In tern a tio n a l

Sch o la rs
Jo u rn a ls
African Journal of Political Science ISSN 3461-2165 Vol. 13 (3), pp. 001-009, March, 2019. Available online at
www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article.

Review

Ethics in Public Administration

D. Radhika

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Post-Graduate and Research Department of Public Administration, Anna Adarsh College for
Women, (affiliated to the University of Madras) Chennai-600040, Tamilnadu, India. E-mail: [email protected].
Accepted 06 January, 2019

The modern world has seen an increase in interest in the areas related to the ethics of the sovereign good. A
number of studies have focused on this subject matter and several academicians have exposed a number of
ethical and philosophical dilemmas related to the concept of ethics in public administration. Despite the
increasing number of studies that have focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there has been
very little effort spent on identifying what exactly constitutes the crux of ethics in administration. The
objective of this paper is to review the implications of the basic principles of ethics for public administration in
the context of new public governance and discuss their impact on different administration imperatives which
in turn act as the determinants of ethics in public administration. This review will also focus on the importance
of ethics in new governance practices (privatization, decentralization, debureaucratization, devolution of
budgets etc.,) with reference to the push and pull of ethics and administration and how ethics mindsets and
basic approaches to administration and governance can be changed.

Key words: Ethics, public administration, ethical imperatives, ethics and public administration, ethics and morals.

INTRODUCTION

Since the 1970s there has been a great deal of change levels, among both public employees as well as the
associated with the implementation of administrative organization. According to the views of a number of
ethics. These changes have been promoted and motivat- researchers (Bang and Sorensen, 1999; Keast et al.,
ed by the concept of public administration in the new era. 2004; Rhodes, 1996; Sorensen, 2002, 2006; Sorensen
An important position is given to the concept of ethical and Torfing, 2004; Stoker, 1998), current government
issues in today‟s civil governance. There has been a perspectives believe that clarity and stability at these
great deal of research associated with this concept which levels would be problematic.
has been supported by translation of evidences and Despite the increasing number of studies that have
theories into practice across different continents. focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there
Frederickson and Ghere (2005) address both the mana- has been very little effort spent on identifying what is
gerial and individual/moral dimensions of ethical behavior exactly the crux of ethics in administration (Cooper,
as well as new challenges to administrative ethics posed 2004). This lack of directed research in the dynamics of
by globalization. operations with regards to ethics in public administration
As promoted by Cooper (2001) ethics in public admini- along with constant changes in the principles and policies
stration is not a transient concept but has proven to be an associated with administrative ethics need to be
approach which has shown a great deal of sustainability examined. These developments have raised new topics
which is fundamental to the area of public administration. for concern in this field. One example which can be cited
Public administration has certain issues with regard to at this juncture is the emergence of the concept of e-
ethics implementation and finds it troublesome to come to governance which would require the identification of a
terms with them. One reason for this is because ethics is whole new paradigm of ethics in public administration.
embedded in an intellectual framework. This framework is This article tries to identify the ways in which
based on stable institutional as well as role relationship administrative policies in public organizations can be
promoted and managed by adopting an effective and public management”, is promoted. Further identified by
novel ethical approach. It would be prudent to mention Walsh et al. (1997) introduction of new market mechani-
the “ethics framework” here. The ethics framework sms which promote effective implementation of public
(Bosseart and Demmke, 2005) is a voluntary, non-legally services in organizations is identified. Walsh in his
binding European Code of Ethics. It reflects the basic research has identified that privatization in governance in
common values and standards which member states the United Kingdom has resulted in a new paradigm,
consider important for the proper functioning of public which has promoted transformation of both organizational
service. It comprehensively discusses the general core and cultural needs. The purpose of these reforms include
values, specific standards of conduct, actions to safe- reduction of cost relating to the actions of the govern-
guard integrity and measures on handling situations ments, identification of measures to reduce the direct
where there has been possible violation of ethics. It helps impact of action of public employees and bringing about a
to structure the discussion on public-service ethics and it variation in the overall views of the government by the
serves as a toolkit or general guideline for the public.
development of codes of conduct at a national and sub- This type of privatization maneuver not only challenged
national level. the current realities associated with ethics in public
Originally, the ethics framework identifies general core administration, wherein administrators were considered
values that should be common to all member states. as technical professionals, but also identified the type of
These values are the rule of law (“lawfulness”), functioning that does not take into account good
impartiality/ objectivity, transparency (“openness”), judgment on the part of employees. Accordingly, intellec-
accountability, professionalism (“expertise”), and duty of tual proponents of the ethical perspective were
care, reliability (“confidence, trust”) and courtesy (“service responsible for the first noteworthy approach of public
principle”). If it is believed that these are the core values, administrators‟ ethical obligations and the importance of
then they should be fully recognised in every country. citizen participation in administrative decisions (Cooper,
Public-service ethics is an issue that is taken seriously 2004). This has long been in place in developed countries
in every member state of the European Union. However, across the world as seen with the NPM concepts
member states are at different stages of development promoted by Ronald Reagan in USA and Margaret
and measures that are considered necessary in one Thatcher in the UK.
country may be deemed irrelevant in others. The ethics
framework has had a greater impact on those new
member states that are currently fighting against REINVENTING GOVERNMENT
corruption. In the case of old member states, the Frame-
work has had smaller impact since the core values have As seen by Osborne and Gaebler (1992), it is observed
traditionally been an integral part of their administrative that reinventing the government assumed importance in
culture and many of the tools proposed in the Framework Bill Clinton‟s administration. In his era, new concepts of
were already in use. public administration with regards to two different areas
For example if one considers Portugal, an old member were promoted. The first, involved identification of factors
state where the administrative culture is traditional and which promoted the productivity of governance and the
core values are already a part of the administrative second involved setting a new vision and mission policy.
framework there are alterations in the form of codes of It was proposed that the productivity of governance can
conduct which can be proposed in order to promote be increased by adopting more ethical measures in terms
ethics in public administration. However the norms and of distinguishing between the results and quantity of
regulations associated with the old administrative culture resources used. The use of a new mission policy will
were not modified or removed. This resulted in two satisfy the needs of the general public.
different viewpoints being promoted by the same govern- These measures may be identified to be less drastic
ment. This has resulted in a great deal of tension when compared to the concept of privatization of govern-
between traditional administrative culture and the new mental organizations. However this idea can be promoted
concepts of quality in public administration. and productivity increased only when there is a change in
attitude towards current concepts of established hierarchy
in governance. A move should be made toward
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ETHICS promotion of methods to identify flexibility, centralization
and concentration of public administration aspects. These
Globally the concept of privatization has been promoted aspects may be considered to be an intermediate solution
in new public administration. It is seen that this concept is to privatization. If it is not possible, delegation
related to the measures which promote establishment of mechanisms can be a solution.
efficiency and efficacy leading to development of quality With regard to the ethical position, the researcher
deliverance of public services. In the research conducted advocates that privatization may not alter the fact that the
by Savas (2000), the concept of “privatization in new responsibility of the state towards its citizens will be met.
Different processes which are to be supervised and public sector include:
controlled need to be realized by the government
because ultimately the accountability and ethics of the 1) The political construct of which public administrators
action of the government to its citizens is needed. are a part
2) The legal framework
The scope and responsibilities of public administration
changed due to the dynamics of new public management 3) The administrators and public employees who are
responsible for the provision of public services
systems such as privatization, decentralization, debu-
reaucratization and citizen partnership that are essentially 4) The citizens and users of public services that are a
new public management techniques and practices drawn part of the civil society.
mainly from the private sector and increasingly seen as a First, the determinants of ethics in public administration
global phenomenon. These concepts shift the emphasis
with regard to the individual attributes of public/civil ser-
from traditional public administration to public manage-
vants include ethical decision-making skills (Richardson
ment which accorded ethics a central position. The
and Nigro 1987), mental attitude (Bailey, 1964), virtues
purpose of public service is to essentially fulfil a citizen‟s
(Dimock, 1990; Dobel, 1990; Gregory, 1999; Hart, 1989),
basic requirements. Rocha (2000), observes that groups
and professional values (Van Wart, 1998). Secondly, the
calling for professional management of public admini-
organizational structure dimension is explained by clear
stration argue that they are more efficient and effective
accountability, collaborative arrangements, dissent chan-
than the existing framework. They call for breaking down
nels, and participation procedures (Denhardt, 1988;
large institutions into manageable centres, thus allowing
Thomson, 1985). Third, the political organizational culture
for independent functioning as part of the new economic
includes artefacts, beliefs and values, and assumptions
institutional ideal.
(Schein, 1985). Leadership is important in the develop-
ment, maintenance, and adaptation of organizational
MORALS: THE RISE OF ETHICAL REASONING culture (Scott, 1982; Schein, 1985; Ott, 1989). Ethical
ABOUT MORALS behavior is encouraged when organizations have a
climate where personal standards and employee educat-
Snell (1976) has maintained that it was Socrates, the ion are emphasized, where supervisors stress the truth,
founder of moral philosophy who enquired into the nature and where employees regularly come together to discuss
of ethics as his thoughts led him to the inner person ethical problems (Bruce, 1995, 1994). Finally, societal
rather than the external physical factors in 5 B.C. expectation includes public participation, laws, and
Morality‟s choice of good and sound ethics was a natural policies.
means of developing a strong moral fibre. The advanced set of fundamental principles or criteria
Socrates also felt that knowledge and morality were that integrate the process of dealing with ethical
interrelated and one could not be moral if one did not dilemmas in public administration are:
know what morals were and what was good for mankind.
1) Democratic accountability of administration,
Thus, he thought of virtue as being the centrepiece of
2) The rule of law and the principle of legality,
knowledge and reasoned that virtue was knowledge. All
thought and action therefore had to emanate from the 3) Professional integrity and
knowledge of what was good or bad and then, be judged 4) Responsiveness to civil society.
by ethical and moral standards. This would then lead to 1
This can be described as the ALIR model of imperatives
true happiness. (Vlastos, 1991), states that it was
of ethical reasoning in public administration. The research
Socrates‟ idea that morality be linked to happiness
by Parsons (1964) presented the concept of „evolutionary
because he felt ethics was about knowing what was
universals in society‟; wherein there are aspects
good.
associated with the identification of issues related to
Socrates‟ thoughts also reached the common man public administration ethics. In his Evolutionary
through discourses and debates, and intense conver- Universals Parsons tied his functionalist theory to an
sations, which constantly probed, questioned and thus, evolutionary perspective and argued that, like biological
evoked reactions and insights while testing his views and organisms, societies progress through their „capacity for
theories through his now-famous dialogues. He felt generalized adaptation‟ to their environment. This is
constant engagement with the questions of virtue. He achieved mainly through processes of structural dif-
believed that morality would make people better as they ferentiation; that is, the development of specialized insti-
would focus more on their own moral standards. tutions to perform the social functions necessary to meet
increasingly specialized needs. However, this increasing
DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS IN PUBLIC complexity then requires new modes of integration, in
ADMINISTRATION

The major determinants of administrative conduct in the 1

ALIR- Accountability, Legality, Integrity, Responsiveness
order to co-ordinate the new and more specialized guidelines based on which an individual acts. The ethics
elements. This is achieved via the principle of the of the sovereign good is identified to be a set of values
„cybernetic hierarchy‟ or the increased information from which the different views on „what is good‟ can be
exchange or the growth of knowledge. judged. It can be commonly seen in real world scenarios
Evolution is then from traditional to modern societies, that many people have different versions of the same
and progress can be charted via the development ethical concept. People try to twist the concept to fit their
(structural differentiation) of evolutionary universals such needs based on their conception of the “good”. Therefore
as bureaucratic organization, money and market com- it is important to identify the viewpoint that holds the true
plexes, stratification, and the emergence of generalized spirit of the ethical guidelines.
universalistic norms. Each of these enables a society to Michael (2005, 2003) makes a compelling argument in
adapt more efficiently to its environment. “The public administration”, with regards to the ethics of
The concepts of ALIR and Parsons‟ evolutionary the sovereign good. According to him it can be called
universals have some commonalities from the point of „principled morality‟. In his argument he talks about why
view of public administration. The identification of a new one should not act on the principles set by the ethics of
type of governance which promotes evolutionary univer- the sovereign good. An important reason is the issue of
sality will be vital in democratically identifying the rule of opposing principles. According to him, not all conflicts can
law which is capable of carrying out its role as well as be resolved by basing it on the ethics that are subscribed
taking into consideration the tasks of the civil society. The in the sovereign good. This is because ethics does not
researcher feels that this type of interdependence and take into account a large number of variables that other
connection will help in distinguishing between various principles apply to that particular scenario.
concepts of ethics in public administration. This will also The primary issue with the ethics of the sovereign good
help extend morally and effectively the following four is the fact that it refers to itself as the absolute last word
functional concepts: when it comes to ethical decisions. Another issue is that it
tends to assume an attitude that is raw linguistic positi-
1) Accountability of public bureaucracy which helps
vism. One reason why the ethic of the sovereign good is
identifies the relationship between legitimate actions and
its link to administration. so appealing is that it tends to transcend beyond the
individual and looks at the bigger collective when it
2) The rule of law and legality wherein public admini-
comes to defining proper ethics. Therefore it will not solve
stration should be governed by the law.
the individual issues but will rather lead us into an
3) Concepts of professional integrity and autonomy unrecognized and impossible (from its perspective)
among public administrators which will ultimately help
APORIA.
promote the principle of meritocracy.
4) Concepts of responsibility and immediate action of
public administration to its citizens.
Ethics of the service of goods
Consequently, the artful application of such a set of moral
commands in concrete situations and circumstances will The values that are promoted by the ethics of the service
bear witness to the particular kind of ethical reasoning of goods are mainly efficiency and maximization of the
that a specific administrative system or public institution is inputs to outputs. Basically there are three aspects which
able to achieve and sustain. are important when it comes to the service of goods.
They are logic of reciprocity, its view of the collective, and
PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS its criteria for judgment. It can also be clearly seen that
the ethics of the sovereign good are mainly targeted
It is important to concentrate on the two leading models- towards the market.
(ethics of the sovereign good and ethics of the service of At the very core, service of goods is based on mutual
goods) that are involved with ethical thoughts and actions exchange. Basically it assumes that people are rational
within the public sectors. Furthermore, we will also and have the freedom to choose what goods or services
compare and contrast them with the collaborative ethics they want. Thus, if an individual likes a particular good/
that were mentioned above. It has to be kept in mind that service; he/she can enter into an agreement with a suita-
we are not taking any particular or specific approach but ble trader on the terms for the purchase of the same
rather will be taking the modern understanding of could service or good. In exchange the individual can offer
be called “vulgar Kantianism” or a “vulgar utilitarianism” monetary resources to compensate the trader for the
(Harmon, 2005). services and goods that they have provided. This is an
amicable process that is disrupted only when someone
fails to deliver the goods as per the terms agreed to. This
Ethics of the sovereign good will result in the decline of the social good. However in
the case when everything is going smoothly, what is good
The ethics of the sovereign good is nothing but the set of for the individual ends up being good for the collective
whole. functions and that is an important part of moral and
There have been a lot of questions that have been personal integrity-the ability to be able to tell the truth to
directed towards the ethics of the service of goods. The the powers that be.
questions that are raised are often related to the presum-
ption of self-interest and about the ability of people to LEGAL IMPERATIVES
know their true interests. These questions are considered
to be problematic for reasons both empirical and logical.
According to different researchers (Bauman, 2001, 2005; Administrators have to respect the legal framework and
Catlaw, 2009), viability is an issue since the ethics of the act within its bounds thus rendering all government action
sovereign good tends to legitimize everything as long as legitimate. Law is a universal concept in both politics and
it promotes trade and therefore in the long run has a society. (Reichstadt, Etat de Droit). Max Weber sees the
action of a state within the law as the third way of
tendency to wear away minimal stability . This stability is
legitimizing authority with the other two being, charisma
needed for an intelligible world with better ethics. It
and tradition.
neglects the problem that one must always ask “efficient
to what end”? “Or “good for whom”? Following this line of Once the administration works within the realm of the
thought different imperatives need to be understood in law, it automatically sets forth for itself a series of controls
the context of ethics in administration which are and regulations. Power flows from the people and thus all
discussed subsequently. power must be used for the good of the people, a funda-
mental requirement of most democratic constitutions.
Governments and administrations therefore have no
ACCOUNTABILITY IMPERATIVES choice but to work within the legal framework. Thus, the
way the judiciary implements these laws which are there
The distinction between politics and administration, which to ultimately serve the people forms the core of the legal
forms one of the most classic doctrines of modern determinants.
political science and public administration (Easton, 1953), Brown and Duguid (2000) state that courts ensure that
connotes not only their division of functions and their the law will be followed during the discharge of public
structural separation but also the subordination of the duty and that no injustice or partiality will do and that
latter to the former. This stream of thought also feels that power will not be abused. Constant monitoring and
politics is superior to administration and that the govern- protection of the law has to be a priority if administrative
ment controls the administrative machinery. Bureaucrats reforms are to take place. Even Aristotle commented that
are loyal to their ministers, who in turn are loyal to the the law should be supreme in the eyes of the people and
legislature, which is loyal to the people as they are their should operate without any interference.
countrymen. Thus these „people‟s representatives‟ hold
the administration accountable in the interests of the THE INTEGRITY IMPERATIVE
general public.
Ministers are accountable to the Parliament and not Chapman (1959) states, as professional ethics entered
civil servants and hence civil servants have to act as per the administrative space so did the need for studying
the orders of their ministers whether they are in agree- public administration and defining its scope and
ment or not as long as the law is not circumvented or determinants. The nation states of Europe among others
breached. Subordination of civil servants to elected 2
have taken steps to professionalize the government.
representatives who act as law-makers and policy-setters (The ethics framework and the European code of ethics)
forms a sine qua non precondition of democratic politics. Ministers guide the bureaucracy which discharges its
When the bureaucracy and administration usurps public duties in conformity with the law. They are chosen
power, which does not belong to it; the bureaucracy (civil on the basis of special criteria and procedures which
or military) enters the political arena, undermines repre- govern their recruitment, career path, discipline, and
sentative democracy and subjugates politics and govern- scope etc. Professional virtue brings with it integrity and
ment to its own interests and commands. acceptance of the hierarchical dominance of the
Thus, it falls upon the civil servants to work diligently government but works under the authority of the law.
under the legislature as these representatives actually Argyriades (1996) observes that civil servants are the
reflect the will of the people. They also have to apply permanent officers of the transient politicians in Parlia-
considerable restraint in partisan politics and while ment. Their competency from experience, knowledge,
expressing their personal views. Thus, democratic virtue depth etc., helps them assess ground realities and advise
is not a part of the core value of public administration and the parliament and implement public policies in an effect-
neither can the parliament usurp public service institu- ive manner in the interest of the public. The essential
tions for its own political ends. Modern governance cele-
brates the different roles and responsibilities of politics
and administration as it leads to higher efficacy of both 2
The ethics framework: Available on http://forum.europa.eu.int/
features of a professional public service which would this very sacrifice, they acquire the right to find their
include knowledge of expertise, of judgement and satisfaction in, but only in, the dutiful discharge of their
conduct in accordance to standards, as well as public functions”. It may be inferred from the afore-
commitment to the field comprise the following: mentioned that there exists a link between the universal
and particular interests. The government employee would
1) Recruitment should be carried out on the basis of tests then be expected to follow a code of ethics consolidating
and merits conducted by separate bodies and governed professional virtue and integrity. Another advantage of
by regulations that are independent of politics and this is that by doing so, their self confidence and moti-
political systems. It should take place impartially and vation will rise. This is applicable for any professional in
solely consider merit and achievements. Merit, therefore any country. Integrity can be achieved through self
is a huge determinant of integrity and autonomy. control in administrative conduct based on ethical
2) Self governance should be stressed on by admini- standards.
strative councils to promote corporate spirit and
professionalism. Experience and length of service as well
as achievements and performance must be taken into THE IMPERATIVE FOR RESPONSIVENESS
account for promotions.
3) Training and education should increase profess- According to Hegel (1967), public servants worked solely
ionalism in government and administration as a whole. for the state and not for society as it was the first, which
determined the choice of citizens. The society as oppos-
Professionalism in public service can be seen in people ed to this was viewed by Hegel as being a total of specific
who have a very good knowledge of the job in which they and contrasting desires. This then became the sphere of
are working at, their expertise and talent and their ability the particular, of concrete persons with their own private
to adhere to the highest ethical standards. Thus a true 'systems of needs and the efforts to satisfy them.
professional is one who has an adequate mix of Whereas the state served the general interest, civil
expertise, knowledge and experience and also those who society was the state of partial interests. In this somehow
can meet the public‟s expectation of them. The general dichotomous idea of social construction, individuals
public and society have certain guidelines for various actualize themselves while partaking in various activities
professionals who are expected to adhere to these in civil society and 'in becoming something definite, that
standards. For example, corruption is frowned up on by is, something specifically particularized' (Hegel, 1967).
the general public and therefore a true professional would The state, however, with its system of governance and
be expected to follow such practices. Otherwise, the law provides the underlying conditions by which indivi-
profession is deprived of an essential precondition of its duals and their actions may find their fullest fulfillment.
claim to legitimacy. For that reason, the state was for Hegel the 'actuality of
Corruption can be a major obstacle in the process of the ethical idea', that is the unity of the universal and the
economic development and in modernizing a country. particular.
The greater recognition that corruption can have a Hegel‟s ideas could be more properly comprehended if
serious adverse impact on development has been a it is considered that he lived in a nation where many of
cause for concern among developing countries. In a the people were basically subjects with no role in the
survey of 150 high level officials from 60 third world functioning of the government and hence a political life
countries, the respondents ranked public sector and convention such as the English have had was almost
corruption as the most severe obstacle confronting their negligible. His work was an effort to spread awareness
development process (Gray and Kaufmann, 1998). among the Germans about the political aspects of life.
Countries in the Asia and Pacific region are also very Gellner (1996) and Argyriades (1998) observe that
worried about this problem and they are in substantial without an expressive and self-sufficient civil society, no
agreement that corruption is a major constraint that is political life and even less democratic polity is likely to
hindering their economic, political and social grow and flourish. Hence, civil society has been thought
development, and hence view it as a problem requiring of as one of the most crucial requisites for freedom and
urgent attention at the highest level. An example of how democracy. The idea that was advocated by the
corruption can affect a nations‟ stability that can be cited beginning of the twenty-first century was that the state
at this point is the pandemic bureaucratic and political must neither direct civil society nor be submissive to it.
instability in Nigeria which is the main cause of Rather it should stress and pitch in the task of building
democratic instability in the country. Ogundiya (2010) social capital to the advantage of the human race which
argues that democratic stability will be difficult to attain as is involved. Hence, juggling an alert state and an active
long as corruption remains pandemic and unchecked. civil society poses a good plan for improving the
According to Hegel (1967), “What the service of the standards and the future for democratic tasks.
state really requires is that men shall forego the selfish In this respect, the 'civic virtue' of ethical reasoning in
and capricious satisfaction of their subjective ends; by state action entails that public institutions be responsive
to society and pay attention to the needs and demands of Maesschalk (2001) defines the new public service
the people, facilitating access to services and creating an approach as a viable third alternative to the observed
enabling environment for sustainable human and social dichotomy between “the old public administration” and
development. (Bovens, 1998) states, alertness is not “the new public management,” paying considerable
confined to market authorities but is majorly involved in attention to the development of a new ethic for public
the citizens‟ role in to every extent and in every tier of the servants. The new public service authors largely join the
government, and it also involves giving power to people traditionalist group in their negative assessment of the
in human groups. Responsiveness also entails consul- ethical consequences of NPM reforms. They propose
tation in governance and the promotion of a kind of new mechanisms in which “the primary role of the public
'communicative ethic‟ (Habermas, 1987) in societal servant is to help citizens articulate and meet their shared
affairs. The transition, however cumbersome it may be, interests rather than to attempt to control or steer
from the command type of authority over people to more society.”
communicative types of reasoning and administration of It is necessary to have a management which makes
things seems to emerge as a radical paradigm shift in available the standardization of professional ethical
societal affairs. values, and an Aristotelian procedure of absorbing
In this context, civil society not only furnishes the state constant adjustments. This achievement resides in true
with needs and demands of an individual nature, but also ethics-based politics, which is standardized and univer-
with valuable sources of information, feedback criticism sal. It is a must to move from forced bureaucratic
and evaluation of performance. Therefore, notions like demands to more agreement-based behaviour for public
decentralization, de-bureaucratization, privatization and good. Thus the current reality needs creative methods
citizen participation loom large in the repertoire of reform and clubbed techniques. Hence we recommend that a
programmes and practices of many contemporary public governance moral structuring could include the
administrative systems, and affect the interface between following aspects:
civil society and the state. It also influences the interact-
ion between the state and the civil society. (Buchanan, 1) Instruments for answerability
1985) observes that society has ceased to be just the 2) Supervising systems through local and outside
concern of state actors and molded by bureaucracy, on the question forms
contrary it is now in the purview of the active citizen‟s 3) Forging of helpful measures to motivate moralistic
concern. attitudes award ethical acts
Naturally, 'a country's view of public administration reflects 4) Application of audit techniques at an Inter-
its underlying philosophy of society and the state' (Chapman, governmental level
1959). State officials are affected by the way the public at 5) Official socialization (for example, structuring,
large regards them. Eventually, civil servants forming a knowledge and guidance)
middle-class profession, par excellence, acquire the 6) Establishing of whistle-blowing mechanisms cautiously
features that society expects of them. Public 7) A greater plea for an active citizenry.
administration forms a partial regime in the societal 8) Outlining managerial tasks
complex; it is part of the state, which is subject to a 9) Effective communication.
distinct 'ethic of responsibility' - in the Weberian sense-
vis-à-vis the society.
The ideas of alertness and accountability and answera- Management of ethics
bility have some similarity. These ideas also have
overlaps. In spite of the number of meanings they have, it The concept of ethics is naturally reliant on genuine
cannot be ignored that the basic aspect concerns duty political desire. In this manner there is sufficient scope to
and the preparedness of civil servants to honestly ration- establish a holistic moral code in an inclusive, organised
alize and defend their moves for public good. fashion. Stand-alone steps are of no use. By evolving
certain mechanisms for moral functioning, one can
NEW ETHICAL APPROACH provide solutions for conflict of ethics, difficulties, and
other scenarios. It is also helpful to encourage the growth
Denhardt and Denhardt (2002) argue that public of instruments and techniques which can predict
administrators influence, and are influenced by, all of the difficulties related to ethics and beneficial to propose
competing standards, values, and preferences of the solutions in a more agreeable manner.
complex governance system. These variables not only Unsurprisingly, the basic principle and aim of worthy
influence, and are influenced by, public administrators; administrations are, according to Aristotle, to habituate
they also represent points of accountability. They plead citizens and civil workers to the inculcation of virtue. This
for a “new public service” instead of “new public is validated by the events in states, for law makers who
management” under the slogan “serving rather than mould citizens to act properly by inculcating good habits
steering.” in them. It is the desire of every law maker and as for
those who cannot succeed; this is what distinguishes an officials and civil servants exposed to acute dilemmas
effective polity from a bad one. can hardly help succumbing to a state of confusion and
Aristotle is of the view that the main role of the governor embarrassment in which they are often quite unwillingly
is to facilitate moral literacy for citizens. To be able to do thrust. In circumstances like these public administration
so, he or she will need a lot of awareness, knowledge of instead of functioning as a well ordered state of legitimate
virtue, and that kind of awareness can only come through purposes degenerates into a state of confusion and
a perpetual quest and enquiry about things and acts. indeterminacy. It is then that the case of ethical
Morality is basically about questioning. This is the main vagueness and lack of clarity about overall values to
advantage of human life else it is an unworthy life. Life guide action and choices in 'hard cases' comes about in
which has not been exposed to tests is unacceptable to administration. But if everything stands and anything
humans said Socrates, in his exceptional Apology (38 A) goes, then nothing can be taken seriously, neither ethics
for a moralistic stand in life. and values nor rights and duties of public servants and
citizens alike.
The growing group of basic tenets or aspects that unite
Dealing with ethical dilemmas in public and restructure the procedure of handling ethical
administration dilemmas in public governance are: (1) democratic
answerability of governance, (2) the application of law
Hart (1961) states that at the time of facing basic queries and the notion of legality, (3) official honesty, and (4)
about what to do and which manner to behave in alertness to civil society needs.
complicated scenarios and the degree to which opposed
values or choice factors could be used in the scenario,
one ventures in the region of ethical confusions or of CONCLUSION
“hard choices”.
A dilemma is a concept which is broader and more Even prior to the close of the twentieth century, it was
exacting than a problem no matter how tough or apparent that states, governments, and public entities
complicated it is. The reason is that dilemmas, unlike were venturing into an era of change. This was basically
problems, cannot be solved in the terms in which they are a period of change and not a model-based shift from
initially presented to the decision-maker. Being entangled dictatorial, centrally-powerful states to increasingly free
in a dilemma, the choice-maker is not just confronted with and consultative kinds of social communication between
contradictory and unwanted substitutes, worse, the the people and the administrators. A different set of
impossibility of their being matched also means that they equations between politics, economy, culture, and civil
are separate in the sense that one can only be fulfilled if society has been the trigger for new research on more
the other is not taken care of. Hence a scenario of a inputs and restructuring of the responsibilities of the state
dilemma could result a no-win game in which the decision and those of the public services with regard to the society
of one worthy substitute is always adhered to by the and the economy.
negation of the other. Addressing the dilemma in such a The planning for moral improvement in the public sector
fashion would then be an opposition in terms and an throws up huge questions impacting the nature of
aberration as the answer which is arrived at would appear democracy, law, motivation and ethics in the public
to be no good and signify a complete break-up of the domain, and the state‟s communication with civil society.
entangled factors of the matters to be solved. There is not much uncertainty that clashing demands
A difficulty could however be managed properly if the can make governance appear inconsistent. As a matter of
conditions of reference changed and the entire scenario fact, every one of the ALIR requirements for moralistic
was restructured so that focus be given to all options rationalizing if taken to its extreme would be a big hurdle
which are organised and connected among themselves in rather than an asset. Some disagreements between
a more orderly and sensible way. Obviously, dilemmas constituents of an entity which upset the state of larger
are many in complicated establishments, which cannot conditions can only be set right if justice at par is given to
solve them properly. As an outcome, state officials and every one of them; or rather if it dispenses what is apt to
civil servants witnessing sharp dilemmas cannot but help all. Not surprisingly, for Aristotle justice is the balance of
being confused and embarrassed unwillingly. In such passions and actions, and moral virtues reside in middle
scenario, public governance rather than operating in the states (Lasswell, 1971).
manner in which it is supposed to, lapses into a condition The basic aim would therefore be not the triumph of
of chaos and uncertainty. It is in this case that moral one principle or ethical imperative over the other, but
ambiguity and lack of lucidity about larger values to direct rather the reduction of incongruence among them and the
choices and tasks in hard events may cause unbridled provision of conditions for their harmonious coexistence,
scepticism and a cynical attitude. mutual support and complementary fulfillment. Turning
Naturally, dilemmas abound in complex organizations, mutually exclusive dilemmas into solvable problems
which fail to tackle them effectively. As a result, state would then require a holistic and reflexive approach to
ethical reasoning. Gregory RJ (1999). Social Capital Theory and Administrative Reform.
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