FINALS: Electricity and Magnetism with Laboratory (SEM 201b)

Lesson 1: MAGNETIC FORCE

What is Magnetism?
 Magnets are commonly found in every objects, such as
toys, hangers, elevators. Doorbells, and computer
devices.
 All magnets have two poles: one is labelled North (N) and
the other is labelled South (S). Magnetic poles repel if
they are alike (both N and both S), they attract if they are
opposite (one N and the other S), and both poles of a magnet attract
unmagnetized pieces of iron.

Brief History of Magnetism

 Magnetism has been known since the time of the ancient Greeks, but it
has always been a bit mysterious.
A. Magnes
o According to Greek legend, magnetism was first discovered by a
shepherd named Magnes, who lived in Magnesia, Greece. Magnes
was herding his sheep through the mountains. Suddenly he noticed
the ferrule of his stick and nails had become attracted to the
magnetic rock. The stone was named magnetite, after the name of
the shepherd or the country it was found in. it was also known as a
loadstone because of its attractive properties.
B. Hans Christian Oersted
o Back in 1819, the Danich physicist Hans Christian Oersted was
performing a lecture demonstration for some students and noticed
that compass needle moved whenever current flowed in a nearby
wire. Further investigation of this phenomenon convinced Oersted
that an electric current could somehow cause a magnetic force. He
reported this finding to an 1820 meeting of the French Academy of
Science.
C. Jean-Bagtiste Biot and Felix Savart
o Jean-Bagtiste Biot and Felix Savart, who investigated the forces
exerted on magnets by currents.
o They discovered that the intensity of the magnetic field set up by a
current flowing through a wire is inversely proportional to the
distance from the wire. This relationship in now known as the Biot-
Savart Law and is fundamental part of modern electromagnetic
theory.
D. André Marie Ampère
o André Marie Ampère, who studied the force exerted by one current
on another.
E. François Arago
o François Arago, who discovered that a magnet exerts a force by a
current.
F. Humphry Davy
o Humphry Davy, who discovered that a magnet exerts a force on a
wire carrying an electric current.
G. Michael Faraday
o Within 10 years of Oersted’s discovery, Michael Faraday found that
the relative motion of a magnet and a metallic wire induced current
wire. This finding showed not only that a current has a magnetic
effect, but that a magnet can generate electric current.

Magnetic Poles
 Every magnet has two poles (North & South) and is therefore called a
Dipole. Unlike Electric Fields it is impossible to have a monopole. If you cut
a magnet in half you end up with another dipole.

Application of Magnetism
 Magnetism plays many important roles in our lives. Physicists’
understanding of magnetism has enabled the development of
technologies that affect both individuals and society. The electronic
tablet in our purse or backpack, for example, wouldn’t have been
possible without the applications of magnetism and electricity on a small
scale.
 Weak changes in a field in a thin film of iron and the chromium were
discovered to bring about much larger changes in resistance called giant
magnetoresistace. Information can then be recorded magnetically
based on the direction in which the iron layer is magnetized. As a result of
the discovery of giant magnetoresistance and its applications to digital
storage, the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Albert Fert from
France and Peter Grunberg from Germany.
 All electric motors–with uses as diverse as powering refrigarators, starting
cars, and moving elecators –contain magnets. Generators, whether
producing hydroelectric power or running bicycle lights, use magnetic
fields.
 Recycling facilities employ magnets to separate iron from other refuse.
 Research into using magnetic containment of fusion as a future energy
source has been continuing for several years.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become an important diagnostic
tool in the field of medicine, and the use of magnetism to explore brain
activity is a subject of contemporary research and development.
 The list of applications also includes computer hard drives, tapes
recording, detection of inhales asbestos, and levitation of high-speed
trains. Magnetism is involved in the structure of atomic energy levels, as
well as the motion of cosmic rays and charged particles trapped in the
Van Allen belts around Earth.

Lesson 2: MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic Field and Lines

 Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving
electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.
o It is produced by the electric currents, which can be macroscopic
currents in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons I
atomic orbits.
o It is also produced by moving electric charges and intrinsic
magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a
fundamental quantum property known as spin.
 Magnetic field and electric field are both interrelated and are
components of the electromagnetic force, one of the fundamental forces
of nature.
 Typically, a magnetic field can be illustrated in two different ways:
o Magnetic Field Vector
 This is a set of many vectors
that are drawn on a grid. In this
case, each vector points in the
direction that a compass
would point and has a length
dependent on the strength of
the magnetic force.
o Magnetic Field Lines
 Field lines is an
alternative way to
represent the
information
contained within a
magnetic vector
field. Magnetic Field lines are imaginary lines.
 Magnetic field lines are visually tool used to represent
magnetic fields. They describe the direction of the magnetic
force on a north monopole at any given position.
 The density of the lines indicates the magnitude of the field.
Taking an instance, the magnetic field is stronger and
crowded near the poles of a magnet. As we move away from
the poles, it is weak and the lines become less dense.

 Magnetic Field Sources

o Current in Wire
o Loop of wire
o Solenoid
o Bar magnet
o The Earth

 A magnetic field is defined by the force that a charged particle

experiences moving in this field.
 The magnitude of this force is proportional to the amount of charge q, the
speed of the charged particle v, and the magnitude of the applied
magnetic field. The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the
direction of the mowing charged particle and the direction of the
applied magnetic field. Based on these observations, we define
magnetic field strength B based in the magnetic force F on a charge q
moving at the velocity v as the cross product of the velocity and
magnetic field, that is:

 Magnetic fields can be pictorially represented by magnetic field lines,

which have the following properties:
1. The field is tangent to the magnetic field line.
2. Field strength is proportional to the line density
3. Field lines cannot cross.
4. Field lines form continuous, closed loops
 Magnetic poles always occur in pairs of north and south – it is not possible
to isolate north and south poles.
Earth’s Magnetic Field
 Because magnets will turn so the UNLIKE poles
come together, the poles are really called ‘North
seeking poles’ or ‘South seeking poles’
 Compasses contain small turn towards the Earth’s
poles

Magnetic Field Lines

 Magnetic Field – is a region of space where
a test magnet experiences a turning force
 Field Lines – point from North Pole to the
South Pole.

Magnetic Flux Density (B)

 The strength of the magnetic field seems
linked to the density of the magnetic field
lines.
 There is a stronger field at the poles where
there are more field lines.
 This is equivalent of:
o g for Gravitational Fields (Nkg-1)
o E for Electric Fields (NC-1)
 The unit of Magnetic Flux Density (B) is the Tesla (T) and like the other field
strengths it is a vector:
o A good way to think about it is that it is just a measure of how many
Field Lines there are in a certain area. A magnetic field is often
called a ‘B Field’
 Until we know more about Magnetism it isn’t possible to define The
Magnetic Field Density (B) in the same way as we do for Gravitational
Field Strength (g) and the Electric Field Strength (E).

Lesson 3: MAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic Induction

 The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction can be demonstrated by

an experiment.
o Wind an insulated copper wire on a paper or wooden cylinder so as
to form a coil in the form of solenoid (coil of wire).
o Connect the two ends of the coil to a galvanometer (ammeter) and
place a magnet close to it.
 Observation:
 When the magnet is
stationary – the reading
of the galvanometer is
zero.
 When the North Pole of
the magnet is moved toward the solenoid – the pointer of
the galvanometer deflects toward right.
 When there is no motion of the magnet – the
galvanometer shows zero reading. This proves that as long
as the magnet keeps moving, current flows in the solenoid.
 When the magnet is moved away – the current flows in
opposite direction in the solenoid. Thus, the galvanometer
deflects towards the left.
 When the magnet is moved away with greater velocity –
the deflection increases.
 When the polarity of magnet is reversed – and the magnet
is brought close to the solenoid, the current flows in an
opposite direction. The galvanometer accordingly turns
toward the left.

 Faraday’s Observation
o He observed that current flows in the coil, only when there is a
relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
o The direction of deflection in the galvanometer is reversed if the
direction of motion is reversed.
 If the North Pole is moving toward the solenoid the
galvanometer is toward to the right. And if the South Pole is
moving toward the solenoid the galvanometer is toward to the
left.
 If the current is positive, for example, when the magnet id
pushed toward the coil, it will be negative when the magnet id
pulled away from the coil.
o Factors Leading to Increased Current in the Coil
i. By using a strong magnet
ii. Increasing the motion of the magnet
iii. Increasing the area or the number of turns of the coil
o According to Faraday when there is no relative motion between the
magnet and the coil, the magnetic flux within the coil remains
constant. So, the galvanometer shows no deflection. But when the
magnet is moved towards the coil or vice versa, the magnetic flux
changes and an e. m. f. (electromotive force) is induced in the coil.
If the circuit is complete, the e. m. f. causes current to flow through
its.
 Magnitude and Direction of Induced Electromotive Force
Position of Magnet Deflection in Galvanometer
Magnet at rest No deflection in galvanometer
Magnet moves toward the coil Deflection in galvanometer in one
direction
Magnet is held stationary at same No deflection in galvanometer
position (near the coil)
Magnet moves away from the coil Deflection in galvanometer but in
opposite direction
Magnet is held stationary at same No deflection in galvanometer
position (away from the coil)

 Faraday’s Law of Induction

o Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil,
an electromotive force (e. m. f.) is induced.
o The factors affecting the Magnitude of e. m. f.
i. Change in Magnetic flux
ii. Time in which the Flux changes

Lesson 4: MAXWELL’S EQUATION

James Clerk Maxwell

 He formulated the four equation in Maxwell’s Equation

Maxwell’s First Equation (Gauss’s Law of Electrostatic)

o Is a form of “Gauss’s Law”
o It states that electric flux through a closed surfaced is proportional
to the total charge enclosed by the surface. A closed surface in
this case is just a surface of any shape that completely encloses a
charge like a sphere or any other three-dimensional shape.
o Mathematically this equation says that
electric flux is the integral of the electric
field over the area of the surface, which is
equal to the enclosed charge divided by
the permittivity of free space.
o Permittivity of free space – is a constant proportionality that we’ve
used before that relates electric charge to the physical effect of
electric fields. In simple terms, it is a physical constant which
represents the capability of a vacuum to permit fields.
o Gauss’s Law for Electric fields
Maxwell’s Second Equation (Gauss’s Law of Magnetism)
o is also a form of “Gauss’s Law”, only with
magnetic flux instead of electric flux.
o It tells us that magnetic field lines (unlike
electric field lines) have no beginning and
no end. In other words, magnetic field lines
are continuous.
o The field lines that leave the surface out of
the North Pole must enter back through the surface to reach the
South Pole.
 This result in the overall magnetic flux
being zero.

Maxwell’s Third Equation (Faraday’s Law of Induction)

o Faraday’s Law of Induction states that a changing magnetic field
will induce the electromotive force in a loop of wire.
o Maxwell’s version is a more general, simplifying
Faraday’s Law to show the value of that induced e.
m. f. It says that e. m. f. is equal to the line integral
of the electric field over a closed loop, and in this
equation you can see the connection between a
changing magnetic field flux and an induced
electric field.
o This tell us that a changing magnetic field will
induce an electric field.

Maxwell’s Fourth Equation (General form of Ampere’s Law)

o It started with Ampere’s Law, wherein Ampere’s law state that a
current thrill wire induces a magnetic field around a path
surrounding the wire.

o Maxwell added what is known as the displacement current into

ampere’s law to complete the equation.
 Mathematically the displacement current
is equal to the change in the capacitor’s
charge over time and that is equal to the
change in electric flux over time multiplied
by the permittivity of free space constant.
o It tell us that a magnetic field is produced by a current or by a
changing electric field.
Lesson 5: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetism
 This is the study of relationship between electricity and magnetism.
 It is also one of the four fundamental forces of nature.

James Clerk Maxwell

 He formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic
effects known at the time. He made the Maxwell’s equation which
summarize his theory.
 Maxwell was able to unify the entirely of electromagnetism into four
equations that became known as Maxwell Equations.

Components of Electromagnetic waves

 Electromagnetic waves has two components
1. Electric Field
2. Magnetic Field

 The electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave are

perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the motion of the
wave.

Five Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. EM waves carry energy, and it doesn’t carry matter
2. EM waves do not require medium.
3. The EM wave travels in vacuum with constant speed.
4. The speed of EM waves changes depending on the medium where they
are passing through.
5. The wave transverse; both E and B are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. The electric and magnetic fields are also
perpendicular to each other.

Speed of Electromagnetic waves in Vacuum

 300,00 km/s
Parts of Electromagnetic Waves


Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The intensity of electromagnetism radiation is determined by its
frequency. These frequencies make up what’s known as the
electromagnetic spectrum. Near the middle of the spectrum is visible
light, such as light emitted by stars, fireflies, and computer screens. On
either side are invisible electromagnetic waves.