Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482

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Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds

Part I Ð proximate composition, amino acid pro®les and some
physico-chemical properties
K.H. Wong, Peter C.K. Cheung *
Department of Biology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong

Received 15 February 2000; accepted 24 May 2000

Abstract
The proximate composition, amino acid pro®le and some physico-chemical properties of two subtropical red seaweeds (Hypnea
charoides and Hypnea japonica) and one green seaweed (Ulva lactuca) were investigated. The total dietary ®ber [ranged from 50.3 to
55.4% dry weight (DW)] and ash (ranged from 21.3 to 22.8% DW) were the two most abundant components in these seaweeds but
their crude lipid contents were very low (ranged from 1.42 to 1.64% DW). Although the crude protein content of the red seaweeds
was signi®cantly (p<0.05, ANOVA, Tukey-HSD) higher than that of the green, the three seaweed proteins contained all essential
amino acids, the levels of which were comparable to those of the FAO/WHO requirement. Moreover, the swelling capacity (SWC),
water-holding capacity (WHC) and oil-holding capacity (OHC) of the seaweeds had a high positive correlation (r=0.99±1.00) with
their total amount of ®ber and protein. Among the three seaweeds, the two red seaweeds exhibited signi®cantly (p<0.05, ANOVA,
Tukey-HSD) better physico-chemical properties, which were similar to some commercial ®ber-rich food ingredients. # 2000
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Proximate composition; Amino acid pro®le; Physico-chemical properties; Seaweeds

1. Introduction Arasaki, Mino & Kuroda, 1984; Nisizawa, Noda,

Kikuchi & Watanabe, 1987; Watanabe & Nisizawa,
In the Far East and Asian Paci®c, people have a long 1984). The chemical composition of seaweeds varies
tradition of consuming seaweeds as part of their diet with species, habitats, maturity and environmental con-
while, in the Western countries, the principal uses of ditions (Ito & Hori, 1989). Nevertheless, in general,
seaweeds are as sources of phycocolloids, thickening seaweeds are rich in non-starch polysaccharides, min-
and gelling agents for various industrial applications erals and vitamins (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993; Mabeau &
including uses in foods (Abbott, 1996; Darcy-Vrillon, Fleurence, 1993). As seaweed polysaccharides cannot be
1993; Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). Recently, in France, entirely digested by human intestinal enzymes, they are
seaweeds have been authorized as vegetables and con- regarded as a new source of dietary ®ber and food
diments (Mabeau, 1989). Therefore, seaweeds have ingredients (Lahaye, 1991; Mabeau, Cavaloc, Fleurence
become a valuable vegetable (fresh or dried) and an & Lahaye, 1992; Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). Together
important food ingredient in the human diet. with their low lipid content, seaweeds only provide a
The nutritional properties of seaweeds are not com- very low amount of energy (Jurkovic, Kolb & Colic,
pletely known yet, and they are usually estimated from 1995). Consumption of seaweeds can increase the intake
their chemical composition alone (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993; of dietary ®ber and lower the occurrence of some
Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). Compared to land plants, chronic diseases (diabetes, obesity, heart diseases,
the chemical composition of seaweeds has been poorly cancers, etc.), which are associated with low ®ber diets
investigated and most of the available information only of the Western countries (Southgate, 1990).
deals with traditional Japanese seaweeds (Fujiwara- Dietary ®ber can be divided into soluble and insoluble
fractions. The viscosity of soluble dietary ®ber is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +852-2609-6144; fax: +852-2603- responsible for slower digestion and absorption of nutri-
5646. ents, and lower levels of blood cholesterol and glucose.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.C.K. Cheung). In contrast, insoluble dietary ®ber is characterized by its
0308-8146/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0308-8146(00)00175-8
476 K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482

ability to increase fecal bulk and decrease intestinal CHNS/O Analyzer (Perkin-Elmer 2400, Connecticut,
transit time (Baghurst, Baghurst & Record, 1996; Potty, USA) by a factor of 6.25.
1996). Therefore, the physiological e€ects of dietary
®ber are correlated with their particular physico-chemical 2.2.2. Determination of ash
properties (Roehring, 1988). As dietary ®ber is the The ash contents were estimated by heating the sea-
major component of the seaweeds, determining the weeds overnight in a furnace at 525 C (AOAC, 1995).
physico-chemical properties of seaweed dietary ®ber can
give us some understanding of the physiological e€ects 2.2.3. Total dietary ®ber analysis
of consuming seaweeds and their potential applications The content of total dietary ®ber (TDF) in seaweeds
as texturizing and bulking agents in making low-calorie was determined according to the AOAC enzymatic-
foods. gravimetric method (AOAC, 1995). In brief, aliquots of
Although the seaweed ¯oras in Hong Kong are fairly samples (1 g of dry matter) were ®rst treated with two
rich, they are relatively under-utilized (Hodgkiss & Lee, amylases, a heat-stable a-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1 from
1983). In general, most Hong Kong seaweeds are mainly Bacillus licheniformis, catalog no. A33306, Sigma Che-
used as animal feeds or fertilizers by the coastal villagers mical Co., St. Louis, MO) for 30 min in a boiling water
(Hodgkiss & Lee, 1983). Two red seaweeds (Hypnea bath and a fungal amyloglucosidase (EC 3.2.1.3 from
charoides and Hypnea japonica) and one green seaweed Aspergillus niger, catalog no. A3513, Sigma) for 30 min
(Ulva lactuca) are very abundant in Hong Kong at 60 C to remove starch and then a bacterial protease
(Hodgkiss & Lee, 1983). The aim of the present study in (from Subtilisin Carlsberg, catalog no. P3910, Sigma) to
this part was to determine the chemical composition solubilize protein. The amylase enzymes used had been
and amino acid pro®les of these three subtropical tested to be free of -glucanase. The enzyme-treated
seaweeds in order to provide more comprehensive mixture containing the bu€er solution and non-diges-
nutrient information about them. Furthermore, some tible materials was precipitated with four volumes of
physico-chemical properties of these seaweeds were also absolute ethanol. Then the ethanol-insoluble residue
investigated in order to evaluate their potential use as was ®ltered with a Fiber-Tec System (Tecator 1023,
food ingredients. Hoganas, Sweden). The residue recovered was washed,
oven-dried and weighed to give the gravimetric yield of
the seaweed ®ber material or TDF. The weight of TDF
2. Materials and methods was corrected for ash and residual protein content and a
blank.
2.1. Sample preparation
2.2.4. Extraction of crude lipids
All samples of seaweed were collected from A Crude lipids were extracted from the seaweed powder
Ma Wan (AMW) and Lung Lok Shui (LLS) at in a Soxhlet extractor (Soxtec System HT6, Tecator,
Tung Ping Chau, in the northeast of Hong Kong. Hoganas, Sweden) with chloroform:methanol (2:1, v/v).
H. charoides and H. japonica (red seaweeds) were The contents of crude lipids were determined gravi-
collected from both LLS and AMW in December 1997 metrically after oven-drying (80 C) the extract overnight.
while U. lactuca (green seaweeds) was only collected
from AMW in December 1997. Fresh plants were 2.2.5. Moisture analysis
thoroughly washed with distilled water and their hold- Moisture content determined by an infrared moisture
fasts and epiphytes were removed. All cleaned seaweeds analyzer (Mettler LJ 16, Greifensee, Switzerland) at
were then frozen in a ÿ70 C freezer for 24 h and then 120 C was expressed as percentage by weight of sample.
dried in a freeze-drier (Labconco, MO) for 5 days. All
samples were dried to constant weight. The dried 2.3. Amino acid analysis
samples were pulverized by using a cyclotech mill
(Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden) to pass through a screen Two milligrams of seaweed samples were hydrolyzed
with an aperture of 0.5 mm. The milled seaweed samples with 0.5 ml 6 M HCl (catalog no. H0636, Sigma) in a
were then stored in air-tight plastic bags in desiccators sealed ampoule containing 8 ml phenol (for protection of
at room temperature (25 C) prior to further nutrient tyrosine) and 0.25 ml mol norleucine (catalogue no.
composition analysis. N8513, Sigma) as an internal standard for 24 h at 110 C
under vacuum. The acid hydrolysate was evaporated to
2.2. Proximate composition dryness using a Speedvac concentrator (Savant Instru-
ment, Farmingdale, NY) and the dry residue was re-
2.2.1. Crude protein analysis dissolved in 0.5 ml of citrate bu€er (Beckman A303084,
The crude protein content was calculated by multi- CA). The sample was ®ltered through a 0.45 mm nylon
plying the nitrogen content, which was determined by a ®lter before being analyzed with an automated Amino
K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482 477

Acid Analyzer (Beckman 6300, CA). Sulphur-contain- 2.5. Statistical analysis

ing amino acids, cystine and methionine were deter-
mined after a pre-hydrolysis oxidation with performic All analyses were performed in triplicate. Except for
acids (Gehrke, Wall, Absheer, Kaiser & Zumwalt, the amino acid pro®les, all data are presented as mean
1985). The contents of di€erent amino acids recovered values S.D. and the mean values were analyzed by
are presented as mg gÿ1 protein and are compared with one-way ANOVA and Tukey-HSD at p < 0.05 (Wilk-
the FAO/WHO (1991) reference pattern. The essential inson, 1988) to detect signi®cant di€erences among
amino acid (EAA) score was calculated by the method groups. Moreover, the results of SWC and WHC were
of FAO/WHO as shown below: further evaluated by the Student's t-test (p < 0.05) to
determine the signi®cance of di€erences between the
Essential amino acid score mean values obtained from two di€erent temperatures.
The assumptions of the parametric statistics were
mg of EAA in 1 g of test protein satis®ed.
ˆ 100
mg of EAA in 1 g of egg protein

3. Results and discussion

2.4. Physico-chemical properties 3.1. Proximate composition

2.4.1. Swelling capacity (SWC) Table 1 shows the proximate composition of the red
SWC of seaweed samples was analyzed by the bed and green seaweed samples. The crude protein content
volume technique after equilibrating in excess solvent (7.06±19.0% DW) of the three seaweeds was within the
(Kuniak & Marchessault, 1972). To 200 mg of seaweed range for red and green seaweeds (10±47% DW) as
samples in a 50 ml measuring cylinder, 20 ml of de- reported by Fleurence (1999). However, the crude pro-
ionized water were added and the mixtures were then tein of the U. lactuca (7.06% DW) was found to be
vigorously stirred. The measuring cylinder was left to lower than that of other Ulva species (10±26% DW)
stand for 24 h at 25 and 37 C. Swelling volume was (Fleurence, 1999). The crude protein content of the two
measured and expressed as milliliters of swollen sample red seaweeds (H. charoides and H. japonica) was sig-
per g of sample (DW). ni®cantly (p < 0.05, ANOVA, Tukey-HSD) higher than
that of the green seaweed (Table 1). This observation
2.4.2. Water-holding capacity (WHC) agreed with previous reports (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993;
WHC of seaweed samples were measured by the Fleurence, 1999; Mabeau & Fleuence, 1993). Further-
modi®ed centrifugation method described by Suzuki, more, the crude protein content of H. charoides and
Ohsugi, Yoshie, Shirai and Hirano (1996). Twenty ml U. lactuca was notably higher than the same species
of de-ionized water were added to each centrifuged found in the Philippines (6.60±10.5 and 4.20% DW,
tube containing 200 mg of seaweed samples. Then the respectively) (Portugal, Ladines, Ardena, Resurreccion,
tubes were shaken in a shaking culture bath for 24 h at Medina & Matibag, 1983). Variations in the protein
25 and 37 C. After centrifuging at 14,000g for 30 content of seaweeds can be due to di€erent species and
min, the supernatant was discarded and the moisture seasonal periods (Fleurence, 1999).
content of pellet was determined after dehydration in All seaweeds had ash contents (21.3±22.8% DW),
an oven for 2 h at 120 C. The WHC of seaweed was which were consistent with previous results (Mabeau et
expressed as the weight of grams of water held by 1 g al., 1992; Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). The ash contents
of sample (DW). of all the seaweeds were similar. Also, in this study, the
ash content of the Hypnea and Ulva species were com-
2.4.3. Oil-holding capacity (OHC) parable to that of some seaweed species of the same
OHC of seaweed samples were determined by the genus: H. charoides (23.5±34.9% DW), H. pannosa
method of Caprez, Arrigoni, Amado and Neukom (15.3% DW), U. lactuca (24.6% DW) and U. pertusa
(1986) with slight modi®cations. About 3 g of seaweed (24.7% DW) (Behairy & El-Sayed, 1983; Portugal et al.,
samples were placed in each centrifuge tube, to which 1983).
10.5 g of corn oil were added. The tubes were left for 30 As shown in Table 1, the total dietary ®ber, which
min at room temperature (25 C) with agitation. After was the most abundant component in these seaweeds
that, the mixture was centrifuged at 2500 g for 30 (50.3±55.4% DW), was higher than the levels found in
min. The oil supernatant was then removed and mea- most higher plants. This observation was in accordance
sured. The OHC of seaweed samples were expressed as with previous results (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993; Ito & Hori,
the number of grams of oil held by 1 g of sample (DW). 1989; Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). Moreover, the TDF
Density of the oil was found to be 0.92 g/ml. of the U. lactuca was comparable to that of U. pertusa
478 K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482

Table 1
Proximate composition (g/100 g DWa) of H. japonica, H. charoides and U. lactucab

Composition H. japonica H. charoides U. lactuca

Crude protein (N6.25) 19.00.36a 18.40.30a 7.060.06b

Ash 22.10.72a 22.82.23a 21.32.78a
TDFc 53.20.56ab 50.32.78a 55.42.00b
Crude lipid 1.420.35a 1.480.15a 1.640.10a
Carbohydrated 4.281.52a 7.024.06b 14.64.94c
Moisturee 9.950.27a 10.90.62a 10.61.14a
a
Sample dry weight.
b
Data are mean values of three determinations S.D. Means in rows with di€erent letters (a±c) are signi®cantly di€erent (p < 0.05, ANOVA,
Tukey-HSD).
c
TDF=total dietary ®ber.
d
Calculated by di€erence (=100ÿ crude proteinÿ crude lipidÿ TDFÿ ash).
e
Moisture content is expressed as percentage of freeze-dried sample.

(52.1% DW) (Yoshie, Suzuki, Shirai & Hirano, 1997) FAO/WHO (1991) requirement pattern. Leucine was
and to the same species (38.1 and 40.0% DW) reported the common limiting amino acid of H. charoides and U.
earlier (Lahaye, 1991; Lahaye & Jegou, 1993). Seaweeds lactuca while the limiting amino acids of H. japonica
contain large amounts of dietary ®ber which are parti- were tyrosine and phenylalanine. Although the sulphur-
cularly rich in the soluble fraction (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993; containing amino acids (methionine and cystine) of
Lahaye, 1991; Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). The chemi- some Hypnea species have been reported to be the lim-
cal nature and physico-chemical properties of some iting amino acids (Portugal et al., 1983), the methionine
common seaweed dietary ®bers such as alginates, car- and cystine levels of the Hypnea species in this study
rageenans and agars are quite well known, but most were above the FAO/WHO requirement (EAA score
seaweed dietary ®bers in particular the insoluble types ranged from 1.90 to 1.95). With respect to the total
and their physiological e€ects have still not received EAA in the FAO/WHO requirement pattern, all red
much attention (Mabeau & Fleurence, 1993). and green seaweeds seemed to be able to contribute
In general, the lipid contents of these subtropical sea- adequate levels of total EAA.
weeds were low (1.42±1.64% DW) but within the range All seaweed samples exhibited similar non-essential
(1.00±3.00% DW) reported previously (Mabeau & amino acid patterns, in which aspartic and glutamic
Fleurence, 1993). Although the crude lipid content of H. acid constituted a substantial amount of the total amino
charoides (1.48% DW) was lower than that of previous acids (20.8±22.9% of total AA). Similar results were
data (2.20±2.70% DW) (Portugal et al., 1983), the crude reported previously (Behairy & El-Sayed, 1983; Fleur-
lipid content of the U. lactuca (1.64% DW) was com- ence, 1999; Mabeau et al., 1992). According to Mabeau
parable to Ulva species from the Philippines (1.60± et al. (1992), the high levels of aspartic and glutamic
1.80% DW) (Portugal et al., 1983). As all the seaweed acids were responsible for the special ¯avor and taste of
samples were treated by the same drying method the seaweeds.
(freeze-drying), no signi®cant di€erences in moisture Qasim (1991) reported that there were some pro-
content were obtained. nounced di€erences between the amino acid pro®les of
Rhodophyceae (red seaweeds) and Chlorophyceae (green
3.2. Amino acid composition seaweeds). Previous results revealed that the sulfur-con-
taining amino acids of the red seaweeds were higher
The amino acid pro®les and the essential amino acid than that of green seaweeds (Qasim, 1991). In this
scores of seaweed samples are presented in Table 2. The study, the amino acid pro®les of the seaweeds further
amino acid analyzed represented both the free and con®rmed this observation [red seaweeds (Hypnea species):
combined amino acids. The seaweed samples contained 5.11±5.23% of total AA; green seaweed (U. lactuca):
all the essential amino acids (in di€erent proportions, 3.25% of the total AA]. Moreover, the total amino acid
excluding tryptophan), which accounted for 42.1±48.4% content (16.2±17.3 g/100 g DW) of the red seaweeds was
of the total amino acid content [Level of total EAAs more than 2 times that of the green seaweeds (6.30 g/100
(mg/g of protein)/sum of all measured amino acids (mg/ g DW). This result also agrees with previous data
g protein) 100%]. Similar results have been obtained reported by Qasim (1991). In this study, the total amino
from other subtropical seaweeds (Behairy & El-Sayed, acid content (6.30±17.3 g/100 g DW) of each seaweed
1983; Qasim, 1991). Furthermore, the levels of all their sample was comparable to its corresponding crude
essential amino acids were comparable to those of the protein content (7.06±19.0 g/100 g DW) (Table 1). This
K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482 479

Table 2
Amino acid pro®les (mg gÿ1 protein)a of H. japonica, H. charoides and U. lactuca

Amino acids H. japonica H. charoides U. lactuca FAO/WHO (1991)

requirement pattern

Aspartic acid 98.4 88.6 98.7

Threonine 45.9 (1.35) 51.3 (1.51) 50.6 (1.49) 34
Serine 47.5 44.9 55.4
Glutamic acid 110 98.4 87.3
Proline 45.4 47.9 44.6
Glycine 54.2 50.6 67.4
Alanine 57.4 52.3 73.9
Valine 56.3 (1.61) 61.4 (1.75) 55.0 (1.57) 35
Methionine 18.5 (1.90)b 16.8 (1.95)b 15.7 (1.16)b 25b
Cystine 29.1 28.1 13.3
Isoleucine 44.8 (1.60) 48.5 (1.73) 38.2 (1.36) 28
Leucine 97.9 (1.48) 72.3 (1.10) 67.1 (1.02) 66
Tyrosine 27.9 (1.03)c 26.0 (1.30)c 35.0 (1.11)c 63c
Phenylalanine 37.2 56.0 35.0
Histidine 6.89 6.58 4.82
Lysine 66.3 (1.14) 64.9 (1.12) 65.8 (1.13) 58
Arginine 66.8 63.6 84.4
Tryptophan NDd ND ND 11
Total EAAe 424 425 376 320
Total amino acids (g/100 g DWf) 17.3 16.2 6.30 Ð
a
Values are the average of three determinations. Figures in parentheses are the essential amino acids score.
b
Cystine+methionine.
c
Tyrosine+phenylalanine.
d
Not determined.
e
Total essential amino acids (mg/g protein) excludes tryptophan.
f
Sample dry weight.

implied that the amounts of non-protein nitrogenous three seaweed samples at 25 C were not only similar to
materials in these seaweeds were insigni®cant. that of U. lactuca (7.50 g/g DW) and E. compressa (9.50
g/g DW) (Lahaye & Jegou, 1993), but also comparable
3.3. Physico-chemical properties to that of some agricultural by-products (dietary ®ber
concentrates) (6.30±13.2 g/g DW) reported previously
Seaweeds are rich in dietary ®ber (>50% DW), par- (Grigelmo-Miguel, Gorinstein & Martin-Belloso, 1999;
ticularly in the soluble form (Darcy-Vrillon, 1993; Grigelmo-Miguel & Martin-Belloso, 1997, 1999). Further-
Mabeau & Fleuence, 1993). Fleury and Lahaye (1991) more, both SWC and WHC of the red and green sea-
reported that the physico-chemical properties of sea- weed samples were also comparable to the SWC (9.90±
weed powder could be assumed to re¯ect those of the 24.0 ml/g DW) and WHC (6.60±9.00 g/g DW) of some
®ber present. Furthermore, since seaweed proteins are commercial dietary ®ber-rich supplements (GonÄi &
closely related to the cell wall polysaccharides (Fleur- Martin-CarroÂn, 1998). Among the three seaweed
ence, Le Coeur, Mabeau, Maurice & Landrein, 1995; samples, the remarkably high SWC and WHC values
Jordan & Vilter, 1991), they may also play a role in the of the H. charoides and H. japonica suggested that the
physico-chemical properties such as water-holding red seaweeds could be potentially used as a functional
(Chou & Morr, 1979). In this study, the total content of ingredient to reduce calories, avoid syneresis and
protein and TDF in the seaweed samples were up to modify the viscosity and texture of formulated food.
62.5±72.2% DW (Table 1), so the physico-chemical In this study, the SWC and WHC of the three seaweed
properties of the red and green seaweeds might be samples at 37 C ranged from 13.0 to 24.1 ml/g DW and
mainly determined by these two chemical components. 9.71 to 14.0 g/g DW, respectively (Table 3). The SWC of
SWC, WHC and OHC of the red and green seaweed U. lactuca was comparable to that of L. digitata (15.6 ml/
samples are shown in Table 3. At 25 C, the SWC and g DW) at 37 C (Fleury & Lahaye, 1991), while the SWC
WHC of the seaweed samples ranged from 11.2 to 22.1 of the H. charoides and H. japonica were in agreement
ml/g DW and 8.68±11.8 g/g DW, respectively with with that of Japanese seaweeds such as nori, hijiki,
the SWC and WHC of H. japonica being the highest kombu and aonori (about 20.0 ml/g DW) determined at
(p < 0.05, ANOVA, Tukey-HSD). The WHC of the the same temperature (Suzuki et al., 1996).
480 K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482

Table 3
The swelling, water and oil holding capacity of H. japonica, H. charoides and U. lactucaa

SWCb (ml/g DWc) WHCd (g/g DW) OHCe (g/g DW)

Seaweeds 25 C 37 C 25 C 37 C

H. japonica 22.10.57ax 24.10.38ay 11.80.05ax 14.00.36ay 0.950.04a

H. charoides 19.60.45bx 20.70.60by 10.90.30bx 12.40.31by 0.820.01b
U. lactuca 11.20.40cx 13.0 0.70cy 8.680.50cx 9.710.11cy 0.650.03c
a
Data are mean values of three determinations S.D. Means in each column with di€erent letters (a±c) are signi®cantly di€erent (p<0.05,
ANOVA, Tukey-HSD). For each parameter of SWC and WHC, means in two adjacent columns with di€erent letters (x,y) are also signi®cantly
di€erent (p<0.05, Student's t-test).
b
SWC=swelling capacity.
c
Sample dry weight.
d
WHC=water-holding capacity.
e
OHC=oil-holding capacity.

At 37 C, although the WHC of all seaweed samples solubility of ®bers and proteins (Fleury & Lahaye,
were lower than that of wakame (19.0±44.0 g/g DW) 1991). Furthermore, a very high correlation between the
(Suzuki et al., 1996) and L. digitata (18.7 g/g DW) SWC and WHC was obtained at each temperature
(Fleury & Lahaye, 1991), their WHC values were com- (25 C, r=1.00 and 37 C, r =1.00). Similar relationships
parable to that of hijiki and kombu (about 10.0±12.0 g/g (r=0.96) amongst Japanese seaweeds such as kombu,
DW) (Suzuki et al., 1996) determined at the same tem- wakame and nori had been reported previously (Suzuki
perature. Furthermore, a very high correlation was also et al., 1996). The two hydration properties, SWC and
obtained between the total amount of protein and TDF WHC, which are mainly determined by the food content
and the SWC (r=0.99 at 25 C; r =1.00 at 37 C) as well (like dietary ®ber) (Sosulski & Cadden, 1982) have been
as the WHC (r=1.00 for both 25 and 37 C). This indi- shown to be closely related (LoÂpez, Ros, RincoÄn, Peri-
cated that both SWC and WHC of the red and green ago, MartõÂnez & OrtunÄe, 1996).
seaweeds depended very much on the amount of protein Table 3 also shows the OHC of the red and green
and TDF present. seaweed samples. OHC is another important property
According to Robertson and Eastwood (1981), water of food ingredients used in formulated food. In this
exists in ®ber in three forms: it is bound to the hydro- study, the OHC of the seaweed samples ranged from
philic polysaccharides; it is held within the ®ber matrix 0.65 to 0.95 g/g DW, with the OHC of H. japonica being
or it is trapped within the cell wall lumen. WHC, deter- the highest (p<0.05, ANOVA, Tukey-HSD). Among
mined by the centrifugation method used in this study, the seaweed samples, the considerably high OHC of the
represented all three types of water associated with the H. charoides and H. japonica were comparable to the
®ber (Fleury & Lahaye, 1991). Apart from the di€erent high OHC values of orange (0.86±1.28 g/g DW) and
water-holding ability in ®ber, the di€erences in SWC peach (1.02±1.11 g/g DW) dietary ®ber concentrates
and WHC among the seaweed samples might be attrib- reported in recent work (Grigeimo-Miguel et al., 1999;
uted to the di€erent protein conformations and the Grigeimo-Miguel & Martin-Belloso, 1999). This sug-
variations in the number and nature of the water bind- gested that the red seaweeds would be able to stabilize
ing sites on the protein molecules (Chou & Morr, 1979). food emulsions with a high percentage of fat.
In addition to chemical compositions, some physical Basically, the mechanism of OHC is mainly due to the
properties, such as structure, particle size, porosity, pH, physical entrapment of oil by capillary attraction (Kin-
temperature, ionic strength, types of ions in solutions sella, 1976). Moreover, the hydrophobicity of proteins
and density are important to the understanding of the also plays a major role in fat absorption (Voutsinas &
di€erent behaviors of samples during hydration (Auf- Nakai, 1983). Therefore, among the seaweed samples,
fret, Ralet, Guillon, Barry & Thibault, 1994; Fleury & the variations in OHC may be partially due to the di€er-
Lahaye, 1991; Robertson & Eastwood, 1981). ent proportions of polar side chains of the amino acids
In this study, the e€ects of temperature on SWC and on the surfaces of their protein molecules (Chau &
WHC were also investigated. In agreement with the Cheung, 1998). Furthermore, Fleury and Lahaye (1991)
observations of Arrigoni, Caprez, Amado and Neukom reported that the OHC of seaweed are also related to the
(1986) and Caprez et al. (1986), both SWC and WHC of particle size, overall charge density and hydrophilic
all seaweed samples increased signi®cantly (p<0.05, nature of the individual particles. Similarly, the correla-
ANOVA, Tukey-HSD) with temperature (Table 3). tion between OHC and total amount of protein and TDF
Such increase was probably related to the increase in the was very high (r=1.00). This implied that the OHC of
K.H. Wong, P.C.K. Cheung / Food Chemistry 71 (2000) 475±482 481

the red and green seaweed powder might also depend on Darcy-Vrillon, B. (1993). Nutritional aspects of the developing use of
the total content of protein and TDF present. marine macroalgae for the human food industry. International
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WHO expert consultation. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture
4. Conclusions Organization of United Nations.
Fleurence, J. (1999). Seaweed proteins: biochemical, nutritional
With respect to the high protein level and balanced aspects and potential uses. Trends in Food Science and Technology,
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Fleurence, J., Le Coeur, C., Mabeau, S., Maurice, M., & Landrein, A.
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food proteins. However, the nutritional values of the from the edible seaweeds Ulva rigida and Ulva rotundata. Journal of
seaweeds obtained here were based on chemical analyses Applied Phycology, 7, 577±582.
only. Biological evaluation using human and animal Fleury, N., & Lahaye, M. (1991). Chemical and physico-chemical
feeding studies would be required to establish the nutri- characterization of ®bers from Laminaria digitata (Kombu Breton):
a physiological approach. Journal of Science and Food Agriculture,
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protein digestibility and bioavailability of the essential Fujiwara-Arasaki, T., Mino, N., & Kuroda, M. (1984). The protein
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physico-chemical properties that were comparable to biologia, 116/117, 513±516.
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R. W. (1985). Sample preparation for chromatography of amino
that they could be used as functional ingredients in for- acids: acids hydrolysis of proteins. Journal of the Association of
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correlation with the total amount of TDF and protein hydration properties of commercial dietary ®ber-rich supplements.
in the seaweeds. Nutrition Research, 18, 1077±1089.
Grigelmo-Miguel, N., Gorinstein, S., & Martin-Belloso, O. (1999).
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ment from fruits and vegetable processing waste. In 1997 Conference
of food engineering (CoFE '97). Los Angeles, CA: American Insti-
We acknowledge the technical assistance of Mr. C.C.
tute of Chemical Engineers.
Li. This project was funded by the Research Grants Grigelmo-Miguel, N., & Martin-Belloso, O. (1999). Characterization
Council of the Hong Kong SAR Government. of dietary ®ber from orange juice extraction. Food Research Inter-
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