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Chapter 1

The Nature of Research and the Research Problem

I. Overview

Research involves original work in answering a question or solving a problem. Of

the several different research approaches available, devised to solve problems. This

diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or

revise facts, theories or application must be based on knowledge and to continuously

evaluate its accuracy and usefulness.

II. Learning Activities

1. Definition and Distinctions

Research is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,

analyzing,

classifying, organizing, presenting and interpreting data for the solution

of a problem, for prediction, for intervention, for the discovery of truth, or

for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion of human life (Calderon

and Gonzales, 1993).

Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or

more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what

you expect to happen in your study.

Variable is defined as anything that has quantity or quality that varies and has

two or more mutually exclusive values or properties. The dependent

variable the researcher is interested about. The changes to the

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dependent variable is what the researcher is trying to measure with all

their fancy techniques. The independent variable is a variable believed to

affect the dependent variable. This is the variable that you, the

researcher, will manipulate to see if it makes the dependent variable

change.

[Link] of the Study/Research Problem

Identification of the problem – is the most fundamental part of research.

The problem of limited knowledge and skills in research is a good to work on

because this will prompt the researcher to think of titles that are brief, specific

and relevant to him/her, his/her work and community.

Characteristics of a Good Research

1. must be relevant to the needs of time;

2. must be clear, specific and attainable within a given period of time;

3. must be within the researcher’s interest and capabilities.

4. information should be available

5. should not be harmful to people and society;

6. must be new; and

7. should provide information for planning, development and legislation.

IV. Rationale of the Study

A rationale - typically consists of a line of reasoning that performs two principal

functions. It describes a context within which to locate the intended project and

suggests why doing such a study is worthwhile. A rationale for research is a set of
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reasons offered by a researcher for conducting more research into a particular subject-

either library research, descriptive research, or experimental research.

- The introductory statement must be eye-catching.

- The issues should be quoted or documented to encourage readers to read on.

- There should be theme in writing the rationale.

- The theme is based on the important variables of the study, scope, nature and

characteristics.

- Presentation must be from macro and micro levels.

Rationale of the study – needs to be specific and ideally.

It can relate to the ff. points.

1. The research needs to contribute to the elimination of gap in the literature.

In other words, you don’t need to re-invent the wheel in a way that your research aims

and objectives need to be totally new.

2. The research can be conducted to solve a specific problem. (We have to explain

the essence of the problem in a detailed manner and highlight practical benefits

associated with the solution of the problem).

3. The study has to contribute to the level of Professional Development of the

researcher. (We have to explain in what ways this research contributes to the

achievement of your long-term career aspirations in a detailed way).

V. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

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A theory – is a set of concepts and their relations which explains, predicts and

interprets how a particular phenomenon exists and operates. Theoretical Framework –

is a theory in the form of a model/paradigm that serves as the basis for the study.

Paradigm – is a “worldview” or a set of assumptions about how things work.

Purpose of Theoretical Framework

• To test theories

• To make research findings meaningful and generalizable

• To establish orderly connections between observations and facts

• To predict and control situations

Conceptual Framework – is the researcher’s own model illustrating variables that

specify the problem and gives direction to the study.

Purpose of Conceptual Framework

• To clarify concepts and propose relationships among the concepts in a study.

• To provide a context for interpreting the study findings

• To explain observations
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Difference between Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Framework

Take Note:

A research study should be supported with theories and concepts, to show that

the study is researchable on a scientific basis.

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HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis: Greek word hyposthenia “ to put under” or “to suppose”. Is a

working guide in research, the expected outcome of the study which is based on the

statement of the problem and sub problems?

This is understood as:

- a statement of what one expects to find;

- a statement to be proven;

- an initial answer to the research questions;

- a common sense statement;

- an expected relationship between variables;

- an explanation of the phenomena;

- a statement of patterns of behavior.

The hypothesis may have the following format :

-There is a pattern in the observed phenomena;

-There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one (independent

variable) causes a change in the other variable (dependent variable)

-There is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.

-There is an association between the variables.

Examples of Sub-problems and Hypothesis

SUB- PROBLEM HYPOTHESIS

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1. What is the profile of the 1. Majority of respondents are

respondents in terms of:
1.1. sex male, belonging to the 20-25
1.2 age age bracket and college
1.3 educational attaintment graduates.

2. Is there a significant 2. There is a significant

correlation between the skills correlation of the skills between
and attitudes of teachers in the the skills and attitudes of
use of instructional materials. teachers in the use of
instructional materials.

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL
QUALIFICATION ON
PERFORMANCE

Educational Age, Gender, Civil Status,

Qualification Experience, Status, Values, PERFORMANCE
Attitudes, Toward Work

Independent Variables Intervening Variables Dependent Variables

Forms of Hypothesis :

1. Null hypothesis (Ho) – “there is no difference,” meaning the independent variable

does not affect the dependent variable. If the data reject the null hypothesis , then the

alternative hypothesis should be true.

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Question: Is there a significant relationship between student’s behavioral problems

and their academic performance.

Example : Ho 1. There is no significant relationship between student’s behavioral

problems and their academic performance.

2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha) - “there is a difference” meaning, that the independent

variable affects the dependent variable. The alternative hypothesis serves as the real

concern of the research. It is a definite statement of the relationship between variables.

This is what the research hopes to determine.

Example : Ha 1. There is a significant relationship between student’s behavioral

problems and their academic performances.

IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY – discuss the reasons in

conducting the research.

Guidelines in Writing Importance or Significance of the Study.

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There is a need to specify the direct beneficiaries of the study. It’s significance

shall be pointed out especially to the end users to serve as a guide in identifying

its value, and its contribution to the fund of knowledge. It must be shown who are

the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more

advantageous position on account of the study.

This approach for example can be used:

The study is beneficial to the following:

1. Legislators

2. School administrator

3. Faculty

4. Researchers

5. Students

The use of the following phrases could help express the importance of the study:

- The results of this study could help them realize….

- The useful and relevant information acquired from the study will encourage them to

- This study enhances the involvement in the…

- This study will also afford the management to know…

- Similar organization will benefit from the study in…

- The researcher may find the findings useful...

THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

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The scope identifies the boundaries or coverage of the study in terms of subjects,

objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused.

The delimitation of the study defines the constraints or weaknesses, which are not

within the control of the researcher, therefore, they are not expected to be covered by

the study.

The use of the following phrases could help express the scope of this portion:

This study will focus on….

The coverage of this study…

The study covers the…

The study focuses on…

The study consists of…

The delimitations could be expressed using the following phrases:

- This study is limited to…

- The study does not cover the…

- The investigator limited this research to..

- It does not seek to include.

This section of the research includes important or key terms that should

substantially and clearly defined according to how they are used in the study in order to

facilitate understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning to terms which

can be otherwise interpreted in different ways.

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Definitions of Terms:

Definitions of terms may be of two categories, namely:

1. Operational definitions – express the meaning of the terms as used in a particular

field of study.

2. Conceptual definitions – is usually taken from the dictionary. It carries a universal

meaning easily understood by people.

***The term defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and acronyms should

always be spelled out fully, especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first

time.

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Review of Related Literature

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It is a process of identifying, collecting and reviewing articles/theses as well as

selecting and citing passages within the articles and unpublished theses that are

relevant to the proposed study. It is composed of discussions of facts and principles to

which the present study is related. For instance, if the present study deals with drug

addiction, literature to be reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that

deal with drug addiction. These materials are usually printed and found in books,

encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspaper, and other publications.

These materials are classified as:

1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and

2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Studies, inquires, or investigations already conducted to which the present

proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually

unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.

3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.

4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts

or data to make them valid and reliable.

5. Reviewed materials must not be few or too many.

Advantages of Review of Literature and Studies

1. It helps the researcher look for possible theories, concepts or principles to

support the investigation.

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2. It is essential in formulating a sound research problem or research title,

hypothesis, assumptions, etc.

3. It enlightens the researcher as to the direction of the study.

4. It proves that the study is researchable and possesses novelty.

5. It helps to identify the statistical instruments to be used in the study.

6. It serves as guide in writing the findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

Importance of doing a review of literature:

The review of literature helps the researcher in:

 Understanding what is already known and not known about the proposed

research problem.

 Formulating conceptual framework that shows relationship of different variables

central to the proposed study.

 Developing hypotheses that are based on previous research findings.

 Explicating or separating concepts that are closely related such as awareness

and knowledge or opinion and attitude.

 Discussing the findings in a comparative fashion relative to other studies.

Guidelines in Preparing the Review

1. Refrain from copying entire chapters without proper documentation or

acknowledgements. Plagiarism is punishable by law. If you are a third party, you

need to acknowledge the original author and the second party if you include their

views, findings and articles on your study.

2. Make a related study on the needs and relevance of your investigation.

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3. In presenting reviewed literature and studies, the investigator has the option to

choose from among the following approaches:

 Chronological Approach- presentation is made according to the time they

were written, following the time-sequence pattern.

 Findings or theme Approach – similar findings or theme are grouped

together.

 Country Approach – classifying by country or into a specific country and

into foreign countries.

How to Write the Introduction of a Review

 Identify the general topic of the sources under discussion. Thus, you will provide

the context of your review of related literature;

 Discuss what was already presented about the topic of your paper: conflicts in a

theory, conclusions, gaps in research and scholarship, etc.

 Explain why the literature used is worth reviewing.

 When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference

occurs in the text. In parenthetical material join the names with an ampersand

(&).
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Chapter 3

Research Methodology and Procedures

I. Overview

This chapter will discuss details of strategies and approaches to be used

in answering the research problem.

Discussion on the lesson presented to enlighten the researcher in

formulating the research design, sampling, data gathering instruments and

statistical tools based on the statement of the problem.

II. Objectives
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1. Select the most appropriate research design, the student is expected to.

2. Discuss correctly the research environment.

3. Determine the sample size and sampling techniques to be employed

4. Identify the different data-gathering instruments

5. Discuss the relevance of descriptive statistics in education.

Research Method

• Qualitative Research Design - Is Exploratory research, used to gain

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions and motivations, used to uncover

trends in thought and opinions and dive deeper into the problem. Provides

accurate description of problems without attempting to treat or describe

problems. Qualitative data collection methods may vary using unstructured or

semi-structured techniques. Common methods include focus groups (group

discussion), individual interviews and participation/observations. The sample size

is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

• Quantitative Research Design - Focus to describe problems descriptively and

numerically and treating relationships and differences of variables involved. Used

to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be

transformed into useable statistics. Used to quantify attitudes, opinions,

behaviors and other defined variables- and generalize results from a larger

sample population. Uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover

patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more

structured than Qualitative data collection methods.

• Methods may include:

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• Online surveys

• Paper surveys

• Mobile surveys

• Kiosk survey

• Face to face interviews

• Telephone interviews

• Longitudinal studies

• Website interceptors

• Online polls

• Systematic observation

Research Instrument

A generic term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,

questionnaire, etc.)

Device adopted by researchers for data gathering.

Two Categories of Instrument:

1. Researcher- completed Instrument (Rating scales, Tally Sheets, Interview

schedules/guides, Flowcharts, Performance checklist, Time and motion

logs, Observation Forms).

2. Subject-completed Instrument (Questionnaires, Self-checklits, Attitude

scales, Personality Inventories, Achievement/ Aptitude Tests, Projective

devices, Sociometric Devices

Questionnaire
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A research instrument consisting of series of questions and other prompts for the

purpose of gathering information from respondents.

Advantages:

-They are cheap and less effort compared to verbal or telephone surveys.

-Often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

Usability

Refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered, interpreted by

the participant, and scored/ interpreted

by the researcher.

Things to Consider

1. How long will it take to administer.

2. Are the directions clear?

3. How easy it is to score?

4. Do equivalent forms exists?

5. Have any problems been reported by others who used it?

It is best to use an existing instrument, one that has been developed and tested

numerous times

Validity

Refers to the extent of acceptance of the instruments. The instrument is valid

when based on facts, and it measures what it intended to measure.

The extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and

performs as it is designed to perform. External Validity- is the extent to which the result of

the study can be generalized from a sample to a population. A sample that is externally
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valid helps obtain population generalizability or the degree to which a sample

represents the population. Content Validity -refers to the appropriateness of the content

of an instrument. It answers the question: “Do the measures (questions, observations.

Logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know?

Reliability

Refers to the measurement of internal consistency of the research instrument.

Does the instrument consistently measure what it is intended to measure?

Four Test of Reliability are:

a. test-retest

b. split-half

c. Parallel form method

d. Kuder Richardson Formula 20 and 21

Types of Qualitative Research Design

1. Historical Research Design – to provide critical knowledge of past events that

will help and individual picture the whole truth. It is to collect, verify and

synthesize the past to establish the facts that defend or refute a [Link]

uses secondary sources and primary documentary evidences like diaries,

official records, reports, archives and non-textual information (maps, pictures,

audios and visual recordings). Resources must be both authentic and valid.

2. Ethnographic Research Design - Aims to provide a holistic view of the

problem. The researchers knows how to deal with people and adapts to the

social atmosphere where the data can be found. Ethnography is a social

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science research method. It relies heavily on up-close, personal experience

and possible participation, not just observation.

3. Case Study Design - A case study is an in-depth study of a particular

research problem rather than sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive

comparative survey. It is also useful for testing whether a specific theory or

model actually applies to phenomena in the real world.

Types of Quantitative Research Design

1. Descriptive Design - is useful in obtaining the prevailing status or condition of

the problem which are essential in understanding the past and [Link]

provide answers of the questions of who, what, when, where and how

associated with a particular research problem. Two Types (Descriptive

Survey and Descriptive Documentary).

2. Correlational Research Design - measures the extent or magnitude of

association between two [Link] can be determine using Pearson

Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation, Spearman rank, Kendall Tau,

Point Biseral and Phil Coefficient.

3. Experimental Design - this describes what will be. This is considered as the

most powerful educational research because the research manipulated

changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to see the effects on the

dependent variables.

Research Environment
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This is the locale of the study that should be described according to its present

status or conditions. It refers to the populace that was researched, it should be

described how, and where the research was conducted. It should be appended by a

location map to guide the readers or researchers to easily locate it.

Research Respondent / Participants

What is the difference between participants, respondents and subjects?

Participants are usually in qualitative research (eg. interviews). Respondents answer

(respond to) questionnaires - usually quantitative. Subjects are usually in

experimental/scientific research (quantitative).

Research Sample / Participants - will answer questions or a participant

1. How Select a Sample Size

𝑁
Slovin's Formula = 𝑛 = 1+𝑁𝑒 2

where:

n = sample

N = total population

E2 = margin of error preferred

2. Select a sample technique either using :

- probability random sampling

- non-probability (non-random) sampling

Probability Random Sampling – provides equal opportunities for the population to be

chosen as participants of the study.

15,345
Ex: =39.34 or 39 is the distance
39𝑜
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Non-Probability Random (Non-Random) Sampling – the selection of the study is based

convenience of the researcher- does not involve systematic selection of the participants

4 TYPES OF PROBABILITY RANDOM SAMPLING :

1. Simple Random Sampling

2. Proportional Random Sampling

3. Stratified Random Sampling

4. Systematic Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling- is the most basic and commonly used, done through the

lottery or fishbowl method and with the use of the table of random numbers

Proportional Random Sampling- a method for gathering participants for a study, used

when the population is composed of several subgroups that are vastly different in

number, the number of participants from each subgroup is determined by their number

relative to the entire population.

Ex. 4 Latina women over 50

8 White women over 50

16 Black women over 50

Stratified Random Sampling

- is used by making division of the total population into smaller groups

(known as strata) to represent the sample of the [Link] every group, a proportional

sample will be draw. Based on members' shared attributes or [Link] the

event, each group still contains a large population after subdivision; a proportional or

equal allocation will be employed.

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Systematic Random Sampling

Is simple as simple random sampling. The sample size should be obtained first.

Sample size is the basis for the computation of the starting number using the Best &

Khan (1998)

Ex: 15,345 – Teacher’s Population

390 – sample size using (Slovin’s Formula)

Computations:
15,345
=39.34 or 39 is the difference
39𝑜

RESPONDENTS are = 39 , 78 , 117 , 156 etc.

3 Types of Non-Probability Random Sampling

1. Convenience Sampling

2. Purposive Sampling

3. Quota Sampling

Convenience Sampling – respondents are obtained based on the availability or

preference of the researcher. Those that can easily be reached individually are usually

considered.

Purposive Sampling – respondents are chosen based on the criteria or purposes of

the study.

Quota Sampling – quota respondents are chosen based on the characteristics needed

in the investigation.

Research Instrument Including Question Making

Research Instrument - are measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales)

designed to obtain data on a topic of interest from research subjects. They

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include the purpose/variable measured, sample population, methodology, other

instruments, items and questions and the source for the instrument

Descriptive studies – usually employ questionnaires , interviews and observations.

Historical Research – uses documents and observations.

Experimental Studies – may or may not use questionnaires but manipulative variables,

observations and documents.

Questionnaire

The most convenient and the easiest way to gather data.

2 KINDS OF QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Open-Ended Questionnaire - gives freedom to the respondents to answer the

questions being asked. Information is not limited to but there is difficulty in data

processing because it include & present common findings . (Ex. Frequency distribution

best for qualitative research).

2. Closed-Ended Questionnaire - is the guided response type, closed form or

restricted. Respondents are guided in answering questions like : multiple choice test

answers are based on rating scales.

Research Procedures

Consists of definite steps before the distribution of questionnaires to the

participants/respondents of the study.

Purpose:

Enhance smooth and easy contact to all the respondents including the retrieval

of the answered questionnaires on the agreed date.

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Validity - Refers to the credibility or validity of the research. Are the findings

genuine? Is hand strength the valid measure of intelligence? Validity can be determined by

panellists or experienced individuals. They will look into its consistency based on the problems.

The instruments are valid when the data are accurately covered.

Two aspects of validity:

1. Internal- the instruments or procedures measure what they intend to measure.

2. External- the results can be generalized beyond the immediate study and should

also apply to people beyond the sample.

Reliability - Refers to the repeatability of findings. If the study are to be done the

second time, would it yield the same results? If so, the data are reliable. If more than

one person is observing behaviour or an event, all shall agree on what is being

recorded in order to claim that the data are reliable.

If data is valid, they must be reliable. If people receive very different scores on a test

every time they take it, the test is not likely to predict anything. However, if a test is

reliable, it does not follow that it is valid. Reliability is a necessary but not sufficient

condition for validity. Ex. In measuring mechanical strength.

 Content-related evidence of validity- comes for the judgments of people who are

either experts in the testing of that particular content area or content experts.

 Criterion-related- looks at the relationship between test scores and an outcome.

Ex. SAT scores are used to determine success in college.

 Construct-related- refers to the degree to which a test or other measure

assesses the underlying theoretical construct it is supposed to measure. (the test

is measuring what is purported to measure)

 *purported- what is true and real but not really true or real
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 Ex: Test question in algebra phrased in long and complex reading passages

(reading skills are inadvertently being measured instead of basic algebra).

Statistical Treatment of Data

The chair of appropriate statistical tools to be employed is very technical in

nature. The statement of the problem (univariate, bivariate, multivariate) and the

instruments in data gathering should be examined.

 Correlational Statistics- is used to determine the degree or magnitude of

association between two variables. It permits us to determine the strength and

direction of the relationship between different sets of data or to predict scores on

one distribution based on our knowledge of scores on another. Coefficient of

correlation varies from 0.00 to 1.00. If correlation is perfect 1.00, we could

predict one score from another with complete accuracy. It can either be positive

or negative. In positive, variables increase and decrease together. For example,

there is a positive correlation between high school average and freshmen grade

point average in college. In negative, scores for one variable increase, the other

decrease. Example, there is a negative correlation between absenteeism and

course performance. The strength of a correlation depends on its size, not sign.

Example, -.72 is bigger than +.53.

 Inferential Statistics- is used when an individual is interested in making

inferences on the magnitude of differences of the samples obtained from a larger

universe.
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Instead of using the entire population to gather data, the statistician will collect

samples from the millions of residents and make inferences about the entire

population using the sample.

Chapter 4

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

I. Objectives

-analyze carefully the guidelines in the presentation of data

-analyze and interpret the data exhaustively based on the results obtained

-differentiate the three levels in the interpretation of data.

Guidelines in the Presentation of Data

1. The presentation should be made one by one with the sub – problems .The

arrangement must be based on the order of the sub-problems.

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Example:

"The death penalty should be abolished because: (1) It remains more costly than

imprisoning criminals for life; (2) It does not deter criminals; (3) It is state-sponsored

murder if the first sub-problem is on profile variable, a table should be the first data to be

presented.

2. There should be textual and tabular presentation of data.

3. If possible, don’t break the data. The readers may not easily understand the overall

findings when data is broken and distributed in to different pages.

4. Textual presentation comes before the table. Right after the initial discussion, the

data or graphs follows.

5. There should be a tabular presentation of sub- problems for significant relationship or

differences of variables considered for the clarity and understanding.

Data Analysis

Data Analysis
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 It is a separation of a whole into its constituent part (Merriam- Webster 2012)

 The process of breaking up the whole study into its parts of categories

according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem.

(Calderon,1993)

The Purpose

 This is done to give meaning to data generated from the instrument.

 To answer the research question and to help determined the trends and

relationship among the variables.

Steps in Data Analysis:

1. Before Data Collection, the researcher should accomplish the following:

 Determined the method of data analysis

 Determined how to process the data

 Consult a statistician

 Prepare dummy table

2. After Data Collection:

 Process the data

 Prepare tables and graphs

 Asnalyze and interpret findings

 Consult the statistician

 Prepare for editing

 Prepare for interpretation

Two ways of Data Analysis

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1. Qualitative Analysis – it is not based on precise measurement and quantitative

claims(PSS[Link])

Example:

 Social Analysis

 From the biggest to the smallest

 Most important to the least important

2. Quantitative Analysis – it is employed on data that have been assigned numerical

value(PSS[Link])

Types of Variable Analysis

1. Univariate Analysis– means one variable analysis.

- It does not involve relationship between two or more

- variables; its purpose is more toward descriptive rather

than explanatory.

Example: Age, gender, income, religion

2. . Bivariate Analysis - means two variables.

- In contrast to Univariate analysis, subgroup comparison

involved two variables.

- Most bivariate analysis in social research adds on another

element: determining relationships between the

variables themselves.
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Religious attendance Reported by Men and Women

It shows comparatively and descriptive – that women in the

study attended church more often as compared by men.

3. Multivariate Analysis – it is made up of three or more variables.

Example: Religious Attendance, Gender and Age

How often you attend religious service?

Clas
sific
atio
n of
Data Analysis

A. Frequency Distribution – a systematic arrangement of numeric values from

the lower to the highest or highest to lowest.

Formula: Ef = N

Where:

E = sum of
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f = frequency

N = sample size

B. Measure of Central Tendency - a statistical index that describes the average

of the set values.

Kinds of Averages

1. Mode - a numeric value in a distribution that occurs most

frequently.

2. Median – an index average position in a distribution of

numbers.

3. Mean – the point on the scores scale that is equal to the

sum of the scores divided by the total number of the scores.

Formula: Where:
X = ∑_ X = the mean
n ∑ = the sum of
X = each individual score
n = the number of cases.

Table of Treatment Formulation of Avocado Seed Cookies:

Chapter 5

Summary, Findings, Conclusions and Recommendation

I. Overview

The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the study that was conducted.

Included in this summary are a review of the purpose of the study, a restatement of the
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research questions, the research methodology used, and a summary of the study

results, conclusions and discussion. Recommendations for further research and

possible studies conclude this chapter.

Summary

This final section contains a brief summary of the methodology described in

Chapter 3. In general, summary sections for Chapter 3 are included only when the

methodology section is very long or complex. The summary section should provide a

smooth transition to Chapter 4. It presents the research problem and specific sub-

problems, hypothesis, research design, respondents, research instruments including

validation and test reliability, data- gathering procedures and statistical tools. The

presentation must be brief so that it will not duplicate the chapters 1 and 3 of the study.

Finding of the Study

Patterns, relationships, and themes are described as findings and supported by

the data. All salient data must be accounted for in the findings. Findings are presented

in a manner that addresses the research questions. The number of sub-problems must

have the same number of findings. Avoid irrelevant, indirect or unnecessary findings

because these were carefully treated in the interpretation of data in chapter 4.

Furthermore, findings must be in past tense form. State descriptive and qualitative

findings if necessary.

Conclusion
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A conclusion is the last paragraph in your research paper or the last part in any

other part or presentation. It must be written in the present tense. They are stated based

on the findings of the study. There is a need for careful analysis in identifying them so

that they will not appear as findings or recommendations. They are made in general

statement which reflects the results of the study. If there are five specific problems there

should also be five conclusions.

Types of Conclusion

1. The Simple Summary

If you choose this common type of conclusion, be sure to synthesize, rather than

merely summarizing. Avoid a dull restatement of your major points. Don't monotonously

restate your major ideas; instead, show your readers how the points you raised fit

together and why your ideas matter. Also, try to avoid the phrase, “and in conclusion.”

This can insult the reader's intelligence: After all, if you've organized your paper well, it

will be obvious that you have begun your concluding remarks.

2. The Frame or Circle Technique

Here, a writer circles back to the beginning, returning to the metaphor, image,

anecdote, quotation, or example he or she used in the introductory paragraph. Echoing

the introduction gives essays a nice sense of unity and completion.

3. The Panning to the Horizon Technique

This technique moves the reader from the specifics of a paper or essay to a larger,

perhaps even universal, point. It redirects the readers, giving them something meaty to
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chew over. You can demonstrate the importance and broad significance of your topic by

using an appropriate analogy, tying the topic to a larger philosophic or political issue,

posing a challenging question, or encouraging the reader to look to the future.

4. The Proposal or Call to Action

Especially useful in a persuasive or argumentative essay, in this type of conclusion

the writer makes a proposal and/or asks the readers to do something, calling them to

action. It is frequently seen in sermons and political speeches.

5. The Concluding Story Technique

Here, the writer sums up the essay by sketching a scene or by telling a brief

anecdote that illustrates the topic's significance. Often, this approach makes an

emotional connection with the reader.

6. The Delayed Thesis Conclusion

In some essays, the writer takes an exploratory approach, perhaps dealing with a

variety of proposals and solutions. The conclusion states the thesis almost as if it is a

discovery, allowing the reader to make the discovery along with you. However, this can

be a difficult technique to carry off. The thesis, even though it may go unstated until the

very end, should nevertheless serve as the inevitable controlling force for the entire

essay.

A conclusion is like the final chord in a song. It makes the listener feel the piece

is complete and well done. The same is true for your audience. You want them to feel

that you supported what you stated in the thesis. You then become reliable author for
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them and they are impressed by that and be more likely to read your work in the future.

They may also have learned something and maybe have their opinion changed by what

you have written or created.

Recommendations

The recommendations contains practical suggestions that will improve the

situation or solve the problem investigated in the study

 must be logical, specific, attainable and relevant.

 should be addressed to persons, organizations, or agencies directly

concerned with the issues

 present another topic which is very relevant to the present study that can

be further investigated by future researchers.

It provides with a series of corrective steps post findings that are derived in the

study. It consists of suggestions to future researchers who may like to make

further investigation on the same problem focusing on factor overlooked by the

present researcher.

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendation

1. It should have the aim and effort to solve problems in the study.

2. It should ensure a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe – mankind

involved.

3. It should recommend a further study or investigation in a wider perspective and

application.

Sample Recommendation:
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“The following recommendations are given to help improve the mechanical

drafting instruction thereby attaining quality education.

1. Teachers should always and or be allowed to attend trainings,

seminars, workshops, vocational courses to make them abreast of the present

improvement of the subject.

2. The Division and the School Administrator should program sustain

further develop the skills and knowledge of the teachers….”

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Is a list of books, magazines, articles, etc. about a particular subject. These are

used as reference in writing a research, thesis or dissertations.

BASICS:

 Make the title centered “ References”, “Bibliography”

 Alphabetize the entries in your list by the authors’ last name

 Only the initials of the first and middle names are given.

 If the authors name is unknown, alphabetize by the title ignoring any A, An, or

The.

 For dates, spell out the names of month, but abbreviate them in the list of works

cited except for May, June and July.

 You can use day- month- year style or month- day- year. When using the month-

day- year format, be sure to add comma after the day.

UNDERLINING OR ITALICS:

 The publication names should be in italics

HANGING INDENTIONS:

 All APA citations should use hanging indents that is, the first line of an entry

should be flushed left and the second and subsequent lines should be indented

to ½ inch.

Ex.

Nicol, A.M., & Pexman, P.M. (1992). A practical guide for creating

tables. Washington. DC.: American Psychological Association.

CAPITALIZATION, ABBREVIATION AND PUNCTUATION:

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 Capitalize only the first letter of the title and subtitle except for periodical titles

and the first letter of the proper names should also be capitalized.

 If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the

last author.

 If more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest.

 Place the date of publication in parenthesis after the name of author. Place a

period after the closing parenthesis. Do not underline or put quotes around the

titles.

Ex.

Allen, T. (2017). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington

D. C.: National Geographic Society.

Allen, T. & Freud, T. L. (2017). Vanishing wildlife of North America.

Washington. D. C.: National Geographic Society.

Allen, T. et al. (2017). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington. D.

C.: National Geographic Society.

BOOKS:

FORMAT:

Author’s last name, First. Initial. (publication date). Book title. Additional

info.. City of publication. Publishing company.

Ex.

Nicol, A.M., & Pexman, P.M. (1992). A practical guide for creating tables.

Washington. DC.: American Psychological Association.

WEBSITE OR WEBPAGE
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Online Periodical

Format:

Author’s name. (date of publication).title or article. Title of Periodical.

Volume number, retrieved month-day-year, full URL.

Ex.

Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injuries four at music festival. The Why?

Files. 89, Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http// The Why ? Files.

WEBSITE OR WEBPAGE

Online Document

Format:

Author’s Name. (Date of Publication). Title or work. Retrieved month day

year. full URL.

Ex.

Dove, R. (1890).The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved January 28, 1992.

http//. The electronic [Link].

The Preliminary

This is an add - on to your thesis to make it more beautiful and appealing. This

will also help the reader to know about you and your study.

Parts of Preliminary

1. Title Page
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It includes the author’s name, title, date of the study and the university

2. Acknowledgement

3. Dedication

4. Abstract

It is described as the thesis- miniature. Condense the most important

topics of your thesis 200-300 words and you will have an abstract.

4. Table of Contents

APPENDICES
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Appendices are occasionally used for letters of endorsement or collaboration, and

reprints of relevant articles if they are not available electronically. Other uses may be

data tables, surveys, questionnaires, data collection instruments, clinical protocols, and

informed consent documents, as allowed by the sponsor.

If two or more appendices are included in a proposal, they should be designated

Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.

Academic writing is impossible without appendixes. The conclusions discussed in

the research paper rely on data collected during the research process. Thus you are to

include this data at the end of the research paper as an appendix. Research papers

have at least one appendix section where you can include data. This section allows

your audience to check your results more thoroughly. It is vital to start collecting

information for appendix at the very beginning of the research process rather than at the

end.

The research paper appendix is ideal for including graphs, maps, calculations,

tables etc.

Graphs and charts are one of the simplest ways to display your results and

findings. They are not essential to the research paper format but it is much easier to

present the main points of your research paper with their help. Due to the style of the

research paper you are to number them as “Figures”

Diagrams and other illustrations. It is another way to streamline methods you

have used in your research. You should name them as “Figures” as well.
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Tables are the vital part of analyzing data and showing the results. You have to

number tables and give references to them in the main body of the research paper. Try

not to use tables and graphs with the same information.

How to write research paper appendices?

Pay your attention to the fact that appendices should be well-structured and

understandable to your audience. Here are some useful tips on writing

outstanding research paper appendix:

At first you are to decide what tables, graphs and figures you are going to include

in the appendix. Bring to notice that appendix is used for placing profound information

concerning your research. Thus you are to choose the necessary information with care.

Next, make sure that the appendix is appropriately referenced in the text of the

research paper. Create your appendix section according to the appropriate style of your

research paper. Pay your attention to the fact that appendices should be centered on

the page and have page numbers.

Essential points of writing research paper appendices

You are to write appendix section with great care. This work has to be original

thus it is not a simple copy past job. This section gives your audience an opportunity to

get more detailed information about your research so it is necessary to check it for

writing and grammatical errors. Sometimes it is useful to create an outlet of the

appendix in order to frame it properly.

Research paper appendices writing assistance

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Proofreading of this section of research paper would be a good idea. If you face

the problem with it, you may count on us. Our highly qualified editors can help you with

this issue.

If time is pressing or you need help with other parts of your assignment as well, we can

assist you. We offer custom research papers to students of all levels, prepared by

professional academic writers.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Curriculum vitae allow you to showcase yourself and your academic and

professional achievements in a concise, effective way. You want to have a compelling

CV that is well-organized and easy to read, yet accurately represents your highest

accomplishments.

To start with some general advice you should first

consider structure and formatting of your CV.

Length - Since academic CVs must present so much information with regard to

research and publications, it is generally acceptable if CVs are more than 2

pages long.2 it is best not to exceed 4 pages maximum.3

Structure - Choose a structure for your CV with the main headings and sub-headings

you will use. There are several sources and CV samples available and links are

provided to these sources at the end of this document. In general, however, you

should start with providing some brief personal details, then a brief career

summary. Your education, publications and research should follow and be the

focus for the first section of your CV. Other important categories to address

include: funding, awards and prizes, teaching roles, administrative experience,

technical and professional skills and qualifications, any professional affiliations or

memberships, conference and seminar attendances and a list of references.

Formatting - Your CV should be clear and easy to read. Use legible font types in a

normal size (font size 11 or 12) with normal sized margins (such as 1 inch or 2.5

cm margins). Use bullet points to highlight important items and to concisely

present your credentials. Keep a consistent style for headings and sub-headings
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and main text – do not use more than 2 font types in your CV. Make smart, but

sparing use of bold, italics and underlining. Be aware of spelling and grammar

and ensure it is perfect. Re-read a few times after writing the CV to ensure there

are no errors and the CV is indeed.

Personal Details - include your name, address of residence, phone number(s) and

professional e-mail address. You may also include your visa status, as relevant.

Career Summary - The career summary is not a statement of your ambitions or

objectives. It is a brief summary of approximately 5 -7 sentences summarizing

your expertise in your discipline(s), years of expertise in the area(s), noteworthy

research findings, key achievements and publications.

Education - Provide an overview of your education starting from your first academic

degree to the most recent degree obtained (reverse chronological order). Include

the names of the institutions, thesis or dissertation topics and type of degree

obtained.

Publications - The listing of publications is a key part of an academic's CV. It is

advisable to list your most reputed publications in ranking of type, such as books,

book chapters, peer-reviewed journal articles, non-peer-reviewed articles, articles

presented as prestigious conferences, forthcoming publications, reports, patents,

and so forth. Consider making an exhaustive list of all publications in an

appendix.

Research - As an academic, your research experiences, your findings, the methods you
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use and your general research interests, are critical to present in the first part of

your CV. Highlight key research findings and accomplishments.

Honors and Recognitions -Here is a section where you can allow yourself to shine.

Share any prizes, awards, honors or other recognitions for your research and

work with the year it occurred and by who/which body the award was granted.

Teaching-This section is straightforward. List your teaching experiences, including the

institutions, the years you taught, as well as the subject matters you taught and

the level of the course(s).

Administrative experience - Any administrative experience within a faculty or research

institute should be noted on your CV. Do you facilitate (or have you in the past) a

newsletter, an event(s), or anything else at your institution? If so, and

particularly if relevant to your discipline, include it in your CV.

Professional experience - If you have been employed in industry and it is relatively

recent (approximately within the last 5-10 years) and relevant to your academic

work, it is important to include it. If relevant, professional experience can explain

any gap fills in your academic work and demonstrate the diversity in your

capabilities.

Other skills and qualifications -As on every CV, academics should highlight key skills

and qualifications relevant to your research and academic work. Technical and

practical skills, certifications, languages, and more, are relevant to mention in this

section. Professional affiliations and memberships - If you belong to any

professional group or network related to your areas of expertise, you should

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mention them in this section. Only list affiliations or memberships with which you

are active (within last 5 years, for example). This should not be a lengthy section.

Attendance at conferences and seminars - List the most relevant conferences or

seminars where you presented or participated in a panel within the last 5-7 years.

In an appendix, you can add an exhaustive list of conferences and seminars

where you participated by giving a speech, presented a paper or research, or

participated in a discussion panel.

References - It is advised to list at least three contact persons who can provide a

reference for your research, work and character. Provide their names and

complete contact information. Clearly, they should all be academics and all

people you have worked with.

The Entire Format of Thesis (Summary)

CHAPTER 1

The Problem and Its Scope / INTRODUCTION

• Rationale (Technique Deductive Approach)

• Theoretical Background

• Theorist Anchored

• The Theory (9-10 reference or author)

• Related Literature

• THE PROBLEM

• Statement of the Problem

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• Example: This research determines....

• With sub-problem (age, gender, etc.)

• If no hypotheses, there is assumption or vice versa for highly

statistical

• RESEARCH METHODOLGY

• METHODS

• RESPONDENTS

• Environment

• Research Procedure

• Statistical Treatment of Data

• Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2: PRESENTATION, DATA ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION

• Considered here are the pretest and past test scores of Grade 7 students with

regard to collocation competence.

CHAPTER 3: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presents the summary of findings, draws the judgment and offers

the recommendation.
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