Lesson 11:

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

Lesson objectives:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the variety of sexual behaviour in human;
2. Tackle a typical sexual variation; and
3. Show appreciation of the diversity of human sexual expression

Definition of terms:
 Sexual behaviour – an action with sexual intention and context
 Erotic – related to sexual stimulation; has something to do with the erogenous zones
 Sexual response cycle – sequence of events from arousal to organism to resolution
of sexual tension.
 Sexual dysfunction – a concern or problem in any of the phases of the sexual
response cycle (e.g., inability to have an eretion or organism, painful intercourse).
 Copulatory behaviour – related to the penis to the vagina.
 Paraphilia – arousal from non-living object and or no consenting person.

INTRODUCTION
In earlier discussions, we mentioned that psychology has three primary components: affect
(emotion and feelings), cognition (thought process) and behaviour (action). Hence, when used as a
framework in understanding human sexuality, it is only appropriate to explore the diversity of
behaviours relevant to our understanding of human sexuality.
What is behaviour? In simpler term, it refers to action. These are things that we do, both
overt or observable and covert or not readily observable by the naked eye. On a daily basis, we act
because of a motivation – something that drives us to do something. Some psychologists believe that
we behave as a response to stimuli. Others believe that we do things because we want to achieve
pleasure or avoid pain. Some think it is because we want to achieve a goal towards the fulfilment of
our own potentials and aspirations as a human in search for meaning.
What is interesting about behaviour is it is readily measurable as opposed to feelings and
thoughts. You can look at its frequent – how many times an action is done in a span of time. You can
also check on the duration – how long does an action take place, say, in second, minutes or hours. A
Behaviour has an intensity – the magnitude by which it is done: it is forceful? Is it weak? Then there

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is diversity – what are the varieties of a similar behaviour done in various context or what are the
different behaviours we are capable of depending on our physical characteristics.

SEXUAL BEHAVIOURS
Sexual behaviours are action that humans agree to interpret as an expression of their sexual
motivation or intentions. It is important to remember that behaviours are given meaning by people.
For instance, while hugging and kissing maybe considered sexual in nature, this is not always the case
because the context of the behaviour matter.
Sexual behaviours are generally erotic behaviour such that they involve any of the primary
or secondary erotic zones. Earlier we mentioned that body parts such as face, neck, genitelia, and
chest, among others are erogenous zones.
Sexual behaviours can be typed according to the aim of the behaviour. For instance, sexual
behaviour such as masturbation or the stimulation of one’s own genitals can be considered as auto-
erotic (self-directed). Erotic motivations can also be directed to other people of the same- sex or of the
opposite sex. Homoerotic behaviours are sexual behaviour oriented to the same sex. On the other
hand, heteroerotic behaviours are used to refer to sexual behaviours oriented to the other sex.
For reproductive purposes, copulation or the insertion of the penis to the vagina is necessary.
Humans can assume two positions in this process. More common is the ventral-ventral position
(ventris:abdomen), where in the male and the female species are facing each other. Alternatively, a
ventral-dorsal position (dorsum: back), ma be assumed where in the abdomen of the male species in
facing the dorsum of the female species, such that insertionof the penis to the vagina is from behind.
However, sexual behaviours do not only refer to copulation – the insertion of the penis to the
vaginal orifice. They also include an array of non-copulatory sexual behaviours such as hugging,
kissing, and caressing. There are also sexual behaviours that involve oral stimulation of the genitals
such as fellatio (oral stimulation of the penis) or cunnilingus (oral stimulation of the vagina). Then,
there are also sexual behaviours involving stimulation or penetration of the anal orifice (anal sex).

SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE

For heterosexual couples, one of the ultimate goals of the sexual act is reproduction.
This is made possible through the fertilization of the ovum by a sperm, which necessitates ejaculation
(release of the sperm) from the human male into the internal reproductive system of the human
female. Before this ultimate process, both the human male and female undergoes a sequence of bodily
changes which prepare them for the sexual climax. This sequence of changes is referred to as the
sexual response cycle.
Master and Johnson’s Model. Masters and Johnson (1966, 1970) proposed that the
following are four phases in the cycle.:
Excitement. The Excitement phase is the first phase in the cycle. For the human male, goal
of this phase is erection or tumescence (the elongation and stiffening of the penis) so that it can be
efficiently inserted into the vagina. At this phase, the testes and scrotum start to elevate and some parts
of the skin (e.g., in the breast and chest) reddens – a phenomenon referred to as a sex flush. For the
human female, the goal of this phase is lubrication (wetness of the vaginal orifice to facilitate
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insertion of the penis). Lubrication is made possible by vaginal vasocongestion. At this phase, there is
swelling of the glans clitoris and the labia minora, and there are sex flushes in breasts and chest. In
both male and female humans, heart rate increases during excitement and phase.
Plateau. The excitement phase is followed by the plateau phase. This phase is characterized
by a sustained peak in stimulation of the organs. In the human male, the corona and glans penis
become enlarge and reddish. Internally, the Cowper’s glands release a lubricating fluid and the testes
and the scrotum are totally elevated. In the human female, the outer vagina swells while the inner
vagina expands and become elongated creating the orgasmic platform (tenting).
Orgasm. The orgasm phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is stage of release
where in the human male achieves ejaculation and the human female is ready to receive the sperm for
possible fertilization. In the human male, ejaculation is made possible by the contraction of the rectal
sphincter. In the human female, the vagina, uterus, and anal sphincter also contract.
Resolution. In the Resolution phase, the male penis returns to its normal unerected phase,
whereas the testes and the scrotum descend. In the human female, the outer and inner reproductive
organs also relax.
Kaplan’s Model. Unlike Master and Johnson’s model, Kaplan’s model (1979) sees the
sexual response cycle as having relatively independent stages. The three phases of this model include:
(1) Desire (2) Arousal, and (3) Orgasm.
Desire. Desire is the psychological component of the sexual response. It involves sexual
thoughts and feelings, which are necessary for a satisfying sexual experience. However, desire does
not necessarily translate into action.
Arousal. Arousal phase is the phase where the excitement and plateau (as defined by Master
and Johnson) take place. It is the physiological component of the sexual response, where in bodily
changes occur as an outcome of sexual stimulation. Just like Desire, Arousal may not necessarily
translate into Orgasm.
Orgasm. Orgasm in Kaplan’s model is generally similar with that of the Master and Johnson
model, except that this phase also includes the Resolution phase. In Kaplan’s model, Orgasm is the
completion of the sexual response.

SEXUAL RESPONSE DYSFUNCTIONS

Some people experience difficulty or problems in some of the sexual phases. The following
are the common sexual response dysfunctions:
 Sexual desire disorder – when an individual has low levels of desire or has an aversion to
sexual activity.
 Sexual arousal disorder – when an individual has problems in achieving necessary
physiological state for copulation (e.g., erectile dysfunction in males)
 Orgasmic disorder – when an individual has problems in achieving orgasm (e.g., premature
ejaculation among males; male and female orgasmic disorders); and
 Sexual pain disorder – when there is an experience of pain during the sexual response cycle
(e.g., painful erection or dyspareunia, and vaginal spasms or vaginismus).

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The origins of sexual dysfunction disorders are varied. It can be organic (problem with the
anatomy and physiology of the reproductive organ). It can also be psychosomatic (a
psychological concern which manifests physical). Hence there are also a gamut of interventions
that are either biomedical (e.g., surgery, medication) or psychological (e.g., psychotherapy,
education, marital or couple’s counselling).

PARAPHILLIAS
While there are typical sexual behaviours among humans, there are also those behaviours that
are relatively a typical. They are atypical due to any of the following reason: (1) they are not
prevalent, (2) they are dangerous to self and to others, (3) they are bizarre and are not socially
acceptable, and (4) they are distressing either to the doer or to other people involved in the act.
Among these atypical sexual behavioural variations, which is also considered by the APA as
a disorder, is paraphilia. Paraphilia is when an individual gets sexually aroused by non-
consenting person). A paraphilic disorder is when the urge or act lasts for a least six months and
is a manifestation of clinically significant distress.
Some of the common paraphilic disorders are as follows:
 Exhibitionism – pleasure from exposing one’s genitals to non-consenting people;
 Fetishism – arousal from non-living object (e.g., shoes, socks, body parts);
 Frotteurism – touching or rubbing one’s body or genitals to non-consenting people;
 Pedophilia – arousal from children (prepubescent);
 Sexual masochism – arousal from actual suffering or humiliation;
 Sexual sadism – arousal from actually inflicting pain to others;
 Transvestic fetishism – (for heterosexual males only) arousal from wearing clothing by
the opposite sex during sexual activities; and
 Voyeurism – observing other people engaged in sexual activities
Note: for paraphilia to be considered a paraphilic disorder, diagnosis has to be made. Only
trained psychologists or medical doctors can make such clinical judgements after lengthy and
comprehensive assessment.

COMMUNICATION: some of the paraphilias, when acted on, my lead to criminal offenses.
One of the controversial paraphilia is pedophilia – engaging in sexual activity with a non-
consenting person who is a child. Look for one article on the news that discusses this
particular paraphilia.

SUMMARY
The behavioural aspect of human sexuality provides a holistic perspective as to how
physiological psychological elements coalesce towards actions. In certain cases, behaviours often
serve as an indicator whether an organism in functional or are having problems. By knowing what
behaviour is normal and acceptable, as well as what behaviour is the opposite, we are able to make
intelligent judgement on issues concerning human sexuality.

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Lesson 12
STEREOTYPE, PREJUDICES AND
DISCRIMINATION

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination; and
2. Understand the manifestations of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination on gender.

Definition of terms:
 Stereotype – extremely generalized briefly about a group of people.
 Prejudice – unjustified or incorrect attitude towards a person.
 Discrimination – when stereotypes and prejudice translate into a negative act
towards a person.

INTRODUCTION
There are 7.7 billion people across 195 countries and every race has their own belief system
religion, culture, and tradition. Yet, each individual is a unique mix of their own. That is why
appreciating diversity is very important to fully understand he human experience and for us to coexist
peacefully.
However, understanding diversity requires us to broaden our appreciation of the many facets
of the human race and recognize that we have our own stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination too.

Stereotypes
Stereotypes are an “over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people”
(Cardwell 1996). It can be helpful in simplifying things, after all, there 7.7 billion people in the planet.
When we meet someone for the first time, we associate with them certain characteristics and abilities
that we usually base on the group they belong to.
While some stereotypes convey positive examples (like a student from Ivy league schools
would be stereotyped as very intelligent or matalino, or Filipinos being known for our hospitality),
most stereotypes, however, are drawn from negative generalizations like equating our muslim
countrymen as terrorist and viewing farmers and blue-collar worker as lazy and less educated.
It reflects our expectation and beliefs and is largely based on the social circle we belong to as
we try to conform or agree to the standard way of thought. However, these stereotypes change through
time depending on social and political conditions.
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A stereotype can be categorized as “explicit”, meaning the person is aware that they have
these thoughts towards a group of people and they can say it out loud. It can also be “implicit”
wherein a person does not know if they have these stereotypes since it lies in their subconscious.
When the stereotype is explicit, a person can choose not to turn their stereotype into action. While
with an implicit stereotype, a person has no control or awareness of it, and it may manifest into action
or behaviour.

Prejudice
Prejudice is an “unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual
based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group” (McLeod 2008). Prejudice represents
our emotional response upon learning of a persons’ membership to a specific group (like age, skin
colour, race, disability, generation, nationality, religion, sex, sexual expression, gender expression, and
so on).
This negative attitude (prejudice) can be dangerous since it often leads to negative action and
behaviours. For example, a sexist person is someone who has negative attitude toward the other sex
and sees them as the lesser sex. This negative attitude could manifest into action such as bullying,
discrimination, or violence.

Discrimination
Discrimination refers to actions or behaviours towards an individual or a group of people.
According to the United Nations “discriminatory behaviours take many forms, but they all involve
some form of exclusion or rejection.
People who are discriminated on are treated worse that the way people are usually treated just
because they belong to a certain group or they have certain characteristics. Here are a few examples of
discrimination:
 Genocide is the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated
inhumanly and degraded.
 Apartheid (means separateness) is a form of racial discrimination wherein one race is viewed
as less than the other, resulting in the separation of black and whites and the mass murder of
Jews in concentration camps.
 Gender discrimination is another common form of discrimination. Statistically, women earn
less than men and are often relegated to be solely responsible for child-rearing and house
chores. Men, on the other hand, are discriminated in household responsibilities such that they
are perceived as less manly when they do their share of house chores or when they become
stay at home husbands.
 LGBT discrimination happens when LGBT people are treated as lesser than straight people.
Discrimination happens early in their childhood as they get bullied when they act differently
or dress differently than other kids. During adolescence, they get judge, bullied or physical
assaulted as they explore and express their sexuality.
Restricting opportunities or privileges that may be available to other groups is discrimination, like
the right to vote in national elections. In the Philippines, women only gained the right to vote in 1937
and before that, Filipinos women had no legal rights even to own properties. That form of institutional
discrimination was based on illogicalor irrational judgement that women are weaker than men.
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FREEDOM AND EQUALITY
Article I of the universal declaration of human rights (UDHR) states that “all human beings
are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” This declaration was drafted by member countries of the
united nation, including the Philippines, in 1948. This monumental document outlines the fundamental
rights of every human being that should be protected by everyone at all times.
Its preamble recognizes that the “inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in world.”
While discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and law sexist in many countries,
many have shifted towards making opportunities and privileges accessible to everyone. In many
countries, people of the same sex can now get married and create their own families while enjoying
the same rights as straight couples. In the Philippines, all establishments are now required by law to
have an access ramp for people with dis ability.
Appreciating diversity of the human race is key to making a safer and more inclusive
environment for everyone, regardless of race, sex, religion, sexuality, gender, or creed.

SUMMARY
Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination is a sensitive issue for many people since it can
be traced to our history, culture, tradition, and religion.
However, with the internet and technology, we now live in a world that seems to have no
boarders. It is important to create a society that respect the uniqueness of every human being and
uphold everyone’s dignity and rights.

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Lesson 13
LGBT PSYCHOLOGY

Lesson Objectives:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Discuss LGBT history and relevant LGBT term; and
2. Explain the importance of these terms.

Definition of terms:
 LGBT – Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender; an acronym used to refer to
different genders.
 Lesbian – women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women.
 Gay – men who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
 Bisexual – man or women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men or
women.
 Transgender – when your gender identity (how you feel) is different from your
physical sex (male/female).

Introduction
Labels are so powerful it can be used to discriminate and oppress people. Like how the
German Nazi’s used the word ‘ Arayan race’ to mean superior and ‘Jews’ and ‘homosexual’ to justify
their mass murder of what they called as ‘inferior’ race.
However, labels can also empower people to claim their space in our society, especially in
the political sphere. Language can be used to avoid offense or disadvantage to certain groups of
people like using “persons with disability” instead of disability, ‘African American’ instead of
‘blacks’, and ‘LGBT’ instead of homosexuals.”

View on LGBT in History

Sexual and emotional attraction towards the same sex has been recorded throughout history
of mankind. In china 600 BCE, they used the term ‘pleasures of the bitten peach’ and ‘Brokeback’. In
Japan, they have ‘shudo’ or ‘nanshoku’. ‘kathoey’ is used in Thailand to refers to a lady boys. In the
Philippines we have the ‘babaylan’ and the ‘catalonan’ who were mostly women priests, but some are
males who lived their lives as women.
Society’s attitude towards homosexuality and other gender variants change through history.
In ancient Greek, all males are expected to take on a younger male lover in a practice called
pederasty. Some societies, like the indigenous Native Americans, accepted and celebrated what they
called ‘two-spirited’ person dance to the ‘Berdache.’

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However, later cultures see it as a “sin” following the Abrahamic Religion which branded it
as sodomy, a crime against nature. As these cultures colonized other countries, I enforced its belief
systems of viewing same sex attractions as a sin through violence such as killing homosexuals through
burning, stoning, or being fed to dogs.
Homosexuality was classified as an illness in the 19th century as a basis for them to legally
persecute homosexuals, imprison, and commit them to a mental institution. An example of this
prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts. He was sentenced with chemical castration treatment, and he
later died through cyanide poisoning.
As science advanced through years of extensive research, the APA removed homosexuality
as a psychiatric disorder or a sickness in 1973. This decision was after many years of struggle to
people of the same sex is a natural variation of the human experience, and it does not make anyone
any less of a healthy and functioning human being. Now that society is more accepting towards the
LGBT, new terms and labels have been used to cater to everyone.

The ABC’s of the LGBTQIA+

In an effort towards visibility and inclusion, a few letters were added to the LGBT. The term
“homosexual” sounded too clinical and it no longer adequately represents the diversity within the
LGBT community. These labels are changing, some you may be familiar wit but others may be very
new to you, so let us try to explain it as simple as we can.
 Lesbian –women who are emotionally and sexually attracted to women.
 Gay – men who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men.
 Bisexual - man or who are emotionally and sexually attracted to men or women.
 Transgender – when your gender identity (how feel) is different from your physical sex
(male/female).
 Queer – used by people who celebrate all gender identities, can also mean someone who do
not want to be restricted as lesbian, gay, or bi.
 Intersex – people who were born with sex genitals or chromosome patterns that do not fit the
typical male or female body.
 Asexual/Ally – asexual are people who do not feel sexual attraction to anyone, but does not
mean that they do not engage in romantic or sexual relationships. Allies are straight or
heterosexual people who are fighting for LGBT rights.
 Plus + - the plus sign refers to all sexualities that do not fit in LGBTQI spectrum.
Knowledge on the human sexuality is still evolving so there many terms that’s pops up.
Here are a few more to help s become more inclusive:
 Androgynous – people whose gender expression (their physical appearance) may or may not
be distinctly male or female.
 Gender – your internal sense of being masculine or feminine or neither.
 Gender identity – how you feel, man, women, or neither.
 Gender expression – how you express your sense of being male or female or neither, maybe
through hairstyle, clothes, etc.
 Sexual orientation – your emotional and sexual attraction to a person.
 Sex assigned at birth – your given sex when were born based on your sex organ.

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 Cisgender – when your gender identity matches with the sex you are assigned at birth
 Non-binary – people who do not feel like a boy or a girl; they may feel like they are both or
neither, so sometimes they use the pro nouns they, them and theirs.

Understanding transgenderism
Society attaches a lot of meanings to our biological sex or physical sex. Parents unknowingly
set up a gender-based pattern of raising their children upon knowing the biological sex of their babies.
Pink for girls and blue for boys is a reflection of our heteronormative culture wherein we expect
females to be feminine and males to be masculine.
This limited view on sexuality makes it harder for those who do not fit in the box of
masculinity and femininity, like the lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. However, it makes it so much more
difficult for the transgender people, those who feel like they were born in the wrong body or given the
wrong biological sex.
This means that a transgender person does not feel comfortable in their biological sex like a
person who is born male but feels like female, and a person who is born female may feel like he is
male. This “feeling” or gender identity is not something that changes through time, but is a feeling that
they have since childhood. This creates a problem for a heteronormative society wherein everyone is
expected and forced to fit in the boxes of male masculinity and female femininity.
However, history tells us that in different cultures across the world and in different times in
our history, there are people who lived their life expressing a gender that is different from their
biological sex. These gender noncomformity or gender crossings were celebrated by the Native
American through the “berdache” or the two-spirited people. We also have our own “babaylan” or
“catalonan”, pre-colonial priests who are mostly females but some are males who lived their lives as
female priests.
The transgender is also used as an umbrella term, this means that there are many identities
under this term. Transsexuals, for example is often used in medical field to refer to people whose
gender identity is different from their biological sex and they may want to change their body, so it
resembles how they feel about their gender identity. A biologically male person may feel like she was
just a child and in adulthood, she may choose to have a ‘hormonal replacement therapy or sex
reassignment surgery”. Medical advancements have helped transgender people live a full life;
however, it can be a long, difficult, and expensive process.
Other sexualities under the transgender umbrella term include:
 FTM – female to male, a person whose biological sex is female and has transitioned to living
his life as a male;
 MTF – male to female, a person whose biological sex is female and has transitioned to living
his life as a female;
 Crossdressing – some peopltime to time, however, unlike want to dress as the opposite
gender from time to time, however, unlike the transsexual, they are comfortable identifying
with their biological sex;
 Drag kings and queens – these are people who dress as the opposite gender for entertainment
which they do out of passion or for work; and

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 Gender queer – these are people who feel life their gender does not fit the gender binary view
that is limited to the male or female category because they feel that these are too restrictive.

The transitioning process

When a person realizes that he or she may be transgender, a psychologist can guide the
person through the transition especially when a person wants to go through permanent changes like
sex reassignment surgery. In some countries, transitioning is covered by their medical insurance, and
they get support from their employers and families which are very crucial during transitioning because
it takes years to fully transition.
There are transgender people who cannot have do or not want to have hormonal therapy.

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LESSON 14:
MEN AND MASCULINITIES

Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses the many faces of men and masculinities. It also discusses themes of
masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering, domestic roles, and drug and alcohol use.
This module finally deals with hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities. At the end of this
module, you are expected to:
1. Understand fully men’s studies and the constructs of masculinity;
2. Know fully the themes of masculinity and its relationship with well-being, fathering,
domestic roles, and drug and alcohol use;
3. Comprehend hegemonic, protest, and caring masculinities.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
* MASCULINITIES – a social, cultural and historical construction of men dependent on and related
to other factors such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, age, and disability.
* HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY – form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in given
setting.
* PROTEST MASCULINITY – form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in marginalized
setting.
* CARING MASCULINITY – proposes that men are able to adopt what is viewed as traditionally
feminine characteristic.
Since 1970s, studies on different aspects of manhood (from men in the labor market to men
in the family and violent men, etc.) were made. By the 20th century, the number of these studies
increased dramatically.
A growing body of literature theorizing men and masculinities focuses on a variety of topics
including men’s violence, fatherhood, pornography, men’s crime, female masculinity, male
femininity, etc. these studies arose despite the clear dominance of men over global economic and
political power.
Men make up a large majority of corporate executives, top professionals, and holders of
public office. Worldwide, men held 93% of cabinet-level posts in 1996 and most top positions in
international agencies (Gieryz 1999).

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Essentialist views of gender are still popular and are constantly reinforced in the media.
However, they are increasingly under challenge, not only in biology (Fausto sterling 1992), but also in
every day life. The rise of the womens liberation movements, and many feminisms that have followed
from it, produced a massive disturbance in the gender system and people assumptions about gender.
Large number of men now acknowledge that their position under challenge, that what they
once took for granted about what must be re-thought, making mens study and masculinity became
popular.

Men's Right Lobby

One of the main founding text of this lobby is by Warren Farrell, in his work. The Myth of
male power: Why are men the disposable sex? (1994) according to him;
Men are now the gender victims as a result of feminism having gone too far, with men having
increased responsibilities but few rights around issues of marriage, divorce, child custody and access
to children.
Modern legislation is seen to be overprotective of women’s interest, resulting in
discrimination against men at a time when they are under increasing threat within a rapidly changing
society.
Still, some researchers argue that these pro-male movements were only a reaction to
feminism- an attempt to accuse women and feminists for creating problems that men encounter in
society.

Masculinity Themes
Masculinity is a social, cultural, and historical construct dependent on and related to other factors
such as class, ethnicity, sexuality, and disability. Researches on men’s studies and masculinity
established common themes which strengthened and developed his evolving concepts.

1. Multiple Masculinity
Accordingly, there is one pattern of masculinity that is found everywhere.
Different cultures and different periods of history, construct masculinity differently.
Some culture make heroes of soldiers and regard violence as the ultimate test of
masculinity.Other culture look at soldiering with disdain and regard violence as contemptible.
Some countries regard homosexual sex as incompatible with true masculinity. Other
countries think that no person can be a real man without having had homosexual relationship.
The meaning of masculinity in working-class life is different from the meaning in
middle-class life and same goes among the very rich and the very poor. It is even possible
that more than one kind of masculinity can be found within a given cultural setting and
within a specific.
The only shows that masculinities cannot be delimited to a sole definition or
description as various countries, cultures, and levels in life view this concept differently.

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2. Hierarchy and hegemony

Typically, some masculinities are more revered than others. Others may be
dishonoured, i.e., homosexual masculinities in modern Western culture. Others are even
socially marginalized, i.e., the masculinities of disempowered ethnic minorities. Others are
even exemplary, taken as symbolizing admired traits, i.e., the masculinities of sporting
heroes.
The form of masculinity which is culturally dominant in a given setting is called “hegemonic
masculinity”. “Hegemonic” signifies a position of cultural authority and leadership but not
total dominance as other forms of masculinity persist alongside.
Hegemonic masculinity embodies popular heroes, role models, and fictional characters.
According to Kimmel (1997(, hegemonic masculinity:
“contains within it the image of the ‘man’ in power, a man with power and a man of power.
We equate manhood with being strong, successful, capable, and reliable in control. The every
definitions of manhood we have developed in our culture maintain the power that some men
have over other men and that men have over women”.
Hegemonic masculinity was understood as the pattern of practice that allowed men’s
dominance over women to continue. Hegemonic masculinity embodied the currently most
honoured way of being a man as it required all other men to position themselves in relation to
it and it ideologically legitimated the global subordination of women to men.
Men who received the benefits of patriarchy without enacting strong version of masculine
dominance could be regarded as showing as complicit masculinity. Hegemony did not mean
violence, although it could be supported by force; it mean ascendancy achieved through
culture, institutions and persuasion.
Hegemonic masculinity in western society hinges on heterosexuality, economic autonomy,
being able to provide for one’s family, being rational, being successful, keeping one’s
emotions in check, and above all, not doing anything considered feminine. Hegemonic male
norms stress value such as courage, aggression, autonomy, mastery, technological skill,
adventure, toughness in mind and body.
Moreover, hegemonic masculinity is hegemonic not just in relation to other masculinities, but
in relation to the gender order as a whole. It is an expression of the privilege men collectively
have over women.
The hierarchy of masculinities is an expression of the unequal shares in that privilege held by
different groups of men. Thus, some masculinities are deemed as higher than the others, as
well as higher than other forms of gender.
3. Collective Masculinities
Gender structures of a society define particular patterns of conduct of individuals as either
“masculine” or “feminine”. These patterns also exist at the collective level-in institutions,
armies, government, and even schools. Masculinities are also defined collectively in the
workplace and in informal groups like street gangs.
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Masculinity also exist impersonally in culture. Video games, for example, circulate
stereotyped Images of violent masculinity. Cinema and TV shows portray stereotypes of
masculinity such as abandoning father, disgruntled, abusive partner, and the drug convict.
In sports, an aggressive kind of masculinity is created organizationally by its structure,
pattern of competition, system of training, and hierarchy of levels and rewards.
Masculinities and well-being
Research confirms a strong associated between rigid norms about what it means to be a man
and men’s negative health practices and vulnerabilities (Barker et al.2011)
Men are unlikely to talk about their worries and more likely to drink and engage in other
destructive behaviors when stressed. These findings echo the evidence in the literature that
conforming to stoic and rigid notions of masculinity contributes to suicidal behavior and
depression (Moller-Leinkuhler 2003; Emslie et al. 2006).
Culturally dominant forms of masculinity, which often urge men to practice strict emotional
control, serve as barriers to health- and help- seeking behavior, or encourage some men to
engage in practices detrimental to their own health and that of their families.
Evidence confirms that death and disability rates related to alcohol and substance abuse are
considerably higher for men than for women, making substance abuse and addiction
predominantly male phenomena worldwide (Phyne et al. 2002; WHO 2004).
The requirement of physical strength appears to be a nearly universal component of a
dominant masculinity has been promoted by globalization via film, toys, and other goods
(Katz 2003).
Katz points out the unrealistic evolution of action figures’ biceps, in many cases depicted as
larger than the doll’s heads. Katz even notes that these toys reinforce the association of
masculinity with violence is sometimes heroic.

Family formation, fathering, caregiving, and domestic roles

Domestic roles are closely associated with women as carrying them out can involve a loss of
face for men. Great deal was heard about increases in women’s labor force participation in recent
decades but less about men’s caregiving and domestic roles.
Research, however, shows that men are, on average, not greatly increasing their role in
household work and unpaid care (Barker and Pawlak 2011). Lest do they know, men are missing out
in not engaging more in their domestic and family roles. It has been shown that being involved in the
lives of their children brings psychological and health benefits to men (Dykstra and Keizer 2009).
Research on child development demonstrates lasting benefits to children of their fathers’ involvement,
in terms of their confidence and school performance (Ruhm 2000; Sarkadi et al. Bremberg 2008).
However, it was said that men may contribute to the “domestic enterprise” in other
important ways, including through providing financial support, accompanying children to activities
outside of school or home (National Center on Fathers and Families 2002; Brown and Chevannes
1998).

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Better-education men are more likely to put more time into domestic roles and caregiving
(Hernandez 1996; Garcia and Oliveira 2004; Barker and Verani 2008). Men’s schooling may have
expanded their sense of norms and weakened stereotypes through their exposure to broader ideas and
more diverse people.
Masculinities and alcohol and drug use
More men drink than women; and men drink more than women (Room et al. 2002).
Studies show that men were more likely to drink than women, drank alcohol in greater
quantity and more frequently than women, and were more likely to face alcohol-related health and
social problems than women (Wisack et al. 2000).
In many settings, men,s drinking encourages solidarity and stimulates courage. It is a key
peer group ritual as well as being a recreational activity ( Coombs & Globetti,1986). When men
become drunk fights and homicides are rationalized ( Pange,1998), and women are encouraged to
tolerate men’s drunkenness as a natural part of their being men ( Caetano,1984).
Drug use and drug dealing can serve as ways of construivcting a powerfully masculine
identity( Collision 1996)

Protest Masculinity
Protest masculinity is a form of marginalized masculinity which picks up themes of hegemonic
masculinity in the society at large but reworks them in a context of poverty ( Connel 2005). In other
words, it is akin to hegemonic masculinity but in socially-deprived context.
Protest masculinity refers to describe instances of extreme forms of sex-typed behavior on the
part of some males, Key to the concept of protest masculinity are high levels of physical aggression.
The protest masculinity profile is also proposed as including destructiveness, low tolerance for delay
gratification, crime, drinking and similar depositions ( Braude 1990).

Caring Masculinity
The emergence of caring masculinities in many parts of the world has been assessed in several
reports since the early 2000s, all of them highlighting the virtuous impact of this reshape in male
identities and practices for gender equality improvements in societies (Connell 2003; Norwegian
Ministry for Children and Equality 2009; Scambor et al.2013; Levtov et al. 2015; Heilman et al. 2017;
Santos et al. 2016; Wall et al.2017).
After decades of women demanding equal rights and opportunities and for the end of male
domination and its harmful costs in their lives, caring masculinities arise as a strong ally against
hegemonic masculinity.
The concept of a caring masculinity proposes that men are able to adopt what is viewed as
traditionally feminine characteristics (i.e. emotional expression, sensitivity, domestication,
interdependence, caring, etc.) without departing from or rejecting masculinity (Elliott 2015; Miller
2011).
Caring masculinities can be seen as masculine identities that exclude domination and embrace the
affective, relational, emotional, and interdependent qualities of care; a critical form of men’s
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engagement in gender equality because doing care work requires men to resist hegemonic masculinity
(Elliott 2016).
So, besides the commitment to care work and gender equality, caring masculinities entail a mindful
refusal of hegemonic masculinity and inherent prerogatives (privileges, domination, power), as well as
of the plural manifestations of “complicit masculinity” that it assumes (Aboim 2010).
Men who approximate this form of masculinity are viewd as a form of “new man” (Edley and
Wetherell 1999; Smith 2016; Singleton and Maher 2004).

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Lesson 15.
GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE: SURVIVOR, VICTIM,
PERPETRATOR, AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Lesson Objectives:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand the definition of gender-based violence, other related terms, and its forms
and consequences.
2. Understand gender-based violence as a human rights issues;
3. Determine the relationship between human rights and gender-based violence; and
4. Differentiate perpetrators, survivors, and victims in gender-based violence.

CONSEQUENCES OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

These consequences includes serious, immediate, and long-term impacts on the sexual,
physical, and psychological health of survivors.
Health consequences include unwanted pregnancies, complication from unsafe abortions,
sexually transmitted infections including HIV, injuries, mental health, and psychological effects
(depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, suicide and death). Violence also affects children’s
survival, development, and school participation.
Social consequences extend to families and communities. Families can also be astigmatized as
a consequence of gender-based violence. For example, when children are born following a rape, or if
family members choose to stand by a survivor, fellow members of their community may avoid them.
Economic consequences include the cost of public health and social welfare systems and the
reduced ability of many survivors to participate in social and economic life. ( World Health
Organization, Global and Regional Estimates of Violence against Women 2013,
http://bit.ly/toTfGVG).

SURVIVOR, VICTIM, AND PERPETRATOR

Survivor is the preferred term ( not a “victim”) of a person who has lived through an incident of
gender-based violence. A perpetrator is a person, group, or institution that inflicts, supports, or
condones violence or other abuse against a person or group of persons.
Characteristics of perpetrators include:
a. Persons with real or perceived power;
b. Persons in decision-making positions; and
c. Persons in authority

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In all incidents of GBV, there is always a survivor/victim and a perpetrator. Therefore, all
actions in the prevention and responses to GBV need to address both the survivor and the
perpetrator.
Remember: The words we use communicate a message to people who are listening.
Survivor is the preferred term for those who have lived through a GBV incident. A
perpetrator is a person who commits an acts of GVB, there is a survivor and a perpetrators.
All actions in prevention must address potential survivors and potential perpetrators. Also, all
action in response need to address both the survivor and the perpetrator.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights are universal, inalienable, indivisible, interconnected, and interdependent.

Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status.

Prevention of and response to gender-based violence is directly linked to the protection of

human rights. Acts of gender-based violence violate a number of human rights principles enshrined in
international human rights instruments and in our Philippine Constitution.
These include the following, amongst others:
 The right to life, liberty, and property of persons;
 The right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health;
 The right to freedom from torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or
punishment;
 The right to freedom of opinion and expression and to education;
(UNFPA 2014)

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LESSON 16:
GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE: POWER, USE OF FORCE, AND
CONSENT

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, you are expected to:

1. Identify the relationship between abuse of power and GVB;
2. Understand that the term “violence” in the context of GVB means using some type of force,
which may or may not include physical force; and
3. Understand the meaning of “informed consent” and its relationship to GVB

POWER
Perpetrators can have “real” or “perceived” power. Some examples of different types of power and
powerful people are the following:
a. Social- peer pressure, bullying, leader, teacher, parents;
b. Economic – the perpetrator controls money or access to goods/service/money/favors;
sometimes the husband or the father;
c. Political- elected leaders, discriminatory laws, President of the United States;
d. Physical-strength, size, use of weapons, controlling access or security; soldiers, police,
robbers, gangs;
e. Gender-based (social) – males are usually in a more powerful position than females; and
f. Age-related- often, the young and elderly people have the least power.
Power is directly related to choice . The more power one has, there are more choices
available. The less power one has, fewer choices are available. Unempowered people have
fewer choices and therefore, more vulnerable to abuse. GVB involves the abuse of power.
Unequal power relationships are exploited or abused.

USE OF FORCE/VIOLENCE

“Force” might be physical, emotional, social, or economic in nature. It may also involve
coercion or pressure. Force also includes intimidation, threats, persecution, or other forms of
psychological or social pressure. The target of such violence is compelled to behave as expected or to
do what is being requested, for fear and harmful consequences.
Violence consist of the use of physical force or other means of coercion such as threat,
inducement, or promise of a benefit to obtain something from a weaker or more vulnerable person.
Using violence involves forcing someone to do something against her/his will –use of force.

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INFORMED CONSENT
Consent means saying “yes” agreeing to something. Informed consent means making an
informed choice freely and voluntarily by persons in equal power relationship.
Acts of GVB occur without informed consent. Even if she says “yes” this is not true consent
because it was said under duress- the perpetrators(s) used some kind of force to get her to say yes.
Children (under age 18) are deemed unable to give informed consent for acts such as female genital
cutting (FCG), marriage, sexual relations, etc.

CYCLE OF VIOLENCE

The cycle of violence refers to repeated acts of violence in a relationship. It starts with minor
incidents and moves on to more serious levels of violence. The cycle of violence may start in a child
who is a victim or witness to violence and may be repeated when child becomes an adult.
The impact of being a victim or a witness to violence on a child is traumatic. It can make a child
scared, unhappy, lonely, lose self-confidence, blame themselves, lose sleep, and pick up fights with
peers.
Children should understand that having conflicts is alright, but resolving conflict through
violence is not right.
When children understand that violence is not acceptable, they will grow up into adults who
respect other people.

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Lesson 17:
WOMEN AND THE LAW

Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses about the various Philippine laws affecting women and their rights. At the
end of this module, you should be able to:
 know about the various Philippine laws affecting women;
 identify the various rights of women; and
 understand the impact of these laws and rights to the Filipino woman and society.

Definition of Terms:
 The 1987 Constitution – the fundamental law of the country upon which all the laws are
anchored or based on;
 Magna Carta of Women – the main law enshrining all the rights of women and their roles in
building the nation; and
 Nation Building – collaborative efforts and means to establish and develop the country.

INTRODUCTION
The 1987 Constitution
The Philippines is known for its very liberal and progressive Constitution that was formulated
during the euphoria of People Power Revolution in 1986. Gender equality is a key element of this
Charter and as enshrined in Article II Section 14 of the 1987 Constitution, “this State recognizes the
role of the women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of
women and men.”
Considering the unequal gender relations in the country, the Constitution further provided for
women representation (as one of the nine marginalized sectors) in the legislature through the party-list
system (which should cover 20% of the lower house).
Finally, Article 13 Section 14 specifically mentioned that the “State shall protect working
women by providing safe and healthful working conditions, taking into according their maternal
functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to
realize their full potential in the service of the nation”.

Various Laws Promoting Gender Equality

The legal framework provided for by the 1987 Constitution resulted to various legislations
promoting gender equality. These legislations include the following:

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 Local Government Code of 1991. Provides for the election of sectoral representation,
including women, in local legislative councils.
 Party List Law. Provides for the creation of women-oriented or women-based parties to
complete under the party-list system. Women is one of the nine sectors identified in the law.
 Labor Code (1989). Covers issues, such as night work prohibition, specifies that employers
must provide special facilities for women, prohibition of discrimination against women in
respect to terms and conditions of employment, and prohibition of discrimination by reason
of marriage of a woman worker.
 Women in Nation Building Law. Republic Act 7192 (1991) is an act promoting the
integration of women as full and equal partners of men in development and nation-building.
The law provides that a substantial portion of government resources be utilized to support
programs and activities for women. The law also encourages the full participation and
involvement of women in the development process and to remove gender bias in all
government regulations and procedures.
In relation to gender budgeting, the law specifically mandated all agencies to allocate a
minimum of 5%, increasing to 30%, of all official development funds in mainstreaming gender
concerns.
 1988 Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. Gave Filipino women the right to own
land that previously reverted to sons and other male family members.
 Republic Act 7688 (1994). An act giving representation to women in social security
commission.
 Anti-Sexual Harassment Law. RA 7877 (1995). An act declaring sexual harassment to
be unlawful in the employment, education, or training environment.
 Republic Act 7822 (1995). An act providing assistance to women engaging in micro and
cottage business enterprises.
 Republic Act 8353 (1997). An act expanding the definition of the crime of rape,
reclassifying the same as a crime against persons.
These laws not only promote gender equality, but also gives protection to women’s rights and
enhances women empowerment.

National Programs
Based on the Philippine laws stated, a myriad of projects, initiatives, and processes on the gender
challenge arose. This includes the following:
 Philippine Plan for Gender Responsive Development (1995-2025). The National Plan for
Women that consolidates the action commitments of the Philippines during the Beijing
World Conference on Women. This is the overall frame that is also the point of reference for
the discussions and monitoring of gender mainstreaming.
 Gender and Development Budget (GAD). Integral to the national plan, it is aimed at
“institutionalizing gender concerns in the mainstream development process and agenda
and not just peripheral programs and projects of the government”. Concretely, it
prescribes for all allocation of 5% of the government agency’s/local government unit’s
budget on gender-responsive activities and projects. As a result, implementation of the
development programs and policies of government also means women partaking a role in

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governance. As primarily stakeholders in the development process, women have the right to
maximize their involvement in governance, be it at the local or national level.
 Framework Plan for Women (FPW). This is part of the Philippine Plan for Women
developed to focus on three thrusts, namely: promoting women’s economic empowerment;
advance and protect women rights; and promote gender responsive governance. This plan
identifies the concrete gender issues that will be addressed, pinpoint targets and indicators,
name programs, formulates the implementation plan, and set-up tools for monitoring and
evaluation.

Women’s Right to Participate

Women’s right to vote was granted in 1937. The Constitution of 1935 stipulated that the right
of suffrage would be extended to women, only if 300,000 women voted in its favor during national
plebiscite. This consolidated the emerging women’s movement and “… brought to the fore the
activism of such women as Concepcion Felix de Calderon who formed the Association Feminista
Filipina in June 1905, Rosa Sevilla de Alvero and a young Trinidad Almeda, Miss Constancia Poblete,
founder of Liga Femenina de la Paz, Pura Villanueva Kalaw and Paz Mendoza Guazon, Pilar Hidalgo
Lim, President of the National Federation of Women’s Club and Josefa Llanes Escoda, president of
the Girl Scouts of the Philippines’ (Ugnayan ng Kababaihan sa Pulitika 1998).
The General Council of Women was then established in Manila to direct the plebiscite
campaign. Its aim was to draw the support of the broadest number of women. As it turned out,
447,725 Women voted yes in the 1937 plebiscite. Interestingly, 44,307 women voted against the
provision. What followed was a colorful history of women’s foray into the various levels of electoral
victories, but generally pushed by familial affiliation and elite association.
At present, women’s right to vote and participate are maintained and further protected by
existing laws at hand.

Women’s Involvement in Civil Society

Women’s expressions of involvement in civil society could be through organizing along
gender-specific issues and formation of all-women groups within broad coalitions as power-enhancing
mechanisms. Groups such as the PILIPINA feminist movement, the militant GABRIELA women’s
group, the Ugnayan ng Kababaihan sa Pulitika (UKP- Network of Women in Politics), the KILOS
KABARO (Act Sisters Coalition), and SIBOL Legislative Network have trail blazed women
advocacies both in policies and in legislations.
There also exist a so-called “Philippine NGO Beijing Score Board” which evolved from the
National Steering Committee (NSC) of NGOs for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on
Women, and this lead in the national monitoring of the government’s implementation of the Beijing
Platform for Action.
Along with other women groups and gender-oriented institutions, they have succeeded in
raising gender-specific issues such as domestic violence, prostitution, reproductive health, sexual
harassment, and rape. Intense lobbying efforts by the women’s groups resulted in the passage of
several landmark laws, among them is the anti-sexual harassment law in 1995 and the anti-rape act in
1997. The gains of the women’s movement are basically achieved through various partnerships with
the rest of the civil society.
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WOMEN AND EDUCATION
The Philippine educational system is a combination of public and private institutions with the
State providing free education for elementary and secondary levels. The Constitution provides that
without “… limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children, elementary education is
compulsory for all children of school age… (Article VIX, Section 2).
There is no general discrimination of girls in education, thus, there is no marked differences
existing in the educational status of Filipino women and men. One glaring issue is the gender
stereotyping of fields of study and specialization and its onward translation into the world of work
where men generally occupy the highest ranks and the highest paying positions.
Women’s larger responsibility for housework and for the family impedes their ability to use
their educational training and skills for remunerative work.
The topics previously discussed are always timely, relevant, and part and parcel of the daily
lives of the Filipinos. These only show the degree of importance that must be given to these topics.

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ASSESSMENT
1. Do the number of laws, programs, and rights of women discussed indicate that the
Filipino women are already empowered?
2. Utilizing your knowledge now of the laws, programs, and rights of women, what can you
do to uplift women empowerment in the Philippines.

SUMMARY

Laws on Filipino women are aplenty, from the fundamental law of the land up to existing
legislations. It can be projected that more such legislations shall arise in the future. These laws are
essential as they can be springboards of various national programs, women involvement, participation,
and inclusion-all towards the highest goal of empowering women.

REFERENCES
1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines.
National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women. (2001). Framework Plan for Women,
http.//www.ncrfw.gov.ph
National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women. (2001). Gender Mainstreaming,
httpp://www.ncrfw.gov.ph
National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women. (March 2002).Filipino Women Facts
and Figures.
National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women. (October 2002). Facts and Figures,
httpp://www.ncrfw.gov.ph
National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women. (2001). State of Filipino
WomenReport 2001:Under GMA, women fared well in health, education, politics
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Country Reports
on the State of Women in Urban Local Government, http://www.unescap.org

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Lesson 18:
‘’VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN
ACT” or REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9262

Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses the important provisions of the Violence against Women and their
Children (VAWC) Act or RA 9262. This module also discusses important cases involving the said
law.
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the important provisions of VAWC Act or RA9262;
2. Understand the details of its commission; and
3. Comprehend actual cases involving the said law.

Definition of terms:
Protection orders- orders issued by the Barangay or the courts distancing the perpetrator from the
victim and vice versa for reasons provided for by the law.
Public Crime- nature of a crime wherein it is considered to be an affront to the society, allowing
anyone who had personal knowledge to file a case for VAWC.

INTRODUCTION
The REPUBLIC ACT 9262, or the Anti- Violence against women and their Children (Anti-
VAWC) Act of 2004, is a result of the strong advocacies on women’s rights in the country. This Law
was deemed to be a significant victory for all Filipino women as it was based on the right of women
not to sure suffer abuse, discrimination and violence in their respective relationships.
Important features of the law includes:
1. Four kinds of violence against women and children are defined- the law defined four
kinds of violence-physical, psychological, sexual, and economic- in its effort to encompass
all types of abuses inflicted to women and their children;
2. VAWC is public crime- the crime is perpetrated not only against a single individual, but
against the entire society, thus, anyone who has personal knowledge of the abuse, violence,
or discrimination can file a complaint;
3. Protections orders can be issued against the perpetrator- on filing the case, the victim-
survivor or anyone who has personal knowledge can apply for a protection order to enforce
distance between her and the perpetrator; and

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4. Stronger community mechanisms to respond to cases- various government agencies are
mandated to aptly respond or formulate mechanisms to respond to reported cases of VAWC
immediately.
Protection Orders
A protection order under the Anti- VAWC Law is defined as:
“..an order issued.. for the purpose of preventing further acts of violence against a woman and her
child specified in Section of this Act and granting other necessary relief. The relief granted under a
protection order should serve the purpose of safeguarding the victim, minimizing any disruption in the
victim’s daily life, and facilitating the opportunity and ability of the victim to independently gain
control of her life”.
The law enumerates the following reliefs that may be availed of through a protection order:
1. Prohibition of the respondent (perpetrator) from threatening to commit or committing
personally or through another, any of the acts penalized by the Anti- VAWC law;
2. Prohibition of the respondent from harassing, annoying, telephoning, contacting, or otherwise
,communicating with the petitioner( victim-survivor) directly or indirectly;
3. Removal and exclusion of the respondent from the residence of the petitioner whether
temporarily or permanently;
4. Directing the respondent to stay away from the petitioner and any designated family or
household member at a distance specified by the court;
5. Directing lawful possession and use by the petitioner of an automobile and other personal
effects regardless of ownership;
6. Granting temporary or permanent custody of a child/children to the petitioner;
7. Directing the respondent to provide support to the women and/or her child if entitled to legal
support;
8. Prohibition of the respondent from any use or possession of any firearm or deadly weapon
and order him to surrender the same, including revocation of license and disqualification to
apply for any license to use or possess a firearm;
9. Restitution for actual damage caused by violence inflicted including property damage,
medical expenses, and loss of income.
10. Directing the Department of Social welfare and Development (DSWD) or any appropriate
agency to provide temporary shelter and other social services that the petitioner may need;
and
11. Provision of other forms of relief as may be necessary to protect and provide for the safety of
the petitioner.

Rights of Victim-Survivors of VAWC Cases

RA 9262 specified the following as rights of the victim-survivors:
“Section 35. Rights of Victims- in addition to their eights under existing laws, victims of violence
against women and their children shall have the following rights:
a) To be treated with respect and dignity;
b) To avail of legal assistance from the Public Attorney’s Office and the Department of Justice
or any public legal assistance office;
c) To be entitled to support services from the DSWD and the LGUs (local government units);

84
d) To be entitled all legal remedies and support as provided for under the Family Code; and
e) To be informed of their right to apply for a protection order.”
The rights to privacy of the victim are also provided in the law, and its violation is punishable
by imprisonment and fine.
Duties of National and Local Government Offices
Section 39 of RA 9262 provides for the creation of the Inter-Agency Council on Violence
against Women and their Children (IAC-VAWC), which shall formulate gender- sensitive program
and projects according to their respective agency mandates, including capability building programs for
their employees.
The IAC-VAWC consist of the following agencies: DSWD National Commission on the
Role of the Filipino Women, Civil Service Commission, Commission on Human Rights, Council for
the Welfare of Children, Department of Justice, Department of Interior and Local Government,
Philippine National Police, Department of Health, Department of Education, Department of Labor
and Employment, and National Bureau of Investigation.
The implementing rules and regulations of the Anti-VAWC Act state the following duties
and responsibilities of LGUs or the Barangay in addressing VAWC cases, apart from the issuances of
Barangay Protection Orders:
“Section 47. Duties and Functions of Barangay Officials – In order to eliminate violence against
women and their children, barangay officials shall:
a) Undertake an education program on Republic Act No. 9262 and on violence against women
and their children and why it exists, the rights and remedies of victim-survivors, and the
duties of residents and all barangay officials;
b) Have a family violence prevention program, including peer counselling for men;
c) Support organizing efforts and development programs for women in the community;
d) Prioritize livelihood projects for victim-survivors;
e) Involve women in planning and implementation of all programs and projects in the
barangay;
f) Have an Anti-VAWC desk officer in the barangay who shall coordinate a one-stop help
desk. As much as possible, this help desk shall be open for 24 hours;
g) Ensure that all barangay officials, barangay health workers, barangay nutrition scholar, other
barangay workers, and tanod or barangay security officers undergo gender sensitivity
seminars to enable them to respond to victims of violence;
h) Develop system to document and report cases of VAWC and assistance program to victims
thereof; and
i) If applicable/ necessary, prescribe additional guidelines and standards provided that these
are consistent with the act.

Case 2 ( Ang vs CA and Sagud; GR 182835, April 20, 2010)

After receiving from the accused Rustan via multimedia message service (MMS), a picture of
a naked woman with her face superimposed on the figure. Complainant filed an action against said
accused for violation of the VAWC Act or Republic Act (R.A.) 9262. the sender cell phone number,
stated in the message, was 0921-8084768, one of the numbers that Rustan used. Irish surmised that he
copied the picture of her face from a shot he took when they were in Baguio in 2003. The accused said
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to have boasted that it would be easy for him to create similarly scandalous pictures of her and
threatened to spread the picture he sent through the internet.

ASSESSMENT
1. What knowledge obtained about Anti- VAWC Act or RA 9262 will be useful to you, your
family, community, and society?
2. Provide specific ways on how can this knowledge be realized in your family, community, and
society.

SUMMARY
The VAWC Act is a landmark legislation championing the cause of women. This specific
law pertains to specific violations captured as four (4) acts of violence defined in the law. Also,
VAWC was considered to be a public crime allowing other persons to file the compliant, not only the
victim- survivor. Further, the law allows protection orders distancing the perpetrator from the victim
and vice versa for several purposes as provided for therein. Importantly, government unit are
mandated to provide specific and immediate mechanisms to respondent appropriately to these VAWC
cases.

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Lesson 19:
LAWS AND POLICIES ON VIOLENCE AND DISCRIMINATION
OF THE MEMBERS OF LGBTQ+

Equal protection – requires that all persons or things similarly situated should be treated
alike, both as to the rights conferred and responsibilities imposed.
Dual process- principle that the Government must respect all of a person’s legal rights at this
ensures that all laws and legal proceeding must be fair and equal for all.

The 1987 constitution (Equal Protection and Due Process Clause)

The 1987 Philippine Constitution states that: “The State values the dignity of every human
person and guarantees full respect for human rights.” Apart from this, the 1987 Constitution
enshrines in its due process and equal protection clauses that: “No person shall be deprived of life,
liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any person be denied the equal
protection of the laws.” (Article 3, Sec 1, 1987 Philippine Constitution)
As the fundamental law of the land, the guarantees on equality, lawful processes, and the
paramount consideration on ensuring human dignity and respect for human rights in these provisions
serve as the basis for the protection of the rights of member of the LGBTQ+.
The 2010 Supreme Court Decision in the “Ang Ladlad” case ( Ang LAdlad LGBT Party vs.
Comelec GR 190582 8 April 2010) considered the breadth of the equal protection clause in the
constitution. The court ruled in favour of following “Ang Ladlad” to be a Party-list reasoning that:
“from the standpoint of the political process, the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender have
the same interest in participating in the party-list system on the same basis as other political parties
similarly situated. Hence, laws of general application should apply with equal force to LGBTs, and
they deserve to participate in the party-list system on the same basis other marginalized and under-
represented sectors.”

Violence and Discrimination

Despite widespread anecdotal evidence of crimes perpetrated against LGBTQ+
COMMUNITY IN THE Philippines, most data these cases have not undergone official verification
and collation.
In March 2016, the Trans Murder Monitoring Project listed 41 reported cases of transgender
people murdered in the country since 2008.

Violence and Discrimination against LGBTQ+ Youth in Education

A. Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (Republic 10627)
Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (Republic Act 10627) includes gender-based bullying as a
prohibited and punishable act.
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Gender-based bullying is defined as “any act that humiliates or excludes a person on
the basis of perceived or actual sexual orientations and gender identity (SOGI) (Republic Act
No. 10627)

B. Child Protection Policy 2012

In cases where the bullying is committed by a Principal, teacher or any other school
personnel, the law violated is Department of Education Order No. 40 on Child Protection
Policy. This policy includes the protection of students from any form of violence regardless of
their sexual orientation or gender identity.

C. Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation, And Discrimination Act
of 1992 (Anti-Child Abuse Act or Republic Act 7610)

Parents of children who suffer abuse at the hands of teachers or members of the school’s
administration violates RA 7610 or the Anti-Child Abuse Act.

Such cases can cover instances of physical, psychological injury, or cruelty on the basis of the
child’s SOGI.

Violence and Discrimination against LGBTQ+ in the Workplace

a. The Labor Code of the Philippines (PD 442)

The Labor Code is the national law covering employment for the private sector in
the Philippines. With the exception of prohibitions against discrimination of women, it
does not contain any provision that prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender
identity, particularly on the members of the LGBTQ+.

Nonetheless, while the law is quiet on gender identity and expression, it is clear in
its Declaration of Policy (Article 3) that he “State shall afford protection to labor,
promote full employment, ensure equal work opportunities”.

Clearly, the mandate for equal opportunity in employment is clear. But, the reality
shows a different picture since members of the LGBTQ+ encounter hardship in
accessing work opportunities because of discrimination.

The absence of a national law that explicitly prohibits discrimination on the basis of
gender identity makes it easier for employers to hide behind fabricated reasons for not
accepting, firing, or depriving members of the LGBTQ+ of their employment benefits.
Often, policies on uniform, documents, and use of comfort rooms are used against
members of the LGBTQ+ employees and even applicants.

b. CSC No. 01-0940- the civil Service Commission’s Policy on Anti- Sexual
Harassment

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The civil Service Commission Administrative Disciplinary Rules on Sexual
Harassment Cases includes other less grave, punishable offences. These include
prohibiting “derogatory and degrading remarks or innuendoes directed toward the
members of one’s sex, or one’s sexual orientation or used to describe a person”.
This rules applied to all government entities that fall under the civil service
jurisdiction.
The policy is important because it explicitly covers derogatory remarks regarding
sex, sexual orientation, or other remarks that are used as description of a person with the
intention to insult. In addition, this policy for government agencies does not require that
the offender has moral ascendancy over the victim.
The fact that the perpetrator and the victim are of the same level of position will not
preclude the victim from filing a case. While gender identity is not specifically
mentioned as a ground, if a LGBTQ+ civil servant is harassed verbally by co-workers,
they would be able to rely on the generic protection from “derogatory and degrading
remarks”.

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Lesson 20:
DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF SEXUAL
ORIENTATION, GENDER IDENTITY AND EXPRESSION
(SOGIE) IN THE PHILIPPINES

SOGIE -an acronym for sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and expression-aspects of gender of
persons which must be considered and given attention.
Anti-Discriminatory Bill- a proposed legislation before the Philippine Congress intended to prevent
various economics and public accommodation- related acts of discrimination against
people based on their SOGIE.
The Universal Policy
Articles 2(1), 3, and 26 of the convention provide for the respect, equally, and non
discrimination of all individuals on the grounds of, inter alia, race, color, and sex.
In the landmark decision of Toonen v Australia in 1994, it is found not only that the reference
to “sex” in Articles 2(I) and 26 must be take to include sexual orientation, but also that laws which
criminalize consensual homosexual acts expressly violate the privacy protections of laws.

National and Local Policies

LGUs from different cities all over the Philippines have been proactive in passing and filing
city ordinances banning LGBT discrimination.
Presently, the anti- discriminatory bill is still pending before the congress. This bill is
expected to be signed in to a law before the end of the Duterte Administration. Prior to these bills,
several LGU’s have enacted ordinances and resolution to address these issues.
In Quezon City, anti-discrimination in employment was enacted in 2004 and LGBT- friendly
provisions are supplemented in the Quezon city gender and development ordinance. Albay province
and Bacolod City passed an anti-discrimination ordinance. Angeles City not only passed anti-
discrimination legislation, but created a Gay Rights Desk as well.
In the house of representatives, representative Raymond Palatino of the Kabataan Partylist
field House Resolution No,13333, which seeks to investigate prejudicial, discriminatory, and unjust
practices and policies against LGBT students implemented and tolerated on schools, partnering with
the DepEd and other government agencies to explore the inclusion of a Comprehensive Gender
Curriculum on basic and secondary education and in vocational and technical school to incorporate
discussion on issues of LGBT persons.
In May 2012, the DepEd issued DepEd order No. 40 or, “The DepEd Child Protection
Policy” to guarantee the protection of child in schools from any form of violence, abuse or
exploitation regardless of sexual orientation and gender identity.

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Effect of State Discrimination in Society
The State’s treatment of LGBT individuals intensifies discrimination on the basis of SOGIE
within Philippines society and social institutions.
Being young and not conforming to the gender role assigned to one’s sex increases the risk of
discrimination and abuse for LGBT persons. This victimization is aggravated by the absence of
support mechanism and school policies addressing this concern, as well as the failure of schools to
safeguard students from being abused by other students, staff, administrators, and teachers. The
discrimination LGBT students face in schools not only violates the right to be free from discrimination
but prevents these individuals from the enjoyment of numerous other rights in the Covenant as well.
Homophobia, the stigma and prejudice toward LGBT persons, are very present within
Filipino society, creating a dangerous climate of hostility toward LGBT people.
LGBT youth are often targeted by parents who, upon discovering their child’s sexual
orientation and/or gender identity, feel compelled to inflict physical harm on them out of frustration or
in an attempt to prevent their child from expressing their sexuality.

Discrimination by the Catholic Church

The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) and Episcopal Commission on
Family and Life (ECFL) has been fervently demanding Congress for the removal of “sex, gender,
sexual orientation and gender identity” in the comprehensive anti-discrimination ordinances filed in
the Senate and in the House of Representatives, claiming that its inclusion will only “create problems
regarding ethics, marriage, the family and religious freedom” and reasons that “ the difference in sex
or gender does not belong to the same level as the difference in race, color, religion, or ethnicity”.
Antagonists of the anti-discrimination bill claim that the passage of an anti-discrimination
legislation will open the door for same-sex marriages. A provision allowing for same-sex marriage
was not present in the anti-discrimination bill at the time of its introduction first filing and has never
been added.

Participation of the members of LGBTQ+ in Public Life

Article 25 of the Convention provides for the right of each citizen to participate in public
affairs, to vote, and to have equal access to public service in the country. These rights are provided
free of unreasonable restriction and free from distinctions made on the basis of sex, which as
mentioned above, includes sexual orientation.

Discrimination in the Military

Through their media announcements, it seems on the surface that the Philippine military and
the police are adhering to the no-discrimination clause of the Philippine Constitution (Art 2) and the
ICCPR by its declaration of openness to admit gays, lesbians, and bisexual persons in military and
police service.
Upon closer inspection, the additional conditions required from gay, lesbian, and bisexual
applicants and cadets demonstrate lingering prejudices and negative stereotypes toward LGBT person.
Also, the military’s apparent strict adherence exclusively towards heterosexist gender binary
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(masculine and feminine) roles discriminate against those that fall short to this standard and are
considered as the benchmark of what constitutes being decent, proper and respectful.
The generalized negative stereotyping of LGBT persons and the misconception that a
person’s sexual orientation defines one’s gender expression are most evident on the common position
of the APF, PNP, and PMA towards gay and effeminate behavior.
The identification of sources of discrimination is vital so that you will know how these acts
are committed or performed by the social institutions, their respective actors. The unified output can
results to a class program or activity addressing this concern.

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LESSON 21:
UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Definition of terms:
Sexual Harassment- it is an act or a series of acts involving any unwelcome sexual advance, request,
or demand for a sexual favor, or other than verbal or physical behavior of a sexual nature, committed
by a government employee or official in a work- related, training,- or education- related environment.

Sexual Harassment
Harassment and sexual harassment are recognized as a form of discrimination on the grounds
of sex and, thus, are contrary to the principle of equal treatment between men and women (Numhuser-
Henning and Laulom 2012).
Like many other crimes, sexual harassment is all about power, control and domination.
International Labor Organization (ILO) (2001) defined sexual harassment as a sex-based behavior that
is unwelcome and offensive to the recipient. Thus, sexual harassment is not merely a problem of
safety and health and unacceptable working conditions, but is also a form of violence primarily against
women (ILO 1992).
In the Philippines, Republic Act No.7877 or the “Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995”
defines work- education -,or training –related sexual harassment is committed by an employer,
employee, manager, supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor, coach, another in
a work or training or education environment , demands, request, or otherwise requires any sexual
favor from the other, regardless of whether the demand, request, or requirement for submission is
accepted by the object of said Act.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment cannot be understood from the perspective of a single theory, but it is
always a combination of different predictors. Previous researchers have looked at sexual harassment
using a number of frameworks including organizational approach, feminist, theory, role theory, and
attributional models of sexual harassment. However, all these models share common basic
assumptions and can be labelled as socio-cultural models of sexual harassment (Sheet and Braver
1999).
However, there have been five widely accepted theories of sexual harassment that attempt to
explain the phenomenon from different angles and perspective, to wit:
1. Natural /Biological Theory
According to this model, men have stronger sex derives, and are therefore, biologically
motivate to engage in sexual pursuit of woman. Thus, the harassing behavior is not meant to
be offensive or discriminatory, but is merely the result of biological urges. Its assumptions
include natural and mutual attraction between men and women, a stronger male sex drive,
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and men in the role of sexual initiators. A key strength of the natural/biological perspective is
that it acknowledges the innate human instincts potentially driving sexually aggressive
behavior (Tangri et al.1982).
2. Sex Role Spillover Theory
This theory is based on proposition of irrelevant gender-based role expectations that
individuals bring to the workplace in guiding their interactions with women. Men hold role
perceptions of women based on their traditional role in our culture.
When women take jobs outside of these traditional areas to work in the male dominated
workplace, men rely on these gender-based expectation when interacting with women
therefore, perceiving women on their gender role over and above their work role. Therefore,
men are more likely to make sexual remarks or engage in sexualized behavior, thus
accounting for the fact that women experience more sexual harassment than men (Barbara
Gutek 1982).
3. Organizational Theory
Proponents of this theory propose that one of the central concepts that helps to explain
sexual harassment is power (Cleveland and Kurst 1993). This theory proposes that sexual
harassment results from the opportunities presented by power and authority relations which
derive from hierarchical structures of organizations (Gruber 1992).
This perspective emphasizes that the structure of organizational hierarchy invests power
in certain individuals over others that can lead to abuse. Thus, sexual harassment is all about
expression of male power over women that sustain patriarchal relations.
4. Socio-cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theories examine the wider social and political context in which sexual
harassment is created and occurs. According to this perspective, sexual harassment ias a
logical consequence of the gender inequality and sexism that already exists in society (Gutek
1985;Thomas and Kitzinger 1997).

This theory asserts that women’s lesser status in the larger society is reflected at the
workplace structures and culture- thus, male dominance continues to be the rule.

Herein, sexual harassment is only one manifestation of a much larger patriarchal system
in which men are the dominant group reflecting the larger society’s differential distribution of
power and status between the sexes. The perpetrators of sexual harassment have no regard for
women as an equal human being. Therefore, molesting women is a part and parcel of male
idea of fun in the society.
5. Feminist Theory
According to the feminist perspective, sexual harassment is linked to the sexist male
ideology of male dominance and male superiority in the society. Therefore, feminists
‘theories view sexual harassment as the product of a gender system maintained by a
dominant, normative form of masculinity. Thus, sexual harassment exists because of the
views on women as the inferior sex, but also sexual harassment serves to maintain the already
existing gender stratification by emphasizing sex role expectations (Guetk1985).

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Relevance of Sexual Harassment Theories

An interpretation of these theoretical perspectives reveals that both biologically, as

well as socio-culturally, men happen to have always occupied a dominant position over
women in societies, of which the work places are only a part.
Considerable data have been accumulated confirming that harassment is widespread in both
the public (Culbertson et al.1992: Fitzgerald el al.1997) and the private sectors and it has
significant consequences for the employees’ health and psychological well-being (Fitzgerald
1993;Scheider et al.1997).

Therefore, the vulnerability of women as a weaker sex has traveled towards workplaces
and academe, where it is considered natural and normal for men to be responding sexually
towards women as colleagues, subordinates, and superior.

Philippine Laws on Sexual Harassment

Republic Act No.7877, or the Anti-Sexual Act of 1993 RA 7877, is the governing
law for work,-education -,or training-related sexual harassment.
Specifically, in ta work-related or employment environment, sexual harassment is
committed when;
1. The sexual favor is made as a condition in the hiring or in the employment, re-
employment or continued employment of said individual, or in granting said
individual favorable compensation, terms of conditions, promotions or privileges; or
the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in limiting, segregating, or classifying the
employee which in any way would discriminate, deprive, or diminish employment
opportunities or otherwise, adversely affect said employee;
2. The above acts would impair the employee’s rights or privileges under existing
labor laws; or
3. The above acts would result in an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment for
the employee.
On the other hand, in an education or training environment, sexual harassment is committed:

1. Against one who is under care, custody, or supervision of the offender;

2. Against one whose education, training, apprenticeship, or tutorship is entrusted to
the offender;
3. When the sexual favor is made a condition to the giving of a passing grade, granting
of honors and scholarships, or the payment of a stipend, allowance or other benefits,
privileges, or consideration ; or
4. When the sexual advances result in an intimidating, hostile, or offensive
environment for the student, trainee, or apprentice.

Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service

Sexual Harassment in the Civil Service is punishable by Civil Service commission No.01-
0940, also known as Administrative Disciplinary Rules on Sexual Harassment Cases.

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Here, sexual harassment can be committed at the following places:
1. In the premise of the workplace or office or of the school or training institution;
2. I n any place where the parties were found, as a result of work or education or training
responsibilities or relations;
3. At work- education -, or training,-related social functions;
4. While on official business outside the office or school or training institution or during
work-,school,-or training-, related travel;
5. At official conferences, for a, symposia, or training sessions; or
6. By telephone, cellular phone, fax machine, or electronic mail.
The following forms of sexual harassment are committed thru:(1)Physical,
(a)Malicious touching;(b)Overt Sexual advances;(c)Gestures with lewd insinuation;
(2)Verbal, such as but not limited to,(a) request or demands for sexual favors and (b)lurid
remarks;(3)Use of objects, pictures or graphics, letters or written notes with sexual
underpinnings;(4)Other forms analogous to the foregoing.

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Lesson 22:
WOMEN’S ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

Development- the process in which someone or something grows or changes and becomes more
advanced.
Women in Development- approach of development projects that emerged in the 1960s, calling for
treatment of women’s issues in development projects.
Women and Development- approach comes from the perspective that equality will be essential to
improving women’s positions, but still frames change in terms of providing women access to the
productive sector.
Gender and Development- was developed in the 1980s, stepped away from both WID and WAD and
was founded in socialist-0feminist ideology (Rathgeber 1990, 493). The GAD approach holds that the
oppression of women stems largely from a neoliberal focus on improving women’s reproductive and
productive capacities.

Women in Development (WID)

By the 1970s, it became clear that women were being left out of development. They were not
benefiting significantly from it and in some instances, their existing status and position in society were
actually worsened by development.
The Women in Development (WID) approached this issue-the exclusion of women from
development program hand approaches. WID saw women as a group that lacks opportunity to
participate in development.
The main task, therefore, was to improve women’s access to resources and their participation
in development. The WID approach emphasized the importance of the integration of women into
development programs and planning. Accordingly, this was the best way to improve women’s position
in society.
The WID approach, although it had limitations, increased the visibility of woman in
development issues. WID was successful in helping secure a prominent place for women’s issues at
the United Nations (UN) and other international \development agencies. The UN declared that the
decade of 1975 to 1985 to be the decade for women. One of the major achievements of the decade was
the establishment of women in development structures or machineries.
In Zambia, for instance, it was during this time that the Women’s League of the then ruling
political party, United National Independence Party (UNIP), was formed as the national machinery t
address women’s development issues.

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Women and Development (WAD)
As a result of criticisms of the WID approach, the women and Development (WAD)
approach arose in the latter part of the 1970s. Adopting a Marxist feminist approach, the main
argument of WAD was that women had always been part of the development processes. WAD
asserts that women have always been important economic actors.
The work they do both inside and outside the household is critical to the maintenance of
society. However, this integration has only served to sustain global inequalities. In other words, the
WID approach that placed emphasis on integrating women into development was not correct.
The main focus of WAD is on the interaction women and development process rather than
purely on strategies to integrate women into development.
WAD saw both women and men as not benefiting from the global economic structures
because of disadvantages due to class and the way wealth is distributed. WAD argued that the
integration of women into development was to their disadvantage and only made their inequality
worse. WAD saw global inequalities as the main problem facing poor countries and the citizens of
those countries.
On the other hand, WAD has been criticized for assuming that the position of women will
improve if and when international structures become more equitable. It sees women’s positions as
primarily within the structure of international and class inequalities.
WAD even underplays the role of patriarchy in undermining women’s development and does
not adequately address the question of social relations between men and women and their impact on
development.

Gender and Development

In the 1980s, further reflections on the development experiences of women gave rise to
Gender and Development (GAD). It brought together both the lessons learned from, and the
limitations of, the WID and WAD approaches.
GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and men. It seeks to ensure that
both women and men participate in the benefit equally from development and so, emphasizes equally
of benefit and control. It recognizes that women may be involved in development, but not necessarily
benefit from it.
GAD is not concerned with women exclusively, but with the way in which gender relation
allot specific roles, responsibilities, and expectations between men and women, often to the
detriment of women.
This approached also plays particular attention to the oppression of women in the family or
the ‘private sphere’ of women’s lives. As a result, we have seen projects develop addressing issues
such as VAW. GAD focuses on the social or gender relations (i.e. the division of labor) between men
and women in society and seeks to address issues of access and control over resources and power.
GAD goes further than the other approaches in emphasizing both the reproductive and
productive role of women and argues that it is the state’s responsibility to support the social
reproduction role mostly played by women of caring and nurturing of children. As such, it treats
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development as a complex process that is influenced by political, social, and economic factors rather
than as a state of development.

Practical approaches to the Development of Women

The Welfare Approaches
Until the early 1970s, development programs addressed the needs of women almost entirely
within the context of their reproductive roles. The focus was on mother and child heath, child care,
and nutrition. Population control- or family planning as it later came to be known-was a major focus
as well due to the link made between population growth and poverty. The focus was clearly on
meeting practical needs.
The assumptions that women’s position would improve together with general improvements
in the economy, or with the economic positions of their husbands, began to be challenged as it became
clear women were in fact losing out.
Women, as a result, were being increasingly associated with backwardness and the tradition
while men were increasingly identified with modern and progressiveness.

The Equity Approach

Feminist calls for gender equality were important in bringing about this approach, the main
aim of which was to eliminate discrimination. It emphasized the re-valuing of women’s contribution
and share of benefits from development. The equity approach also dealt with both the productive and
reproductive roles as a responsibility of government.
The equity approach, in contrast to the welfare approach, saw women as active participant
organizing to bring about necessary changes.

The Anti-Poverty Approach

This approach focuses on both the productive and reproductive role of women with an
emphasis on satisfaction of basic needs and the productivity of women. A key operational strategy
required access to income generation and waged employment. The tendency with this approach was to
reinforce the basic needs and ignore the strategic needs of women.

The Efficiency Approach

The efficiency approach aims to have increased production and economic growth with an
emphasis on full use of human resources. Advocates of this approach argue that gender analysis
makes good economic sense. This is because understanding men’s and women’s roles and
responsibilities as part of the planning of development activities helps improve effectiveness and
ensures that women, as well as men, can play their part in national development.
The efficiency approach succeeded in bringing the concerns about women and gender into
the mainstream of development. However, this was done with a focus on what women could do for
development, rather than on what development could do for women.

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The Empowerment Approach
The aim of the empowerment approach is to increase the self-reliance of women and to
influence change at the policy, legislative, societal, economic, and other levels to their advantage. Its
main strategy is awareness-raising and situates women firmly as active participants in ensuring
change takes place.
The empowerment approach has been instrumental in ensuring that opportunities are opened
for women to determined their own needs. However, empowerment has often been misunderstood to
be an end rather than a means. This has resulted in poor women becoming very knowledgeable about
issues while realizing little change to their material situation, which is often dire.

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Lesson 23:
GENDER INEQUALITY IN MARRIAGE AND CRIMINAL LAWS

Marriage- a special contract of permanent union between a man and a women entered into in
accordance with law establishment of conjugal a family life. It is a foundation of a family and
an inviolable social institution.
Marriage laws in the Philippines are only based on sex and not on gender. In the 1987
Philippine Constitution, marriage is stated as “an inviolable social institution, is the foundation of the
family and shall be protected by the State”. (Art. XV, Section 2, 1987 Constitution).
Under the Family Code, marriage is defined as “especial contract of permanent union
between a man and a women entered into in accordance with the law for the establishment of
conjugal and family life (Article I, The Family Code of the Philippines).
The fact the specific law provides marriage only for a man and a woman, causes exclusion of
homosexual relationship as it only accommodates heterosexual ones. This deprives members of the
LGBTQ+ of this Constitutionally- enshrined right, afforded supposedly every Filipino. Flawing from
that definition, succeeding provisions of marital laws in the Philippines are anchored on the above
inequality.
Apart from marital laws, various personal laws present these picture of inequality in its
provisions. The crime of adultery present harsher requisites than the crime of concubinage (Articles
333 and 334 of the Revised Penal Code). Vagrant and prostitutes pertain only to women (Article 202
of the Revised Penal Code). Gender equality issues on night work prohibition (Article 130 of the
Labor Codes), disputable presumption (Rule 131, Section 3 jj of the Rules of Court) and removal of
criminal liability for rapists under RA 8353 should also be visited.
Incorporating gender inequality in various laws are vital to be addressed as otherwise, this ill
concept will further be proliferated.

The Primacy of the Decision the Husband/Father

Under the Article 14 of the Family Code of the Philippines, it is provided that: “Art. 14. In
case either or both of the contracting parties, not having been emancipated by a previous marriage,
are between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one, they shall, in addition to the requirements of the
preceding articles, exhibit to the local civil registrar, the consent to their marriage to their father,
mother, surviving parent or guardian, or persons having legal charge of them, in the ordered
mentioned. such consent shall be manifested in writing by the interested party, who personally
appears before the proper local civil registrar, or in the form of an affidavit made in the presence of
two witnesses and a tested before any official authorized by law to administer oaths. The personal
manifestation shall be recorded in both applications for marriage license, and the affidavit, if one is
executed instead, shall be attached to said applications.” (emphasis supplied)

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On the administration and enjoyment of the community property or conjugal
partnership, Articles 96 and 124 of the Family Code provide that:
“Art. 96. The administration an enjoyment of the community property shall belong to both
spouses jointly. In case of disagreement, the husband’s decision shall prevail, subject to recourse
to the court by the wife for proper remedy, which must be availed of within five years from the date of
the contract implementing such decision xxx”
“Art. 124. The administration and enjoyment of the conjugal partnership shall belong to both
spouses legal jointly. In case of disagreement, the husband’s decision shall prevail, subject to
recourse to the court by the wife for proper remedy, which must be availed of within five years from
the date of the contract implementing such decision xxx”
On the exercise of parental authority over the person and legal guardianship over the property
of common children, Articles 211 and 225 of the Family Code states that:
“Art,211. The father and the mother shall jointly exercise parental authority over the persons
of their common children. Incase of disagreement, the father’s decision shall prevail, unless there
is a judicial order to the contrary x x x” (emphasis supplied)
Art. 225, the Father and the mother shall jointly exercise legal guardianship over the property
of the un-emancipated common child without the necessity of a court appointment. Incase of
disagreement, the father’s decision shall prevail, unless there is a judicial order to the contrary x
x x” (emphasis supplied)

HIGHER BURDEN ON WOMEN/WIVES THAN MEN/HUSBANDS

The crimes of adultery and concubinage include the concept of marital infidelity. Adultery
involves a wife who engages into sexual intercourse with the man not her husband. On the other hand,
concubinage involves a husband who has : (1) sexual intercourse a women not his wife under
scandalous circumstances ;(2) kept another women in the conjugal home; or (3) cohabiting with
another women in another dwelling.
Here, for the crime of adultery to be proven to mere the sexual intercourse to the man not her
husband- will suffice. In contras, for the crime of adultery- the sexual intercourse must be committed
under scandalous circumstances- not a mere sexual intercourse.
The wife in an adultery case in curse a higher penalty than that for the erring husband in
concubinage. A penalty of imprisonment is also imposable on paramour in adultery, but only the
penalty of destierro or banishment falls on the concubinage.

(FORGIVENESS CLAUSE INTO CRIME OF RAPE (RA 8353 OR THE ANTI RAPE
LAW)
The Anti-Rape Law (RA 8353) contains a clause that can easily exonerate the offender and
can further endanger the victim.
In the law, it was stated that: “subsequent valid marriage between the offender and the
offended party shall extinguished the criminal action or the penalty imposed.”

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This gives an easy-way out for the offender, which in effect, does not bar him from
committing the crime.
Further, it also recognizes that “if the offender is the legal husband x x x the subsequent
forgiveness by the wife who is the offended party x x x shall extinguish the criminal action or the
penalty.”
This perpetuates violence under the shroud of marriage which can perpetuate these kinds of abuses for
a long period of time.

EXCLUSIVE DEFINITION OF PROSTITUTION

Article 202 of the revised Penal Code, amended by Republic Act No. 10158, retained the
decades-old definition of prostitutes as “women who, for money or profit, habitually engage in sexual
intercourse or lascivious conduct x x x”.
Following this definition, a ,man who peddles sexual acts for profit, is in effect, invisible in
the eyes of law, thus, the actor thereof immune to imprisonment.

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Lesson 24
CRITIQUE ON THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT OF 2012, REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10354 also
known as RH LAW

Lesson Objectives:
The module discusses background, rationale, salient provisions, and potential impacts of the
“Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012” or RA 10354, also known as RH
Law. This module also discusses the pros and cons of the said law. At the end of this module, you
should be able to:
1. Understand fully the background, rationale, salient provisions, and potential impacts
of the “Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012” or RA 10354;
and
2. Have a stand/position on whether he/she agrees/disagrees on the existence and legality
of the said law.

INTRODUCTION
As you will notice, it is quite common for your grandparents have seven (7) or eight (8)
siblings. Some even have more. This is not the commonplace nowadays, as most couples settle for two
(2) or three (3) kids, that is why most of you have few siblings unlike previous times.

Rationale of the RH Law

The “Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012” or RA 10354, also
known as the “RH Law” was primarily enacted on a vision that the poor will have access to
Reproductive Health (RH) goods and services which they cannot afford. With this law, the poor will
likely have sufficient access to information about the proper use and effectiveness of these RH
products.
Apparently, the failure of the market of RH goods and services to reach marginalize women
compelled he Philippine Government to step in and initiate measures to address this occurrence.
However, RH Law was depicted by paintings of promoting abortion and abortifacient
products – thus, sinful and frowned upon by the Catholic Church.

Elements of RH Law
The elements of recently enacted RH Law are as follows:
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(1) family planning information and services;
(2) maternal, infant, and child health and nutrition, including breast feeding;
(3) prevention of abortion and management of post-abortion complication;
(4) adolescent and youth reproductive health guidance and counseling;
(5) prevention and management of reproductive tract infections (RTIs), HIV/AIDS, and STIs;
(6) elimination of VAWC and other forms of sexual and GBV;
(7) education and counseling on sexually and reproductive health;
(8) treatment of breast and reproductive tract cancers and other gynecologic conditions and
disorders;
(9) male responsibility and involvement and men’s RH;
(10) prevention, treatment, and management of infertility and sexual dysfunction;
(11) RH education for adolescents; and
(12) mental health aspect of reproductive health care,

Salient provisions
Midwives for skilled birth attendance: The law mandates every city and municipality to
employ an adequate number of midwives and other skilled attendants.
Emergency obstetric care: Each province and city shall ensure the establishment and
operation of hospitals with adequate facilities and qualified personnel that provide emergency
obstetric care.
Hospital-based family planning: The law requires family planning service like ligation,
vasectomy, and intrauterine device (IUD) placement to be available in all government hospitals.
Contraceptives as essential medicines: Reproductive health products can be considered
essential medicines and supplies and shall form part of National Drug Formulary.
Reproductive health education: RH education shall be taught by adequately trained
teachers in an age-appropriate manner.
Employers’ responsibilities: Employers shall respect the reproductive health rights of all
their workers. Women shall not be discriminated against in the manner of hiring, regularization of
employment status, or selection for retrenchment. Employers shall provide free reproductive health
services and education to workers.
Capability building of community-based volunteer workers: Community-based workers
shall undergo additional and updated training on the delivery of reproductive health services and shall
receive not less than 10% increase in honoraria upon successful completion of training.

Prohibited Acts
The law also provides for penalties for persons who perform certain prohibited acts such as
the following:
 knowingly (with malicious intent) withholding or impeding the dissemination of information
about the programs and services provided for in this Act or intentionally giving out incorrect
information;

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 refusing to perform voluntary ligation and vasectomy and other legal and medically-safe
reproductive health care services on any person of legal age on the ground of lack of spousal
consent or authorization;
 refusing to provide reproductive health care services to an abused minor and/or an abused
pregnant minor, whose condition is certified to by an authorized DSWD official or personnel,
even without parental consent particularly when the parent concerned is the perpetrator;
 refusing to extend reproductive health care services and information on account of the
patient’s civil status, gender or sexual orientation, age, religion, personal circumstances, and
nature of work: Provided that all conscientious objections of health care service provider
based on religious grounds shall be respected: Provided, further, that the conscientious
objector shall immediately refer the person seeking such care and services to another health
care service provider within the same facility or one who is conveniently accessible:
Provided, finally. That the patient is not in an emergency or serious case, as defined in RA
8344, penalizing the refusal of hospitals and medical clinics to administer appropriate initial
medical treatment and support in emergency and serious cases; and
 requiring a female applicant or employee, as a condition for employment or continued
employment, to involuntarily undergo sterilization, tubal ligation, or any other form of
contraceptive method.

The long political battle

Talks about a unified reproductive health policy had been roaming the spheres of the
Philippine Government way back the 1960s with the creation of Population Commission as a measure
of population control to manage high fertility rates and alleviate poverty. Henceforth, the backlash of
the CBCP was unrelenting.
The RH Law, which was finally enacted in 2012, was a product of a 14-years struggle. After
its enactment, lobbyists of this law thought that victory was already achieved. However, in March
2013, the law was challenged before the SC of the Philippines, delaying its full implementation. A
year after, the law was held to be valid, except clauses therein, that allowed minors to access
reproductive health services without the written consent of a guardian and penal measures for
government officials who did not implement the law.
In 2015. A further temporary restraining order (TRO) issued again by the nation’s SC
prevented the food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Philippines from producing, distributing, or
issuing new certificates of product registration on more than 50 different contraceptives, allowing
many licenses to eventually expire.
The TRO was launched after the FDA registered a contraceptive implant called Implanon,
which accordingly, could be used to induce abortion. Two (2) years after the said TRO. The FDA the
certified that Implanon and Implanon NXT are not abortifacients.
With the TRO finally lifted, the department of Health now freely distributes contraceptives to
their regional offices and to various NGOs.

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CROSSS-CUTTING ISSUES IN GENDER AND SEXUALITY

Lesson 25
GENDER AND LABOR

Lesson Objectives:
This module discusses relationship of gender, gender equality, and labor. This also covers the
policies on gender equality in the market. Further, this module tackles the status of gender equality in
the various sectors of the labor market.
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Understand fully the relationship of gender, gender equality and labor;
2. Determine the status of gender equality in the various sectors of the labor market; and
3. Comprehend salient policies on gender equality in the labor market.

Definition of Terms:
 Labor – activities pertaining to developing goods and delivering services for economic
reasons.
 Workforce – a sector in the population engaged in economic and productive activities.

INTRODUCTION
Women face different constraints from men in the labor market. This is recognized in
Republic Act 9710, known as the Magna Carta of Women, enacted in 2009.
This act recognizes that equality of men and women entails the abolition of the unequal
structures and practices that perpetuate discrimination and in equality (PCW 2010). In connection with
employment, the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW) indicates that the Magna Carta of Women
will level the playing field by making productive resources and economic opportunities equally
available for both men and women.
It is further noted that generally, women do not control family properties and decision
making rights on the use of income, further limiting opportunities to break the poverty cycle.
The reality is that once a child is born, she/he does not know how to do any work.
As children grow up, they learn to do various work, but society encourages them do certain
specific work, e.g. girls are asked to help in cooking and cleaning, while boys are asked repair certain
things. This distribution of labor is based on sex, and not on individual capacity or skill sets.

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This affects girls and women adversely. Since girls are expected to take care of the family
and household, their education is not a priority for the family.
Both boys and girls should be given equal opportunity to learn different skill sets based on
their interest and to grow. Household chores are not only women’s responsibility, it is also
household’s responsibility, and all family members should contribute to it.

EMPLOYMENT SECTORS
Agriculture
Women farmers do not have an equal opportunity to acquire land or register it in their own
names. They have fewer inheritance rights than male farmers. Land ownership is important not only to
women’s the household. Their lack of land also affects their ability to gain access to credit facilities.
Women are also hindered in their access to extension services; skills development, including
training in management and marketing skills; and improved farming equipment. They require special
assistance to achieve equal access, and this can be achieved through gender-specific action plans that
target the needs of women farmers and gender mainstreaming that is monitored for effectiveness to
ensure the women share appropriately in the sector’s growth.
Industry and manufacturing
The number of women working in economic zones is estimated to represent 64% of total
employment and may be much higher in some industries, such as electronic and apparel (World Bank
2011a). Women’s share of the labor force as a whole, and the conditions of employment are concern.
Reports suggest that working and living conditions are poor, that women find it difficult to
obtain work while pregnant and after the birth of their baby, and that unionization is uncommon.
Tourism
It appears that tourism planning has had insufficient regard for gender issues. Within the
tourism industry, relatively few women have the educational qualification or foreign language skills to
compete for front-of-house positions in the hotel industry, as tour guides, or travel agencies, and
women are more likely to be employed as housekeepers, waitresses, or similar low-level positions.
Targeted educational programs could provide women with the necessary qualifications to
climb the job ladder, which could progressively help to rectify the imbalance between work
opportunities for men and women and eliminate gender gaps in tourism employment.
Business Processing Outsourcing
The Philippines’ Information Technology-Business Process Outsourcing Road Map 2011-
2016 not gender-responsive and does not address women’s constraints in accessing higher-paid work
in non-voice services or the likely growth in information technology and engineering.
These matters, as well as they pay differentials between men and women and employment
conditions, require specific government attention.
Government Services

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Public sector employment is an important source of jobs with better pay and conditions for
women than many other industrial sectors, but women are constrained by being predominately
employed in traditional, gender stereotype care sector government occupations such as health and
education, they are under-represented in the higher paying subsectors.
The Philippines has strong gender mainstreaming programs, which has given women greater
access to government employment generally, but women in the civil sector may still be underpaid,
given their levels of education, experience, and ability.
Entrepreneurship
The has been a rapid surge in the number and promotion of female entrepreneurs in
developing countries (Minniti and Naude 2010, 280). Studies indicate that female-led MSMEs
increase employment opportunities for women and contribute to wider development goals (ADB and
ILO 2013a). one survey indicated that women entrepreneurs are more likely than men to be motivated
by necessity; these are livelihood-oriented entrepreneurs attempting to escape unemployment (Viet
Nam Women Entrepreneurs council 2007).

Salient Policies on Gender equality in the Labor Market

The Philippines has ratified 34 ILO and is party to all of the fundamental United Nations
human rights covenants and conventions. The country’s 1987 Constitution has enshrined these rights
Section 3, article XIII (Bill of Rights), and in Section 14, Article II, which ensures fundamentals
equality of women and men before the law.
Article 3, Chapter 1 of the Labor Code, as well as republic Acts 6725, 7192, 7877, and 8551,
all provide for fundamental human rights protection, including antidiscrimination provisions, and they
ensure fundamental equity, prohibition of sexual harassment, and temporary special measures. The
Philippines’ Anti-sexual Harassment Act No. 7877 of 8 February 1995 is an example of good
legislative practice.
The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act 9710) is an overall legislative framework that
articulates the specific rights, needs and support required by women in their general and working
lives. Although the Magna Carta of Women Provides a good legislative framework, implementation
issues remain. Filipino women often do not know about their rights, and the complaints system is
confusing even if they do.
In 2012, the Philippines became the first country in Asia to ratify the ILO Domestic Workers
Convention, 2011 (No. 189). In early 2013, President Aquino also signed a new law, Republic Act
10361 known as the ‘Batas Kasambahay” (Domestic Workers Act) in order to better protect this large
group of mostly young, female workers.

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LESSON 26
GENDER AND MEDIA

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the lessons you should be able to :

1. Discuss the importance of media representation; and
2. Appreciate the progress in media representation of gender.

INTRODUCTION

According to the Philippine Statistic Authority, 81% of Filipinos watch the television, and its still
remains to be the most used and trusted source of information in our country. We watch TV for
entertainment and information through TV soap operas , news, and entertainment programs.
We become passive consumers of what TV has to offer: information, shock, humor, and etc.
Therefore, the media influences our perception on different topics. It is important for us to look deeply
into what it presents or fails to represent of our everyday realities.

Media representation
Media representation is how the media presents or frames “aspects of society, such as gender,
age, or ethnicity” (BBC 2019). The people behind the production of the content have their own
ideology, ideas, and beliefs, and that greatly contribute to what we see in the media. Media
productions, editors, directors, writers, and a networks values reflect through its content.
Since TV uses one way mode of communication wherein feedback is rarely received or
encouraged, more often we are left on our own to process the ideas and opinion directed towards us,
the viewers. We passively laugh at stereotypes, not giving it a second thought.

Media Stereotype
Media stereotype “are simplified representations of a person, groups of people or a place,
through basic or obvious characteristics- which are often exaggerated” (BBC 2019). Although
stereotypes can help people connect with the content as they reflect it in their own realities, it can have
negative effects on disadvantaged groups like the LGBT community by reinforcing negative and even
false stereotypes.
The LGBT community are highly misrepresented in the Philippine media. There are many
stereotypes of the LGBT in the media and most are not flattering. Often they are used as a comic relief
in their portrayal of the loud and boisterous “bakla”, the straight male who acts like a “bakla” with
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exaggerated gestures, the sex-deprived muscular male homosexual, or the awkward “tomboy” who
eventually becomes a feminine woman after meeting the man of her dreams.
There are very few LGBT main characters in the international television and even very
scarce in the Philippine Television. They are often relegated as sidekicks, victims, or villains.
Although there are a few LGBT celebrities in the Philippines who are out and proud of their sexual
orientation such as Boy Abunda, Vice Ganda, Aiza Seguerra, and Jake Zyrus, their sexuality is rarely
the focus of the programs they are in. In fact, references on LGBT topics in children shows cause
controversy so they are omitted in the broadcast. Such is the case of Glee, a popular American TV
show that featured teenagers who are gay and lesbian. The gay kiss was omitted in the Philippine
broadcast, although it was seen as a milestone in the international media.
News outfits followed popular ideologies of portraying homosexuality as a sickness. The
AIDS pandemic in the 70’s also added to the negative stereotyping of the gay male as a sexual
deviant. However, due to the pressure coming from the Gay and Lesbian Liberation Movement in the
1970s, the international media was forced to recognized and set media standards for LGBT News
coverage.
In the Philippines, there is a lack of awareness on SOGIE among media practitioners as they
are often left confused on the LGBT terms and labels. Most news from the LGBT community are
often on coming out stories of celebrities (Aiza Siguerra, Jake Zyrus (Charice Pempengco), and
Rosana Roses), Pride March events, hate crimes, and controversies.
Media coverage of the LGBT community in the Philippines went from no-coverage, ridicule,
censorship, to limited portrayal. However limiting, it is taken as a sign of greater social acceptance as
compared to its total black out just decades ago.

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LESSON 27
GENDER AND ACTIVISM

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss heteronormativity and its manifestations; and
2. Appreciate the contribution of activism in social change.

INTRODUCTION

Our society is now advocating towards equal rights for everyone through the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which was drafted in 1948 by all countries who are members
of the United Nations. It acknowledges that everyone, including LGBT people, is equal in dignity and
in rights. Although most countries no longer punish or outlaw homosexuality. There is still much to be
done for the LGBT people to fully enjoy their human rights.

Understanding Heteronormativity
Heteronormativity means “of relating to, or based on the attitude that heterosexuality is the
only normal and natural expression of sexuality”. Put more simply, it is when we assume that
everyone is heterosexual or straight and that it is the standard for everyone.
With a heteronormative point of view, straight people are placed at a privileged group by
viewing them as the standard or normal. Anyone who does not adhere to that standard are viewed as
lesser, like women who love women (lesbian), men who love men (gays), people who love men or
women (bisexuals), people who feel that they do not belong to their biological sex (transgender), and
other people who reject the notion of gender binaries (male/female, masculine/feminine).
Heteronormativity has been so ingrained in our social and political institutions that it has
almost become invisible. Most people unknowingly subscribe to heteronormative standards just
because that is the way it has always been for them.
This normalization limits a person’s choices and freedoms. For the LGBT, it means they are
marginalized, treated as inferior, discriminated on, branded as abnormal, and are treated as second
class citizens. This leads to homophobia, transphobia, biphobia, prejudice, discrimination, violence,
and other hostile acts towards the LGBT people.

Challenging heteronormativity through activism

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Heteronormativity is a social construct and history has proven society’s changing attitudes on
homosexuality. History showed us the egalitarian acceptance of homosexuality in the ancient hunter-
gatherer civilizations, the violent erasure of the gender deviants, and condemnation of homosexuality
with the spread of Abrahamic Religion (Jews, Christians, Muslim, and other religions who believe in
one god; the god of Abraham).
LGBT activism have had various social movements to advocate for LGBT people’s equal
rights (2000s), liberation (1960’s-1970s), and self-acceptance through the homophile movement
(1950s). This social movements engaged in political and social activism through street rallies, pride
marches, law lobbying, engaging the media, arts, research, and many other activities that empower the
LGBT community.
Dissent is so powerful it can make significant changes in our society. Breaking the culture of
silence on the daily heteronormative violence that are committed and condoned by society is the first
step towards social change. We can start by refusing to participate in heteronormative violence
towards the LGBT and participating in various events for the LGBT Community.
 May 17- International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia- IDAHOT
 May 31- International Transgender Day of Visibility
 November 20- Transgender day of Remembrance
 June- June Pride Month

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LESSON 28
GENDER AND OTHER CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
(EDUCATION, GENERAL HEALTH, MENTAL HEALTH)

Lesson Objectives :

This module discusses the internationality between gender and other cross-cutting concerns such
as access to education and health services.
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Discuss how and why gender lens is necessary in understanding other social issues and
2. Show appreciate of the intersectionality between gender, education, and health ( especially
mental health).

INTRODUCTION

In earlier discussions, it has been noted that laws provide for equity among people of all genders.
In principle, humans regardless of genders have basic human rights emerging from their intrinsic
human dignity.
Practically, these rights translated into programs, projects, and services that are made accessible
to us, for the purpose of satisfying our basic needs and for achieving our highest potentials.
Regardless of gender, we have seen that people are capable of making something- of creating, of
making responsible choices, of developing. This capability is promoted by resources we have access
to. The State has a role in making sure that we people receive the services we need and deserve.
Two of the primary needs of individuals are: (a) access to education, and (b) access to health
services.

GENDER AND EDUCATION

The UNICEF (2011) report on adolescence show that while there is already an increase in
access to education for all genders, there remains to be many girls and women who are unable to go to
school. However, interesting trends can be observed from the 2013 Functional Literacy, Education,
and Mass Media Survey (FLEMSS). This study showed that there are more males (4-6 in a 1000)
children aged 6 to 14 who are able to attend school compared to females (2-4 in a 1000). However, for
people aged 15 to 24, there are actually more females (24 in a 1000) who are able to go to school
compared to males (11.2 in a 1000) (Philippines Statistics Authority 2015). This may mean that while
there are more males who are able to receive basic education, there are more females who are able to
proceed to higher education.

GENDER AND HEALTH

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Another basic social service we all needs is health service. Health, according to World Health
Organization, does not only mean absence of diseases but a state of well-being. The Department of
Health of the Philippines follows a cluster approach in health, wherein there are more primary clusters
(a) public health, (b) water sanitation and hygiene, (c) nutrition, and (d) mental health and
psychosocial support.

GENDER AND MENTAL HEALTH

One of the most prevalent issues facing adolescents nowadays is mental health. The changing
environment also brings forth stressors that are not existing before. People are challenged to pay
attention not only to their physical health, but also to their psychological wellness.
In the context of gender and sexuality, some issues faced by humans related to their sexuality
and to the roles they assume in the society are mental/psychological in nature. Some of these issues
are as follows:
 Coping with sexual and reproductive health issues (teen pregnancy, STD/HIV, confusion and
doubt);
 Psychological impacts of SOGIE-related concerns and gender roles and expectations;
 Psychosocial concerns emerging from intimate/romantic relationships; and
 Psychological trauma from GBV.

Hence, there is also a need to establish systems so people would have access to services that
address these issues. In schools, for instance, there are counselors (trained professionals who has a
master’s degree in counseling and have seated and passed a licensure in counseling) who deal with
students’ mental health concerns. In some other schools and workplaces, there are also psychologists
(trained professional who have a master’s degree in psychology and have seated and passed a
licensure in psychology), social workers (trained professionals with license in social work), and
psychiatrists (a medical doctor with specialization in psychiatry), who are able to provide additional
and more specialized help.

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