ANAPHY LEC MODULE 4 ( INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM)

Integumentary System
The Integumentary System consists of the skin and its accessory structures such as hair, nails, and glands. It is one of the most visible systems of
the body, covering the entire exterior and providing various functions vital for survival.
Major Functions of the Integumentary System:
1. Protection:
○ Water Loss Prevention: The skin prevents water loss and serves as a barrier to microorganisms and foreign substances.
○ Mechanical Protection: The stratified squamous epithelium of the skin protects underlying structures from abrasion.
○ UV Protection: Melanin in the skin absorbs UV light, protecting deeper tissues from UV damage.
○ Hair Protection: Hair helps insulate the head, eyebrows prevent sweat from reaching the eyes, and eyelashes protect from foreign
objects. Hair in the nose and ears filters dust.
○ Nail Protection: Nails protect the tips of the fingers and toes and can be used defensively.
2. Sensation:
○ The skin contains sensory receptors that detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
○ Hair follicle receptors detect hair movement.
3. Vitamin D Production:
○ UV light triggers the production of vitamin D precursors in the skin, which is modified in the liver and kidneys to form active vitamin D.
○ Vitamin D promotes calcium and phosphate absorption in the intestines, supporting bone and muscle function.
4. Temperature Regulation:
○ The skin helps regulate body temperature (around 37°C or 98.6°F):
■ Heat Retention: Blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow to the skin, conserving heat.
■ Heat Loss: Blood vessels in the dermis dilate to release heat, and sweat is produced.
○ Types of Heat Loss:
■ Radiation: Heat loss through infrared energy.
■ Convection: Heat loss through air movement.
■ Conduction: Heat loss through direct contact with cooler objects.
5. Excretion:
○ Skin glands excrete sweat containing waste products like urea, uric acid, and ammonia, although this is not a major excretory
function.

Structure of the Skin:

The skin is made up of two major layers:
● Epidermis: The outermost layer, which provides a protective barrier.
● Dermis: The deeper layer that contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue.
Additional Facts:
● Skin Weight: The skin weighs approximately 9 lbs.
● Skin Types: "Thin skin" covers most of the body, while "thick skin" is found only on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

Epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium. Its primary functions include preventing water
loss and providing resistance to abrasion.
Epidermal Strata
The epidermis is made up of five distinct layers, each with specific characteristics and functions:
1. Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinativum):
○ Location: The deepest layer of the epidermis.
○ Structure: Made up of a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells.
○ Function: Cells undergo mitotic division approximately every 19 days to produce new skin cells. This layer is firmly attached to the
dermis and is the primary site of cellular division.
2. Stratum Spinosum:
○ Appearance: "Spiny" in appearance due to protruding cell processes that join adjacent cells.
○ Structure: Composed of 8 to 10 layers of keratinocytes (cells that produce keratin).
○ Function: The keratinocytes in this layer are involved in the production of keratin, a protein that provides strength and protection to
the skin.
3. Stratum Granulosum:
○ Appearance: Grainy, due to further changes in the keratinocytes as they are pushed upward from the stratum spinosum.
○ Structure: Contains keratinocytes that produce large amounts of keratin and lipid-rich granules.
○ Function: The keratinocytes in this layer begin to lose their nuclei and become more flattened as they prepare for the next stage in
the skin's natural shedding process.
4. Stratum Lucidum:
○ Appearance: Smooth and translucent.
○ Location: Found only in the thick skin of the palms, soles, and digits (fingertips and toes).
○ Structure: This layer appears as a thin, clear layer that provides an additional barrier to abrasion and helps to protect the underlying
tissue.
5. Stratum Corneum:
○ Appearance: The outermost layer of the epidermis, composed of 20 to 30 layers of dead, flattened squamous cells.
○ Structure: These cells are filled with keratin and are joined by desmosomes (cell junctions). The layer is coated with a lipid-rich
substance, which acts as a waterproof barrier.
○ Function: This layer forms the primary protective barrier against environmental damage, pathogens, and dehydration. It accounts
for about 75% of the epidermal thickness.

Common Conditions of Stratum Corneum:

1. Dandruff: Excessive shedding of corneum cells from the scalp.
2. Callus: Thickened skin from repeated friction.
3. Corn: Cone-shaped thickening over bony areas, typically on toes.
Keratinization Process:
● New cells form in the basal layers, move up, and accumulate keratin.
● As cells rise, they flatten and die, forming the stratum corneum, which acts as a protective barrier.
● It takes 40-56 days for cells to reach the surface and slough off.
ANAPHY LEC MODULE 4 ( INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM)

Dermis Overview:
● Structure: The dermis is the second major skin layer beneath the epidermis, composed of dense collagenous connective tissue. It
contains:
○ Fibroblasts (produce collagen)
○ Adipocytes (fat cells)
○ Macrophages (immune cells)
○ Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, and glands
○ Lymphatic vessels
● Function:
○ Nutrient Supply & Waste Removal: It delivers nutrients and removes waste for the overlying epidermis.
○ Temperature Regulation: Helps control body temperature through blood flow regulation.
Dermis Features:
● Collagen & Elastic Fibers: These fibers give the dermis strength and elasticity, helping the skin stretch and return to shape.
● Cleavage (Tension) Lines: These are patterns of collagen fiber orientation, where the skin is less prone to stretching. They are important in
scarring as cuts along these lines tend to heal better.
● Stretch Marks: These occur when the skin is overstretched (e.g., during rapid growth or weight gain), leading to visible lines due to damage
in the dermis.
Layers of the Dermis:
1. Papillary Layer:
○ Structure: Thin connective tissue layer with blood vessels.
○ Dermal Papillae: Projections that extend into the epidermis.
■ Function:
■ Blood vessels in the papillae nourish the overlying epidermis.
■ Ridge Patterns: Dermal papillae create ridges that form fingerprints, footprints, and palm lines. These patterns
improve grip by increasing friction.
■ Genetic Determination: The pattern of ridges is genetically determined.
2. Reticular Layer:
○ Structure: The deeper, thicker layer of the dermis, accounting for 80% of its thickness.
○ Function: Provides strength and elasticity to the skin due to its dense collagen and elastic fiber network.
Factors Affecting Skin Color:
1. Pigments: The main pigment responsible for skin color is melanin.
2. Blood Circulation: The amount of blood flow through the skin can affect skin color, giving a reddish or bluish hue.
3. Thickness of Stratum Corneum: Thicker skin layers can appear darker.
4. Genetics: Genetics play a key role in determining skin color.
Melanin and Melanocytes:
● Melanocytes: Specialized cells located in the deep epidermis that produce melanin.
○ Function: Melanocytes protect the skin from ultraviolet (UV) light damage by producing melanin, which absorbs UV radiation.
○ Race Variation: All humans have the same number of melanocytes, but those with darker skin produce more and darker melanin.
● Melanosomes: Membrane-bound vesicles containing melanin that transport melanin to surrounding skin cells (keratinocytes).
● Melanin Types:
○ Melanin pigments can be brown to black, or yellowish to reddish in color.
○ Skin Color Variations: Differences in skin color across races are determined by the amount, type, and distribution of melanin in the
skin.

Determinants of Melanin Production:

1. Genetic Factors:
○ Genetic makeup determines the amount and type of melanin produced in different races.
○ Albinism: A genetic condition causing a deficiency or complete absence of melanin, resulting in fair skin, white hair, and
unpigmented eyes.
2. Exposure to UV Light:
○ UV light stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin as a protective mechanism, leading to a suntan.
○ UV Effects: Prolonged exposure can damage elastic fibers, making the skin leathery, and can alter DNA in cells, increasing the risk
of skin cancer.
○ Sunburn: An inflammatory response of the skin to UV damage.
3. Hormonal Influence:
○ Certain hormones, such as estrogen and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), increase melanin production, especially during
pregnancy.
Areas with More vs. Less Melanin:
● Areas with More Melanin:
○ Freckles
○ Moles
○ Genital areas
○ Areola & nipples
● Areas with Less Melanin:
○ Palms of hands
○ Soles of feet
○ Lips
Melanin Transfer to Epithelial Cells:
● Melanin is produced by melanocytes and transferred to the keratinocytes of the epidermis, providing pigmentation and protection from UV
light.
ANAPHY LEC MODULE 4 ( INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM)
Subcutaneous Tissue / Hypodermis:
● Location & Structure:
○ Found beneath the dermis, attaching the skin to underlying structures like bone and muscle.
○ Made of loose connective tissue, including adipose tissue (fat).
○ Contains about half of the body’s stored lipids.
● Functions:
○ Padding & Insulation: Provides cushioning and helps maintain body temperature.
○ Sexual Dimorphism: The amount and distribution of fat vary between men and women, contributing to differences in body
appearance.
○ Body Fat Estimation: The thickness of the subcutaneous tissue can be used to estimate total body fat.
● Body Fat Percentage:
○ Females: 21%-30% body fat is considered normal.
○ Males: 13%-25% body fat is considered normal.

Accessory Skin Structures:

The accessory structures of the skin include hair, glands, and nails.
Hair:
● Locations: Found everywhere on the skin except the palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the distal segments of fingers and
toes.
Components of Hair:
● Hair Shaft: The visible part of the hair, composed of keratinized cells.
● Hair Root: The portion of the hair below the skin's surface.
● Hair Bulb: The base of the hair root, where hair is produced.
● Hair Follicle: An epidermal invagination that extends deep into the dermis, containing cells that determine hair shape and texture.
● Hair Cortex: The hard outer layer of the hair, surrounded by the cuticle, which holds the hair in place.
● Hair Medulla: The softer, inner center of the hair.
● Hair Papilla: A projection of the dermis into the hair bulb containing blood vessels that nourish the hair.
● Arrector Pili: Smooth muscle attached to hair follicles; its contraction causes hair to stand up, forming "goose bumps."
Cycle of Hair Production:
1. Growth Stage: New hair is formed in the hair bulb by epithelial cells that divide and undergo keratinization.
2. Resting Stage: Growth stops, and the hair remains in the follicle until it eventually falls out.
Hair Facts:
● Growth Promotion: Testosterone and proper nutrition support hair growth.
● Hair Lifespan:
○ Scalp hair grows for 3 years, then rests for 1 year.
○ Eyelashes grow for 30 days and rest for 105 days.
● Hair Loss: Typically, 90 scalp hairs are lost daily.
● Hair Color: Determined by the amount and type of melanin. Grey hair results from the loss or fading of melanin.
● Male Pattern Baldness: Caused by the loss of hair follicles.
Glands:
1. Sebaceous Glands:
● Structure: Simple, branched acinar glands, often connected to hair follicles by ducts.
● Function: Secrete sebum, an oily substance released via holocrine secretion. Sebum lubricates the hair and skin, preventing dryness.
2. Sweat Glands: Two Types:
● Eccrine Sweat Glands:
○ Secretion: Sweat produced via merocrine secretion, composed mainly of water and salts.
○ Location: Found all over the body, especially in the palms and soles.
○ Function: Help with thermoregulation by releasing sweat through sweat pores.
● Apocrine Sweat Glands:
○ Secretion: Produce a thicker secretion, rich in organic substances, primarily through merocrine secretion (some by holocrine
secretion).
○ Location: Found in the armpits and genital regions.
○ Function: Become active during puberty and contribute to body odor when their secretions are broken down by bacteria.
Nail Structure:
● Nail Body: Visible part of the nail.
● Nail Root: Part of the nail covered by skin.
● Cuticle (Eponychium): Stratum corneum that extends onto the nail body.
● Nail Matrix: Area of epithelial cells (including stratum basale) that produce most of the nail; located beneath the nail root.
● Nail Bed: Epithelial layer (including stratum basale) under the nail, attaching it to the finger.
● Lunula: Whitish crescent at the base of the nail, visible through the nail body, representing part of the nail matrix.
Nail Growth:
● Process: Nails grow continuously due to the production of epithelial cells in the nail matrix, unlike hair, which has a resting phase.
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid:
● Sandpaper Texture (Skin): Indicates vitamin A deficiency causing excess keratin production.
● Spoon-Shaped Nails: Seen in iron-deficiency anemia, where nails become flat or concave due to lack of iron.
Variations in Skin Color:
1. Redness/Blushing:
○ Caused by increased blood flow.
○ Associated with fever, hypertension, inflammation, and allergies.
○ Example: Scarlet fever, a bacterial infection causing a reddish rash.
2. Pallor/Paliness:
○ Caused by decreased blood flow.
○ Associated with anemia, low blood pressure, and shock.
3. Cyanosis:
○ Bluish skin color from low blood oxygen.
○ Associated with impaired circulation or respiratory issues.
4. Jaundice:
○ Yellowish discoloration due to liver dysfunction or excessive carotene intake.
○ Carotene: Yellow pigment from foods like squash and carrots, which accumulates in the skin and adipose tissue.
5. Bronzing:
○ Darkened skin pigmentation from excess adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
○ Common in Addison's disease.
6. Bruising:
○ Blue to purple discoloration caused by broken blood vessels.
○ Associated with trauma and blood disorders.
ANAPHY LEC MODULE 4 ( INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM)
Burns: Classification and Treatment
Classification of Burns:
1. Partial-Thickness Burns (Epidermis and part of dermis):
○ First-Degree Burn:
■ Affects only the epidermis.
■ Symptoms: Redness, slight swelling, pain.
■ Heals in 2–3 days to a week with no scarring.
■ Common causes: Sunburn or brief exposure to heat/cold.
○ Second-Degree Burn:
■ Damages both the epidermis and dermis.
■ Symptoms: Redness, pain, swelling, blisters.
■ Minimal dermal damage: Heals in about 2 weeks with no scarring.
■ Deep dermal damage: Heals in several months, may result in scarring.
2. Full-Thickness Burn (Third-Degree Burn):
○ Completely destroys epidermis and dermis.
○ Usually painless due to destroyed sensory receptors.
○ Skin may appear white, tan, brown, black, or deep cherry red.
○ Healing occurs from the edges; skin grafts may be necessary.
Burn Treatments:
● Split Skin Graft: Removal of epidermis and part of dermis from another area to cover the burn.
● Debridement: Removal of dead tissue to prevent infection.
Common Skin Diseases and Disorders:
1. Ringworm
2. Eczema & Dermatitis
3. Psoriasis
4. Impetigo
5. Decubitus Ulcers (Bedsores)
6. Rubeola (Measles)
7. Rubella (German Measles)
8. Chickenpox
9. Shingles
10. Cold Sores (Fever Blisters)
11. Genital Herpes
12. Acne
Skin Cancer:
● Most common type of cancer.
● Caused primarily by UV light exposure.
● Risk Factors: Fair skin, older age (50+), sun exposure.
Types of Skin Cancer:
1. Basal Cell Carcinoma:
○ Most frequent skin cancer, affecting cells in the stratum basale.
○ Open wound formation, treated by surgery.
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma:
○ Develops from cells just above the stratum basale.
○ If untreated, may metastasize and lead to death.
3. Malignant Melanoma:
○ Arises from melanocytes (often in a mole).
○ Appears as flat lesions or pigmented nodules.
○ Metastasis is common and often fatal.
UV Radiation and Skin Cancer:
● UVA rays: Cause tanning and are linked to malignant melanoma.
● UVB rays: Cause burning and are associated with basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas.
Effects of Aging on the Skin:
● Decreased blood flow and thinner skin lead to wrinkles and sagging.
● Reduced sweat and sebaceous gland activity impairs thermoregulation.
● Fewer melanocytes, but age spots may appear.
● Gray or white hair becomes noticeable.