PARTS OF THE RESEARCH

CHAPTER I: The Problem and its Background

A. The Introduction

The statement in the introduction introduces the study and signifies its importance to

create an interest and intense desire on the reader to know more about the

investigation. This is the preliminary part of the problem leading to its main part and

objectives. It may include legal or other bases related to or for conducting the study.

Having a hard time learning how to write a research paper introduction? Follow these

four steps:

1. Draw readers in.

2. Zoom in on your topic and its importance.

3. Explain how you’ll add new knowledge.

4. Tell readers what they’ll find in your paper.

The following introduction is taken from a research paper exploring the potential uses

of the peach palm. We’ve highlighted each step we mentioned above.

B. Statement of the Problem

This is the focus of the study and all questions should be categorically stated and

answered.

Writing the Statement of the Problem:

1. The problem should be stated both in general and specific terms. The general

statement of the problem is a reiteration of the title of the study.

2. The problem is stated in an interrogatory form. It must ask a question and sub-

problems must follow the main problem which are the key issues for investigations in

the research.

3. The statement begins with a phrase like: The purpose of the study...; The study aims

to….The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words in research). Ex.

Examine, analyze, determine, assess, investigate, evaluate, find out etc.

Specific questions should be stated using the following guide question words: How,

Will, What, Is there?

Examples:

Quantitative

The main purpose of this study is to investigate a number of people in Barangay Daga

Panay, Capiz who use herbal medicines in treating their illnesses. Furthermore, it aimed

to find out the efficacy of herbal medicine as perceived by the respondents.

Specifically, this study seek to answer the following questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

a. Age

b. Sex
c. Family income

2. What is the level of efficacy of herbal medicines as perceived by the respondents

when they group according to:

A. Age

B. Sex

C. Family income

3. Is there a significant difference on the level of efficacy of herbal medicines as

perceived by the respondents when they group according to:

a. Age

b. Sex

c. Family income

Qualitative

The primary purpose of this study is to determine Perception of Grade 12 Students of

Saint Anthony College of Roxas City, Inc. in the research subject.

Specifically, this study aims to answer the following questions:

1. How do you view research as a subject and as a Senior High School requirement?

2. What is the importance of research subject in the Senior High School?

3. How will research transform or change your mind set on how you view things?

C. Hypothesis/es

It is a guess at the solution to a problem or the status of the situation. It is a

proposition about the solution to a problem or the relationship of two or more

variables. It is a tentative formulation or explanations about the expected

outcomes of the study. It is presented in the null form. Hypothesis is understood

as:

 A statement of what one expects to find; a statement to be proven;

 An initial answer to the research questions;

 An expected relationship between variables;

 An explanation of the phenomenon;

 A common sense statement;

 A statement of patterns of behavior

Types or Forms of Hypothesis

1. Null Hypothesis ( H 0)- sometimes described as the hypothesis of no difference or no

relationship; the independent variable does not affect the dependent variable

Example:

There is no significant difference on the level of efficacy of herbal medicines as

perceived by the respondents when they group according to age, sex, and family

income.

2. Alternative Hypothesis ( H 1)- this says "There is a difference"; the independent

variable affects the dependent variables.

Example:

There is a significant difference on the level of efficacy of herbal medicines as

perceived by the respondents when they group according to age, sex, and family

income.

D. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The types of research frameworks are classified as the theoretical and conceptual

frameworks. A theoretical framework is commonly used for studies that anchor on

time tested theories that relate the findings of the investigation to the underpinning

relevant theory of knowledge. At the same time, a conceptual framework refers to the

actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support the study. It is
primarily a conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans to study.

Similarities of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework. The following are the similar

characteristics of Theoretical and Conceptual Framework:

1. Provide an overall view of the research study;

2. Anchor a theory that supports the study;

3. Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives;

4. Help justify assumptions/hypothesis;

5. Aid in choosing appropriate methodology;

6. Help in gathering and interpreting data;

7. Guide in identifying possible threats to validity.

Before creating your conceptual framework, you have to understand first the different

variables of your study.

1. The independent variable is the “presumed cause” of the research problem. It is

the reason for any “change” or difference in a dependent variable. It can be

purposely manipulated by the researcher, depending on the focus of the study. It

maybe can cause, influence, or affect the result or outcome of the study. It is also

called as the experimental, treatment, antecedent, or predictor variable. Moreover,

it refers to the variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are

trying to measure.

2. The dependent variable is the “presumed effect” of the research problem. It is

usually the problem itself or the element that is being questioned. This variable is

altered as a result of experimental manipulation of the independent variable or

variables. It is also called as the criterion, effect, response, or outcome variable

which captures the interest of the researcher and requires analysis, interpretation,

and implication of the findings of the study. The variable that depends on other

factors that are measured and are affected or influenced by the independent

variable.

3. The moderating variable is an independent variable which influences the direction

and the strength of the connection between independent and dependent variables.

The independent variable interacts with the moderator variable, which makes the

relationship of the independent and dependent variable stronger or weaker. It

alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable base on

its value. The moderator thus influences the effective component of the cause-

effect relationship between the two variables. This is also called as the interaction

effect.

4. Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an element that exists between the

independent to the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating) variable is an

integral part of the cause-effect relationship and helps us to understand the effects

of the independent variable on the dependent variable. It is a variable that

describes the effect and influence of the relationship between the variables and

what is controlling that relationship. This is also called as correlated or mediator

variables.

5. The control variable is a special type of independent variable that can influence

the dependent variable. It takes an active role in quantitative studies. Statistical

procedures are used to control this variable. It is useful to integrate the control

variables into your research study, but it is not the main focus.
Conceptual Framework

The explanation of the scope and range of a concept or construct can be done

even without a theory or, in some cases, with a combination of two or more theories

which lead to a researcher's formulated framework. This is called a conceptual

framework. It is largely based on theories or parts of theory combined with other parts of

another theory, or on the intellectual synthesis of the various readings of the researcher.

It guides the researcher by giving clear directions to the research.

The conceptual framework is drawn from the review of related literature and studies. It

should clarify the relationship between and among major variables of the study. It should

be illustrated further by drawing a conceptual paradigm.

Paradigm

-a pattern, example, or model

-is the mental window through which the researcher views the problem

-a research perspective or view that holds about what research goals and methods

should be a perspective or frame of reference for viewing the problem, consisting of

concepts and assumptions

Theoretical Framework

The word "theory" is derived from the Greek word, theoria, which means "vision." A

theory is a conceptual idea that is used to describe, explain, predict, or understand a

certain phenomenon. It defines non-observable constructs that are inferred from

observable facts and events that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon

under study. A theory describes the relationship/s among variables for purposes of

explaining a current state or predicting future events. A theory, therefore, is primarily

concerned with determining cause-effect relationships. Thus, a good theory expands

vision and guides thinking, professional practice, and research. In the formulation of a

theoretical framework, relevant theories must be provided. The researcher cites and

discusses related theories that serve as the foundation of the variables and their

relationships to make the study more scientific and understandable especially to the

readers. The researcher mentions theories, including the names of the authors, titles of

their theories, theoretical principles, and their explanations. When this requirement has

been satisfied, the concluding portion is the relationship of the used, established theory
to the present study. The research should identify the important concepts that are

utilized in the research work for better understanding and insight of the theories,

models, and paradigms related to problem and hypothesis. It can also be modified or

reconstructed into general framework containing the variables and relationships for the

purpose of the research to be undertaken. It is necessary to mention the theory that will

be utilized by giving the assumptions, defining key terms and concepts, identifying

variables, and stating the relationship of the hypothesized variables.

Example:

Research Title: Self-paced Remedial Learning Package in Biology for

Elementary Pupils: Predictive Resource Material (Jorda, 2015)

This study is anchored on the different learning theories and strategies on how

students learn. One of which is the Programmed Learning or Programmed instruction

Method of education that behaviorist Burrhus Frederic Skinner proposed in 1958 to

"manage human learning under controlled conditions."

Skinner's operant conditioning hinges on the fact that learning best occurs when a

reward is provided after an organism makes the desired response (operant). When a

response occurs and is reinforced, the probability that it will occur again in the presence

of similar stimuli is increased Learning, therefore, occurs when behavioral change has

occurred.

In pursuing the experiment, Skinner developed units of learning called

"contingencies of reinforcement." The contingency of reinforcement is a sequence within

which a response (behavior) is followed by a reinforcing stimuli. Skinner came up with

the principle of learning that behaviors are naturally emitted without eliciting stimuli. The

responses are called operants because their emission may be instrumental to reinforcing
or punishing consequences. The operant is conditioned to occur more frequently, less

frequently, or not at all-depending upon whether it is reinforced, punished, or ignored.

Reinforcement is the key in Skinner's stimuli response theory. A reinforcer is

anything that strengthens the desired response, It could be verbal praise, a good grade,

or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative

reinforcers -any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is

withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli-punishment-which results in reduced

responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g.,

interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.

E. Significance of the Study

Since research is a time-consuming but worthwhile undertaking, its significance

must be clarified-i.e., how important is the problem being investigated? Is it a vital

question that needs an answer or a solution?

When we speak of the significance of the study, we are identifying the

beneficiaries and the benefits it will give when the problem is solved. The beneficiaries

include individuals like students, pupils, teachers, doctors, principals, parents, and

others; the government; non-governmental organizations; and even private institutions.

It is also important to note that the benefits these entities will receive from the research

vary from personal benefits to multi-faceted benefits.

Significance of the Study Example (David, 2014)

This study will be greatly important to the following:

Pupils. As the center of educational system, pupils will benefit from this study if

their teachers will enhance their work performance by improving their financial

literacy. Pupils will surely acquire the expected competencies they need to learn
from financially literate teachers. This can also provide pupils insights on how to

improve their knowledge and skills in handling their finances as exemplified by

their financially literate teachers.

Teachers. This will provide the springboard for teachers to reflect on their

knowledge, attitudes and behavior regarding financial matters. Eventually they will

become masters of their own financial games that will make them productive and

financially secured individuals. In effect, better work performance will be

demostrated by teachers for the betterment of their learners.

School Administrators. This will provide school administration ideas on the

importance of financial literacy to the work performance of teachers. It will serve

as a basis for them to develop programs that will enhance the financial knowledge,

attitude, and behavior of teachers. In addition, this will help them decide to include

financial education as part of the basic education curriculum. As Lusardi et al.

(2009) said, people should be educated about financial matters as early as

possible in their lives. Financial education should start from the primary school and

should be an integral part of good governance of financial institutions to promote

accountability and responsibility.

Parents. This will help them realize the importance of financial education in

human life. This will lead them to educate themselves financially for their own

financial well being. This will also motivate them to teach their children how to

budget, spend wisely, and save money as early as possible

The sequence of the beneficiaries of the research starts from the most

benefited to the least benefited. The benefits must be specific and arranged

according to the degree of significance.

F. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The scope presents the inclusions of the study, while delimitations present what are not

covered in the study or cannot be controlled for acceptable reasons. In writing the scope

and delimitations, discuss the scope and the limits or things not included in the research.

Include also a discussion on the scope and limit of the research instrument or the

product of the research.

Example:

This study was conducted to test the effectiveness of the Project-Based Learning

strategy in teaching English for Academic and Professional Purposes. It dwelled on the

following topics: academic writing, particularly reaction, concept, and position papers

among the Grade 12 students of Siena College of Taytay. The study was only limited to

academic writing-both the concepts and actual application. Moreover, this study was

limited only to the outputs of the two classes in the English for Academic and

Professional Purposes of the Grade 12 level. Each class had 40 respondents. The study

was conducted during the first semester of academic year 2018-2019.

The pretests and posttests were administered to test the effectiveness of the

strategy. The tests were a combination of knowledge and skills as well as actual

academic writing tests. All outputs done during the teaching-learning process were

evaluated through the use of researcher-made analytic rubric. The purpose of using a

rubric was to avoid biases. The rubric was objective in nature; thus, the researcher and

two other evaluators checked the Content, Organization, Vocabulary, Language Use, and

Mechanics in the papers.

G. Definition of Terms
The important terms used in the study must be defined clearly. Some of these

terms appear in the thesis title, statement of the problem, theoretical paradigm, and in

the scope and delimitation of the study. Certain terms may refer to the respondents,

subjects, and the variables and sub- variables. Defining the different terms may be done

conceptually or operationally. When a term is defined using books and dictionaries then

it is defined conceptually. On the other hand, when the definition of the term is based

on how it is used in the study, it is defined operationally. A combination of the two

methods is often helpful.

Terms that are defined must be arranged alphabetically. Moreover, before defining

the enumerated or listed terms there must be an opening sentence or an introductory

paragraph.

Examples:

Eating disorders. A group of behaviors fueled by unresolved emotional conflicts,

resulting in altered food consumption (Grodner, 2005). As used in this study, it

pertains to the kind of food, frequency of eating, and amount of intake or

consumption.

Nosocomial infection. It is a hospital-acquired infection (Smith, 2005. In this

study, the infection acquired in the hospitals are confined in the medical and

pediatric wards, and operating rooms.

Personality. It refers to the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a

person as shown in his/her manners such as walking, talking, dressing, acting,

attitudes, interest, and ways of reacting to other people, which are manifestations

of his/her behavior thoughts, and emotions.

Primigravida. A woman in her first pregnancy (Pilliteri, 2004). Operationally, it

pertains to a mother who has given birth at the Bataan General Hospital in the first

quarter of 2009.

CHAPTER II: Review of Related Literature and Studies

A literature review is an academic text that provides an overview of a particular

topic. It helps identify what is known and not known about a certain subject of study. It
involves the use of higher-order thinking skills, such as the review, evaluation, and

synthesis of several scholarly works. These scholarly works include journal articles,

professional books, online sources, and specialized references.

A literature review is an integral part of any research paper and serves several

functions. First, it establishes the relevance of the study. Second, it further helps in

establishing the research gap that the study intends to fill. Third, a literature review

provides important information about your topic and the concepts related to it. Fourth,

it presents the contradictions between and among previous literature. Fifth, it justifies

your research methodology, as its effectiveness may be determined by a survey of

previous studies relevant to your research.

RELATED LITERATURE

These resource materials include books, encyclopedias, published journals,

newspapers, and magazines, among other sources. Academic journals and scholarly

books are more credible, while more general references are ranked lower in the

hierarchy of sources.

The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, clarifies the

different variables being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central

concepts of the research. As the literature is gathered, the different major variables, as

well as the sub-variables, are clarified and the delimitation of the study is established.

The indicators for each variable are identified and objectively established.

The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help

specify which particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators,

on the other hand, are specific information that describes the sub-variables.

Examples:
a. Major variable: Study habits

b. Sub-variables: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying

c. Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying; using

mnemonics in memorizing the terms; and studying in one's ideal environment

The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called

the literature review for research papers) are crucial in the review process. A review

article summarizes all the related literature and their relation to the study. Readers who

are not knowledgeable on the topic are provided with a basic understanding of the

research before the new findings are presented.

The American Psychological Association (2001) also provides the following definition for

a review article:

Review articles, including meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of materials

previously published by organizing, Integrating, and evaluating such materials, the

author of a review article considers the progress of current research towards clarifying a

problem. In a sense, a review article is a "tutorial" in which the author defines and

clarifies the problem, summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of

the state of current research, identifies relations, contradictions, gaps and

inconsistencies in the literature, and suggests the next step in solving the problem.

The variables used in the study influence the selection of related literature. The

researcher can look into the title, research problem, scope and delimitation, and

framework of a particular study or resource material to get an idea of its relevance to his

or her own research, for these are the parts where the variables are consistently

mentioned.
The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of literature

depends upon the researcher's judgment. If he or she believes that the important

concepts and variables have been adequately explained and that enough indicators have

been established, then the review of related literature is considered sufficient.

It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign

and local literature. It is highly recommended that the researcher use the different

variables and sub variables being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very

beneficial to the researcher and to future investigators studying similar problems as

there is a clear and logical organization of the variables under investigation. With this

system, the researcher can systematically define the important concepts and variables

as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other information gathered from the

different sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically, the

construction of the research instrument (eg., questionnaire) will be easier since the

indicators are presented logically and sequentially.

It is best to include works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed journals journals

as they are the most reliable and credible in the hierarchy of sources. Expert readers or

peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the written

works of the researchers to determine if they meet the standards of a good reference

material, which often include reliability and timeliness. Refereed journals are published

nationally and internationally.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper,

Fink (2009) defines a literature review or review of literature as a presentation of the

analysis, patterns, and critiques of individual sources or the body of literature as a whole.
Its purpose is to offer a wide review of refereed scholarly articles, and other sources like

journals, theses and dissertation.

It is important to note that in reviewing literature, both the understanding and

synthesis of materials matter. Thus, the write-up expressed in one's own words is the

measure of the researchers' synthesis of the reviewed materials.

Essential Elements of a Literature Review

The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the literatures related to the

study. It does not only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to

the research. In doing so, several elements should be observed in writing this section:

1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered

2. Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and

those that offer other ideas

3. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature

4. Conclusion and the best arguments

Format of a Literature Review

In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different

related literature. However, as stated earlier, the literature review is not merely a

restatement of facts. Thus, the organization of thought should be duly considered when

writing the review.

The general format of a literature review is as follows:

1. The Introduction
 The general problem and the variables should be defined.

 Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or

the variables such as the theory, methodology, evidences, conclusions, or even

gaps.

 The criteria (credibility of source and relevance to the variables, among others) in

selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources are

pertinent and should be included, and which are irrelevant and should be removed.

2. The Body

 Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objective, and the like should

be included.

 Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary

consideration

must be given to the result of the studies that includes the variables. In choosing the

literature, the following should be considered:

i. Credibility. This refers to the author's credentials and the empirical basis of the

article or literature.

ii. Objectivity. This refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited.

iii. Persuasiveness. This refers to the degree of credibility of the data.

iv. Value. This refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify

variables.

3. The Conclusion

 Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.

 Current developments and new information should be evaluated.

 The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central

theme or problem.

Example:

The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals

(Cristobal, 2003)

Intrapersonal competency

It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates, colleagues, superiors, and

representatives of other organizations. In the US, an ASCR- sponsored research project

yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisors, gleaned from the literature of the past

15 years and vented by experts. These are community staff development, instructional

program, planning and change, motivating and organizing, observation and

conferencing, curriculum, problem-solving and decision-making, service to teachers,

personal development, community relation, and research and program evaluation.

Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12

dimensions. There was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a

key to a supervisor's effectiveness is the "love and like of people." A supervisor should

be willing to give other people credit for success and should be more of a "cheerleader"

than a "scorekeeper."

Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person oriented activity. They

require knowledge and skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one of

the respondents in his study, "You always have to remember that people are important."

Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal

intelligence. According to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The
more one can bring into his own consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to

the outer world of experience. It helps an individual understand his desires and goals and

emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-developed intrapersonal

competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches and outlets

to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self, is motivated to

identify and pursue goals; establishes and lives by an ethical value system; works

independently, is curious about the big questions in life: meanings, roles, and purposes;

manages ongoing learning and personal growth; attempts to seek out and understand

inner experience, gains insights into the complexities for self and human conditions;

strives for self actualities, and empowers others.

Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines

intrapersonal competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of

knowing who he is, what he can do, what he wants, how to act on things, which to avoid,

and which things he can have. He seeks to know what he cannot do and tends to know

where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his own feelings and moods,

pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization by observing

and listening, and use meta-cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase (2000), termed

intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him, personal mastery

takes many different forms depending on the person's background and life experiences.

The focus may be on overcoming one's limitations such as procrastination or a particular

learning disability. Others may struggle with addiction or dependency. Stress may also

fall under personal mastery, as does the actual day-to-day implementation of that

idealistic time management program you would like to adopt. An often overlooked

dimension of personal mastery is the development of an ethical stance on all aspects of

the organizational life.

RELATED STUDIES

Related studies refer to past studies published either in the form of journal articles,

theses, or

dissertations that are related to the present study. Studies are considered related to one

another if they have the following similarities:

1. They use the same major variables, sub variables, concepts, or construct

2. They have the same subject

The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used

the same variables as his or her study, the two studies may vary in the delimitation in

terms of the sub-variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose.

The review of related studies is an essential part of the review of literature. It

provides an insight into the methods through which validity of the results is to be

established. It also serves as the basis of the interpretation of results by allowing the

researcher to compare and contrast his or her findings with those of the past studies.

The results of a study are verified by similar findings or negated by different findings

from other researchers.

In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:

1. The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study

2. The title

3. The salient findings, which are the most important "ingredients" to include since the

discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them.

Related Studies Example:

The intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School Managers:

Basis for the Formulation of the Human Relation Intervention Program

(Cristobal, 2003)

As this study is focused on the effectiveness of managers, a study conducted by

Catacutan (1992) is related. Its objective is to analyze the effectiveness of middle-

level managers in six selected private elementary schools in Metro Manila where she

analyzed 42 subject coordinators, 25 nead teachers, 6 principals, and 275 teachers.

The study utilized variables like management skilis focusing on human relation and

non- manipulative variables like educational attainmerit, years of experience as

managers, and management trainings, as well as the kind of respondents. She found

out the following:

42 years old, female, married, has a doctorate degree in Education, has earned MA

units, has received no honors, has administrative experience of 15 years, has

attended more than 40 seminars, and has a "very satisfactory" performance rating

Excellent in the performance of the four management skills and the five leadership

styles. The correlation of the effectiveness of middle-level managers are the teachers'

rating on management skills, schools where they graduated, age, honors, and awards

received. The best predictors of the middle-level managers are the school where they

graduated from, housing, and honors and awards received.

Becoming (1993) determined the teacher's relating and affective behaviors among

mentors with or without SEDP training and their personality variables among faculty

members of five private schools in Pablo City. She arrived at the following

conclusions:
Trainings such as SEDP have minimal effects on both relating and affective

behaviors among teachers. Some personality variables relate to relating behaviors of

teachers. However, such correlations are moderately small. Some personality

variables relate in varying degrees with affective behaviors of teachers. The

correlation is negligible to low. This study is related to the present because of some

personality variables of mentors that are also variables under the study and the

effects of training in their personality.

Buenafe (1983) conducted a study that was designed to determine the relationship

between the job performance of principals and teachers, and the principals'

managerial attitudes, needs, personality traits, and mental ability among 50 principals

and 388 teachers in three dioceses in Abra, ilocos Sur, and Ilocos Norte. She found out

that there was significant relationship existed among variables measured. Teacher's

performance correlated meaningfully to the principal's attitudes, personality, and

mental ability. There was also a positively marked relationship between the teacher's

and principal's performance. Some variables on personality and on performance of

both the teachers and principals and the respondents are similar with the present

study. It differs on needs and mental ability since these are not taken variables of the

present research.

Another research on personality was conducted by dela Cruz (1996) that aimed to

assess the personality traits and leadership effectiveness skills of the public

elementary school principals in the Division of Laguna. Her respondents were 34

public elementary school principals, 68 teachers, 13 education supervisors, and g

districts. Her findings were as follows:

The public elementary schools principals possessed the personality traits in terms

of ability, occupation achievement, decisiveness, self-actualization, and initiative.

Majority of the principals obtained scores above the aver average and in the

borderline.

There was a significant difference in the personality traits of public elementary

principals. The highly favorable and evident leadership effectiveness should reveal

that a public elementary school principal possessed technical, human relations, and

conceptual skills.

The leadership effectiveness skills in terms of technical and human relation skills

differed significantly while leadership effectiveness skills in terms of conceptual skills

were similar as prescribed of the principal themselves, peers, teachers, and education

experience.

Among the demographic variables, only years of teaching experience correlated

significantly with personality traits in terms of decisiveness. The present study differs

for it will focus on high school principals and not utilize the response of supervisors,

but the study of dela Cruz is mostly related in most aspects.

Del Rio (1993) conducted a study about the influence of management

competencies of school principals in the performance of pupils. Her study aimed to

determine the perceived influence of management competencies of the grade school

principals on teachers' and pupils' performance among the elementary schools in San

Pablo City. She had the following results: that the grade school principals perceived

themselves as "very satisfactory" in their management competencies; that the

teachers with "very satisfactory" performance tended to rate the principals higher

than those teachers with outstanding performance, that the Grade Vi pupils'

perceptions of the teaching performance of their teachers indicated to some extent

the perceived influence of the management competencies of the grade school

principals; and that the scholastic performance or ability is not a factor in the
perception of teaching performance among the pupils. Del Rio's study is similar to the

present study for it assessed the relationship of the management competencies of

principals to the performance of teachers and pupils. Only she conducted it in

elementary schools.

Also, a study was conducted by Fontenilla (1996) who identified the correlates of

professionalism and competencies among tertiary school middle-level managers of

three colleges in Nueva Viscaya. Findings of his study revealed that the correlates of

competencies, which came out very high, are organizational skills, work values and

attitudes, vision, external services, and community relations.

Cortes (1992) conducted a study in the competencies of presidents of state

colleges and universities in the Philippines. Some of her findings were as follows:

In terms of decision-making, the presidents were rated most effective as perceived

by themselves.

The correlates of competencies of presidents of state colleges and universities are

education, scholarships, experience, travel, training fellowships, and study grants.

The factors that affect performance of these presidents are professional development,

professional maturity, and recognition.

Years of experience, self-concept, and personality characteristics are some of the

variables studied by Brawner (1980). These are variables that are also considered in

the present study. Her study found out that the non-promoted principals had the

highest profile on four aspects of promotion: policies, pressures, smooth interpersonal

relations, and personality factors.

Ramos (1986) gave the five most important skills/competencies, listed in the order

of priority, which are expected of teachers generally at all levels: fluency and

proficiency in the language of instruction; skills in the use of teaching methods

appropriate for the class activities of the day, mastery of the subject/discipline he

teaches; skills in maintaining order and discipline in class; skills in evaluating the

achievements.

SYNTHESIS

This refers to the mixture of two or more elements of references to create a new

whole. In this type, the elements are those findings of the literature you collected

while the new whole refers to the conclusion drawn from your findings.

To reiterate, the purpose of synthesis to conclude the findings in the literature to

know how the literature helps you address the issues that you would like to solve. The

process usually involves the collection of literature pertinent to your research

questions; followed by a review of literature and taking of notes (including the

description, summary, analysis, and identification of key concepts); in making a

synthesis, you can do the following: compare contrast, critically evaluate, interpret so

that you can conclude.

CHAPTER III: Methodology

This chapter of the research process contains a comprehensive description of the

research designs, research locales, samples and the sampling techniques, the subjects,

research instruments, validation of the instruments, data gathering procedures, data

processing methods, and the statistical tools and treatments.

Research Designs

Research designs form the structure and the researcher's method of answering his

questions and conducting studies. This is categorized according to the procedure the

researcher collects and analyzes data and his research purpose. The two basic research

designs based on the way information is collected, synthesized and analyzed are

quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative Research

This is characterized by the use of statistical analysis. The most common quantitative

descriptive research measures research use are the mean (a measure of central

tendency) and the standard deviation (a measure of the variability of the data around

the mean).

Qualitative Research

This is a term used for a range of research strategies that has roots in the research of

the social sciences such as anthropology and sociology. It involves collecting data within

natural settings, and the key data collecting instruments are the researcher themselves.

In a qualitative research, data are verbal and not numerical.

Population Frame and Sampling Technique

The researcher has to explain how the participants/respondents are selected and the

place where they are taken. If the population is too large, then the sampling may be

employed.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Basic Concept

Sampling means choosing the respondents or subjects from a large population to answer

your research questions. The entire population is involved but for your research study,

you choose only a part of the whole.

The word "population" is a technical term in research which means a big group of

people from where you choose the sample or the chosen set of people to represent your

study. Sampling frame, on the other hand, is the list of the members of your study to

which you want to generalize or apply your findings about the sample, and sampling

unit is the term referring to every individual in the population. The sampling, as well as

the research results, is expected to speak about the entire population. Unless this does

not refer to the population, in general, the sample selection procedure has no scientific

value (Lapan et

al., 2012; Emmel,

2013).
Factors Affecting Sample Selection

In choosing your respondents, you do not just listen to the dictates of your mind but also

to other factors such as the following (Tuckman & Engel, 2012; Babbie, 2013, Edward,

2013)

1. Sample Size

How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision on their own

experience and on research studies they have already read. But the best way to guide

you in determining the right sample size is the representativeness of the sample with

respect to the population. See to it that the sample truly represents the entire population

from where the sample came. The representativeness or accuracy of a sample size is

really hard to determine. However, when using the right sampling technique such as a

randomized one, your chances of getting a sample reflecting 95% distribution of the

population or of a sample representing the whole population is highly probable. This

acceptable level of probability of the representativeness of the sample is called

confidence level or 0.05 level. This theory of probability is true only for randomly

selected respondents, not for any non-probability type of sampling.

2. Sampling Technique

Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling and non- probability

sampling. The first one uses a random selection and the second, a purposive or

controlled selection. Probability sampling that gives all population members equal

opportunity to be chosen as people to constitute the sample is a precise way of

sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the

right people to represent the population. Bias is the leading factor in choosing your
respondents. This is one of the causes of sampling errors. The other errors in sampling

are attributed to your procedure in sampling.

3. Heterogeneity of Population

Heterogeneous population is composed of individuals with varied abilities. There is a

wide variation among the people composing the population. If it is a homogeneous

population where lots of uniformity in abilities exist among population members, a

sample of one will do. But for a heterogeneous group, a sampling technique that will

widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all members of the population is

necessary.

4. Statistical Techniques

The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate your methods are

in calculating the numbers used in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a certain

value to each of them. Any error in your use of any statistical method or computing

numbers representing the selected subjects will turn in unfounded results.

Slovin’s Formula:
5. Time and Cost

Choosing samples makes you deal with one big population, with each member of this

large group needing your attention, time, and effort, let alone the amount of money you

will spend for the materials you will need in making the sampling frame. Hence,

considering all these things, your sample selection makes you spend some of your time

deliberating or mulling over several factors that affect or influence your sample

selection.

Sampling Methods

The sampling methods are of two groups (Tuckman, 2012; Emmel, 2013; De Vaus, 2014;

Picardie & Masick, 2014):

1. Probability Sampling

This is a sampling method where you base your selection of respondents on pure

chance. In this case, everybody in the population participates. All are given equal

opportunity or chance to form the sample that is capable of reflecting the characteristics

of the whole population from where such sample was drawn. The following are the

different probability sampling techniques:

a. Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is a technique wherein each member of the population has an

equal chance and probability of being selected. Equipment such as random number

tables or random number calculators can be utilized to perform simple random sampling.

For example:
Let’s say you wanted to select a simple random sample of 50 passengers in a train and

interview them about their age. You randomly pick people based on their seat numbers

and interview them.

b. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling involves selecting sample members from a random starting point

but then choosing sample members from that starting point at fixed and periodic

intervals. Systematic sampling is straightforward compared to simple random sampling

and allows a wide study area to be covered. For example:

The seat numbers of the train are numbered 1-500. You select a random seat number

such as ten as the starting point. Starting from 10, every fifth person (i.e., 10, 15, 20, 25,

and so on) would be included in the sample.

While simpler to conduct than random sampling, this method has drawbacks and can

lead to a biased or unrepresentative sample. In our train example, it would be important

to ensure that no specific pattern is followed for seating, such as providing reservations

in the train based on age or priority members, as this would lead to a distorted or biased

sample.

c. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations or homogeneous

subgroups (strata) based on specific characteristics. It allows for more improved

precision than simple random sampling as it enables the selection of all the subgroups

which may be of interest within a population.

The population is first divided into subgroups, or strata, according to various

characteristics such as age, height, weight, occupation, salary, etc. Then, depending on

the percentage of a stratum within a population, the number of people who need to be

sampled from a particular subgroup can be calculated. The selection of the sample from

a subgroup can then be conducted through random or systematic sampling. For

example:

The train consists of 200 passengers in the age group 1-30 years, 200 passengers in the

age group 31-60 years, and 100 passengers in the age group above 60. The age balance

in the sample can be achieved by sorting the population into three strata based on age

groups. Then, using random sampling, you can select 20 passengers each from the first

two age groups and ten passengers from the third age group. Therefore, you would be

able to obtain a representative sample of 50 passengers, based on the age makeup of

passengers on the train.

d. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling involves dividing a population into subgroups with the same

characteristics as the whole sample. Then, rather than selecting individual people from

the population, the subgroups, or clusters, themselves are randomly selected. For

example, let’s say a researcher divides their population into 20 equal size clusters. They

then may decide to randomly select only ten of those clusters- the members of those

particular clusters are then the Cluster sampling can be convenient for researchers, is

easy to implement, and provides accuracy. Each cluster can contain a large sample that

compensates for the loss of accuracy in information about each individual. However,

there is a chance for error, as clusters might be slightly different from each other and

may not be representative of the whole population. For example:

Ten trains are running on the same route with the same passenger capacity and age

groups. However, you can’t travel on all of the trains to collect the data. So you

randomly select four trains. These four trains act as clusters for your sampling

experiment. In single-stage sampling, you would interview every person on the selected

trains. In double-stage sampling, you would randomly select people on the given trains

to give interviews. In multi-stage sampling, you would shrink your clusters by first

selecting random cars and then selecting individuals in those cars to interview. Only

people who may be selected to be a part of the sample.

Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these are considered by many as more

capable than the non-probability sampling techniques to produce accurate or exact

samples to give pieces of information about the population as a whole.

2. Non-probability sampling methods

Non-probability sampling is a technique in which the sample is selected using a non-

random manner based on the researcher’s subjective judgment. Therefore, each

element of the population does not stand an equal chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling can be classified into four categories:

a. Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling is the most common type of

non-probability sampling. It involves the selection of a sample that can be easily

accessed, located, or contacted by the researcher.

Though it is an easy and inexpensive method of sampling, this method of sampling

may not provide the correct representation of the population and therefore

presents a challenge when generalizing the result to the whole population. For

example:

You want to study the working conditions of the employees in malls. So, you ask

the mall employees near your house to fill a survey on the topic. Though it is a

convenient way of collecting data, it does not represent the employees in all malls.

b. Voluntary response sampling: Voluntary response is similar to convenience

sampling in that it also relies on ease of access. However, in this form of sampling,

the sample comprises people who have voluntarily agreed to participate in the

study instead of the researcher selecting the participants. While it is an easy and

cost-effective method of sampling, the researcher lacks the control of selecting a

sample, resulting in a slight bias. For example:

You send out surveys about working conditions to the employees of all the malls

in your city. Many employees fill out the survey, which helps you collect data

related to the issue. However, there is a chance that the data may be skewed. It

may be that the survey is more likely to be answered by employees who are not

satisfied with their working conditions; therefore, the opinions expressed in the

survey might not reflect the opinions of all employees.

c. Purposive sampling: Also known as judgmental sampling, this method involves

selecting the participants based on the researcher’s knowledge and judgment of

who would be an appropriate participant in the survey. Though this method can

provide in-depth knowledge about a particular issue, this method is vulnerable to

errors that may arise due to the researcher’s judgment, low reliability, and

increased chances of bias. For example:

You want to know about the working conditions of employees in the malls in your

city. You know who has worked there the longest, and so you purposely send your

survey only to the long term employees.

d. Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is used when the potential participants

are rare to find. In this method, the research participants to which you have access

help recruit other participants for the study. For example:

You are looking for female participants who belong to a particular country X. You

have access to only one such participant. She helps you access the other

participants for your research.

The Research Instruments

Instruments are tools used to gather data for a particular research topic. Some of the

common instruments used for quantitative research are tests (performance-based or

paper-and-pencil), questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The last two

instruments are used more often in qualitative research. However, they can also be

employed in quantitative studies as long as the required responses or analyzed data are

numerical in nature.

When using instruments that are prone to subjectivity (e.g., observation, interview,

assessment of performance tasks), you may consider having another coder or evaluator

to help you gather and analyze your data. This is to improve the validity and reliability of

data. Then, compute for the inter-coder or inter-rater agreement. Inter-coder or inter-

rater agreement refers to the level of concurrence between the scores given by two or

more raters or coders.

Typically, you consider a number of aspects in describing your instruments. These

include the following:

1. The actual instrument used

2. The purpose of the instrument

3. The developer of the instrument (an institution or other researchers)

4. The number of items or sections in the instrument

5. The response format used (multiple choice, yes or no)

6. The scoring for the responses

7. The reliability and validity of the study

There are three ways of developing an instrument for quantitative research. The first of

these is adopting an instrument. This means that you will utilize an instrument that has

been used in well-known institutions or reputable studies and publications. Some of the

popular sources of instruments include professional journals and websites, such as Tests

in Print and the IRIS Digital Repository Adopting an instrument means that you do not

have to spend time establishing its validity and reliability since they have already been

tested by their developers and other researchers.

Sometimes, however, the available tests do not generate the exact data that you want to

obtain. In this case, you may either modify an existing instrument or create your own

instrument.

As you develop your instrument, be guided by the instruments used in studies similar to

yours. Make sure, however, that the items contained in your instruments are aligned

with your research questions or objectives. Remember that inadequacies in your

research instrument will yield inaccurate data, thereby making the results of your study

questionable.

The data-gathering tools or instruments can be classified according to the following:

1. Standardized tests

These are tests that can measure different characteristics, like personality, vocational

interest, mental ability, reading proficiency, and a lot more. They have been rigorously

developed by experts. These tests have been administered to thousands of examinees

and, from the results, established the norms. The norms represent "normal" performance

on the test of that population that will take the test. Thereafter, the interpretation of

individual scores will be based on the norms. Therefore, the comparison of an

individual's test results with the population average or the norms will be determined.

The requirement is for test administrators to observe the same procedures from one

testing occasion to the other. The researcher should possess the necessary expertise to

administer standardized tests usually accompanied by a Manual of Test Administration.

Examples of standardized tests that you may be familiar with:

a. National Achievement Test (NAT)

b. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS)

c. Science and Technology Undergraduate Scholarship Examination

Other standardized tests can be availed of from licensed distributors or sellers. To avail

of these tests, however, the users should present documentation that they are capable

of administering, scoring, and analyzing the results.

2. Observation schedule

This is used for observing behaviors or characteristics of individuals by the researcher.

Although observation schedules are also used often in qualitative research, the data

taken from these tools can also be quantified. The researcher specifies and observes

behaviors or characteristics and does not observe behaviors other than what has been

planned and specified. However, if a behavior not targeted to be observed appears

during observation and is considered to be a significant one, then that behavior has to

be noted. The use of observation tools is most appropriate for babies, toddlers, or very

young children. This is because they are not yet able to read, write, or answer questions.

Sample part of an observation schedule:

Date of observation: May 1, 2020

Time of Observation: 11:00 am-12 noon

Venue: The classroom

3. Interview schedule

This tool requires a face-to-face oral exchange or interaction between researcher or

interviewer and the one being interviewed. Here, the researcher asks the respondent

questions that have been prepared earlier. The researcher brings with him a set of guide
questions (called interview schedule) and asks the same questions to each of the

respondents. Interview schedule is usually used in gathering data where there is a need

for the researcher to probe further for additional responses, if needed.

Sample Interview Questions

1. In what ways do you show love for your community?

2. Which method of harvesting rice do you prefer to use? Manual harvesting? Or

use of mechanical reaper? Can you cite the reasons for your choice?

4. Pencil-and-paper data-gathering tools

These are called pencil-and-paper data-gathering tools because they are in written form

and the responses of the respondents have to be written also. The following are

examples of this tool:

1. Questionnaire

As the name suggests, this is a tool consisting of a series of written questions, where the

respondent responds also in writing. Usually, questionnaires are given to respondents

who can read, write, and understand the language in which the tool is written. If, for

example, the tool is written in English, the respondent should know how to read so he

can understand the question and write down his responses in the language the

questionnaire is written. Questionnaire can gather a whole range of data, from facts

related to the respondents, their opinions, perceptions, ideas, feelings about certain

issues, problems, events, or practices. The questionnaire does not ask questions on

knowledge of facts but more on perceptions, opinions, views, thinking, or feelings of a

respondent about a certain subject matter. Hence, there are no "right" or "wrong"

answers.
There are two types of question-format in questionnaire.

Close-ended questions: This type of question limits the respondent's responses

to the choices or options provided.

Example:

During school days, what time do you get up from bed?

_________5:00 am _________5:30 am _________6:00 am __________6:30 am

Open-ended questions: This type of question gives the respondents much

freedom to respond in a way they like or prefer.

Example:

How did you spend your Christmas holidays? Describe what you did.

________________________________________________________________

2. Rating scale

It measures the extent or degree to which a behavior or characteristic is perceived or

rated to exist in various degrees along a continuum or scale. Scales also measure the

extent or degree or frequency by which habits, practices, and works occur or are

practiced. Responses to the rating scale cannot be judged as "right" or "wrong."

Let us look at this example of a scale that measures attitude toward an object:
3. Checklist

It is a list of items, which could be practices, characteristics, things, or behaviors, on

which the respondent indicates his response, as for example, by checking the item on

the list that applies to his present situation. Just like the questionnaire and the rating

scale, responses to checklists should not be judged as "right" or "wrong."

Example:

Put a check in the blank before the number of the health habit that you practice.

________________1. I visit the dentist once a year.

________________2. I change into sleeping clothes when I go to bed.

________________3. I eat green leafy vegetables at least three times a week.

________________4. I make sure I wash my hands before eating my meals.

________________5. I see to it that I have at least eight hours of sleep each day.

Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only within its specific

purpose. That is, an instrument is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure.

Since the instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the methodology to

obtain the data, the validity of each one should be established beforehand. This is to

ensure the credibility of the findings, and the correctness and accuracy of the following
data analysis. For instance, when a study investigates the common causes of absences,

the content of the instrument must focus on these variables and indicators. Similarly,

when a researcher formulates a problem about the behavior of the students during

school assemblies, the instrument must consist of the indicators or measures of the

behavior of students during such times.

Types of Validity

In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice, Kubiszyn

and Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.

1. Face validity. Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether the

instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment. Just by

looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes the

font size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that will not

distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.

2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to see

whether they are able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high

content validity has to meet the objectives of the research. This type of validity is not

measured by a numerical index, but instead relies on logical judgment as to whether the

test measures its intended subject.

Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a group of

experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject. Three to five

experts would suffice. The experts assess the items of the questionnaire and determine

if the items measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts' criticisms will be

considered in the revision of the instrument.

3. Construct validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with

its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular measure

relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically-derived

hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden. Factor

analysis, a relevant technique in construct validity, is a refined statistical procedure that

is used to analyze the interrelationships of behavior data.

4. Criterion-related validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an expression

of how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There are two types

of this validity.

a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be administered and

validated at the same time. It is determined by administering both the new test

and the established test to a group of respondents, then finding the correlation

between the two sets of the scores. Validity is established with an accepted and

availed second test that measures what the researcher is trying to measure.

Example:

The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test, is used to determine

the IQ of nursing students. A researcher published a design for a short screening

test that measures the same. The scores on the Standard-Binet V and the short

screening test are compared to assess the relationship between scores.

b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the future behavior

of the examinees. This is particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are tests to

predict how well test-takers will perform in some future setting.

It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for validation, a

rating sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for the experts
to mark and give his judgment. The markings and comments of the experts that

validated the proposed questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of the

proposed instrument or questionnaire.

Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials. A

reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if the latter

yield the same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the instrument used

is valid. It is important to note that, while a valid instrument is always reliable, a

reliable instrument is not always valid. This is most especially true when the

subjects are human, who are governed by judgment and prone to error. Nevertheless,

testing the reliability of an instrument is very crucial in research studies that deal with a

lot of samples.

For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She weighed

herself in the morning, afternoon, and the evening and recorded the results afterwards.

Her recorded weights are 65 lbs, 68 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing scale can

be considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small and negligible.

Ways to Deal with the Reliability of Research Instrument

Reliability, on the other hand, can be assessed with the following:

1. Test-retest method

2. Alternative form method

3. Internal consistency method

1. Test-retest is a method that administers the same instrument to the same sample at

two different points in time, perhaps one-year intervals. If the scores at both periods are

highly correlated, > .60, they can be considered reliable. For example, if I measure the

length of my hair today, and tomorrow, I’ll most likely get the same result each time.

2. The alternative form method requires two different instruments consisting of

similar content. The same sample must take both instruments and the scores in both

instruments must be correlated. If the correlations are high, the instrument is considered

reliable.

3. Internal consistency uses one instrument administered only once. The coefficient

alpha (or Cronbach's alpha) is used to assess the internal consistency of the item. If the

alpha value is .70 or higher, the instrument is considered reliable

Data Gathering Procedure

The data for quantitative and qualitative research are collected from direct observation,

tests, and survey questionnaires and Interviews. Researchers refer to these data

collection devices and procedures as instruments.

Planning the Data Collection Procedure

Since you have learned the important factors to consider in developing your research

instrument you can now plan the steps you will take in your actual data gathering. These

steps are typically clustered into three phases: before, during, and after the data

collection.

Before

1. Develop your data collection instruments and materials.

2. Seek permission from the authorities and heads of the institutions or communities

where you will conduct your study.

3. Select and screen the population using appropriate sampling techniques.

4. Train the raters, observers, experimenters, assistants, and other research personnel

who may be involved in data gathering.

5. Obtain informed consent from the participants. An informed consent form is a

document that explains the objectives of the study and the extent of the participants'

involvement in the research. It also ensures the confidentiality of certain information

about the participants and their responses.

6. Pilot test the instruments to determine potential problems that may occur when they

are administered.

During

1. Provide instructions to the participants and explain how the data will be collected.

2. Administer the instruments and implement the intervention or treatment, if applicable

3. As much as possible, utilize triangulation in your method. Triangulation is a technique

for validating data using two or more sources and methods

After

1. Immediately encode or transcribe and archive your data.

2. Safeguard the confidentiality of your data

3. Later, examine and analyze your data using the appropriate statistical tools.

Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long process of formulating a hypothesis,

constructing the instrument, and collecting data. It is used to properly test the

hypothesis, answer the research questions, and present the results of the study in a

clear and understandable manner. In qualitative research, data are validated by

document analysis, ethnomethodology, and observation studies. However, in

quantitative research, which deals more with numerical data, as in most surveys and

experiments, it is logical to use the statistical treatment.