lack of systematic and transparent monitoring and reporting of children rights
- Severely lacking govt data - child sexual abusers are not made publically available beoz of OSA official
secrets Act
c) Elaborate on TWO (2) viable solutions to overcome the issues on children's rights as
noted in (b) above.
(10 marks)