The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 106

Teaching science by constructivist approach as a means of reducing the gap between secondary school
students’ experiences and the society needs/demands in Tanzania
Rwegasha P. Ishemo

Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania

E-mail: [email protected]

Biographical information:
Rwegasha P. Ishemo is a lecturer in the Department of Education, Sokoine University of Agriculture,
Tanzania. His research efforts have focused on the constructivist approach to teaching science.

Definition of terms:
 Teaching: The process of promoting learning to all students. In this case it will be taken as the
process of promoting knowledge and skills needed in the society.
 Constructivist approach: The teaching and learning approach which insists that the student
should learn through the interactions of what they already know and believe and the ideas,
events, and activities with which they come in contact.
 Students’ experiences: The knowledge and skills students attain or acquire after studying in an
education system. In Tanzania it includes memorization of facts, algorithmic performances,
covering and cramming materials without understanding.
 Society needs/demands: The knowledge and skills needed or desired for rapid social and
economic development. This helps students after graduation to work in a changing economy
and a changing workplace effectively.
 Science: A systematic study of anything that can be examined, tested and verified. The study of
science as a “way of knowing” and a “way of doing” can help students reach deeper
understanding of the world.
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 107

Introduction

The essence of teaching is to bring about a change in the behavior, attitude and thinking in the

students. The teaching principle a teacher adopts in order to bring about this change matters a lot; this

is because students learn most effectively when the learning environment is stimulating and when

teaching is lively, interesting and relevant to students’ prior knowledge and experience of the world

around them. The teaching principle, to be of value, needs the interaction of sensitive teachers to

challenge student thinking, exposing them to new ideas. The vision of a teacher using an effective

teaching approach is to develop classrooms where students are helped to make sense of, and reflect on,

their experiences, assess their work and set future learning goals. In such classrooms students are

always encouraged to articulate how they learn; they should be able to express what the problem is that

they are working on, what questions and prior ideas they have, and what their plans are to solve the

problem. They should know how they are going to evaluate and present their experimental results.

Teaching and learning in these classes should be inseparable, in that learning is a criterion and product

of effective teaching. In essence, learning is the goal of teaching, that is to say someone has not taught

unless someone else has learned something. So teaching is to try and help someone learn something, or

more formally to help someone acquire or change some behavior, i.e. some competencies, attitudes,

knowledge and skills, ideas or appreciations (Agbulu & Idu, 2008; Perrot, 1989).

The system of education in Tanzania

The system of education in Tanzania is based on the realization that quality education is the pillar of

national development, for it is through education that the nation obtains skilled manpower to serve in

various sectors in the economy. The Tanzania system of education has three major levels: Basic,

Secondary and Tertiary with the following structures:

 Pre-Primary Education: Pre-primary school is a formal school system for children aged between 5

and 6 years. Pre-primary school cycle lasts for 2 years with no examinations for promotion purpose.
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 108

 Primary Education: Primary Education is a seven-year education cycle after Pre Primary. It is

universal and compulsory for all children from the age of 7 years. The primary school cycle begins

with standard one (STD I) upon entering, and ends with standard seven (STD VII) in the final year.

STD VII examination is a Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), marking completion of the

primary education cycle, and it is used for selection of students to enter into secondary education.

 Secondary Education: The formal secondary school education consists of two sequential cycles:

 The first cycle is a four year Ordinary Level (O-Level) secondary education (beginning

with Form 1 and ending with Form 4).

 The second cycle is a two year Advanced Level (A-Level) secondary education (beginning

with Form 5 and ending with Form 6).

Form 4 and Form 6 examinations, i.e., CSEE and ACSEE respectively, mark the completion of the

secondary education cycles. The results of these examinations are used for selecting students for

further higher education and training, and also for certification.

 Higher Education: Higher education institutions (universities or tertiary colleges) offer degrees or

professional diplomas in different fields of study such as science, business, arts, etc.

 Teacher Education: Teachers Colleges offer courses leading to a Certificate in Teacher Education or

Diploma in Teacher Education. Minimum admission requirements for Certificate and Diploma

courses are Division III of CSEE and ACSEE respectively.

 Vocational Education: Vocational education and training prepare, update or retrain artisans for

employment or self- employment at the semi-skilled or skilled level in any economic activity. The

Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) coordinate and harmonize vocational and

technical education and training.

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To ensure efficiency and effective delivery of education or high standards of education under the

decentralized and liberalized education system, there are other agencies in the Ministry of Education

and Vocational Education Training (MoEVET) as follows:

 Planning Department – to ensure plans, programs, projects and policies are effectively coordinated

to improve the quality of education.

 Inspectorate Department – Ensures close monitoring of schools as well as horizontal feedback

mechanisms between the inspectors and education stakeholders at all levels.

 Tanzania Institute of Education – Ensures provision of quality education by designing, developing,

implementing, reviewing and updating the curriculum at all levels.

 National Examination Council of Tanzania – Ensures national examinations are effectively

coordinated (e.g., setting, moderating, supervising, marking and releasing results).

Education for Self-Reliance

In 1967, the government introduced the Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) policy which redefined the

purpose of education in the country. According to ESR, the purpose of education was to develop an

inquiring mind, the skill to learn from others and to make relevant judgments on what to adopt or adapt,

thinking critically and developing confidence and mental liberation. The policy or philosophy of ESR

evolved from the philosophy of Socialism and Self-Reliance encompassed in the Arusha Declaration. ESR

was designed to review the previous curriculum and the experience of schooling in order to produce

children who were more confident, curious, and inquisitive and with critical, liberated minds. Inquiry

Science curricula were imported from abroad to achieve these goals. The first curriculum materials

brought into the country included the African Primary Science Program (APSP) materials from the US

which were adapted to a form called Thinking Science. Others included the Nuffield Science Project

adapted throughout East Africa into a form called the School Science Project of East Africa (SSP) and the

corresponding School Mathematics Project of East Africa (SMP). These projects were introduced in
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 110

schools when there was a largely expatriate teacher population from the US, UK and other Western

countries since indigenous teachers were insufficient to run the expanded secondary school sector. The

situation was similar throughout the East African countries of Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda (Osaki, 2006).

A corresponding teacher preparation program was designed and operated from 1968, funded by the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), to produce a large number of

science and mathematics teachers for the school system to replace leaving expatriates and equip new

schools. There was also an in-service component designed to help teachers adapt the Nuffield and other

imported materials to the local situation. The SSP, SMP and APSP continued to run until the first cohort

completed the cycle. For the junior secondary schools, it was the first group to sit for the 1970 Ordinary

level Cambridge Overseas Examination in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics. For various

reasons the SSP, SMP, and APSP were discontinued after only the first trial, although the spirit of the

materials was somehow reflected in later developed textbooks. Among the reasons for discontinuation

of the materials included lack of enough trained teachers to teach by inquiry approach and also lack of

sufficient equipment for the experimental approach of the SSP, SMP, and APSP in the expanding school

system.

Tanzania continued to develop its own science and mathematics teaching and learning materials

through the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE), which from 1973 were examined by the National

Examinations Council of Tanzania, NECTA (after breaking from the Cambridge Overseas Examinations

System). However, a survey conducted by Chonjo, Osaki, Possi and Mrutu (1996) found that few

teachers used inquiry or did experiments; classes were large, gender awareness among teachers was

low, and a Unified Science Project started in the early 1990s had become unpopular. Experimental

design skills among teachers had deteriorated, as well as use of the local context in lesson presentation.

The Tanzania Institute of Education then abandoned the emphasis on inquiry science and continued to
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 111

write textbooks that focused more on remembering facts and formulae instead of experimental work

(Knamiller, Osaki, & Kuonga, 1995; Osaki, 2006).

Research on the state of science teaching and students experiences in secondary schools Tanzania

The teaching and learning of science in Tanzanian classrooms is characterized by the chalk-and-talk

methods; practical activities and demonstrations were hardly done at all. Implementation conditions in

schools were problematic; students’ attitude towards learning focused on memorization. The

understanding and application of concepts and theories were not included in their study routines; the

science curriculum did not prepare them sufficiently for another approach. The chalk-and-talk approach

is characterized by heavy teacher talk and passive students who are either listening to the teacher or

copying notes from the board. It requires students to listen to topics, memorize facts, and restate them

for evaluation purposes. Knowledge and skills are not duplicated but instead are taught sequentially

over time, and teachers often pay little attention to whether or not students use the information in any

real-life context. It often does not provide students with opportunities to develop the kinds of critical

thinking skills and problem-solving abilities that are central to thinking and learning in science (Chonjo et

al., 1996).

Subsequent studies on science and mathematics education (De Feiter, Vonk, & Van den Akker, 1995;

Osaki, Ottevanger, & Van den Akker, 2002; Ottevanger, 2001; Van den Akker, 1998; Weiss, Banilower,

McMahon, & Smith, 2001) revealed that African classrooms have been typified as dominated by

teachers, silent students, and chalk-and-talk as the preferred teaching style and the absence of practical

work. Most teachers used transmission rather than interactive pedagogy. They were seen to be

authoritarian, dogmatic and inflexible, which is uncharacteristic of the nature of science teaching.

Studies noted further that despite the reported emphasis on science process and inquiry skills, classes at

all levels are much less likely to stress having students learn to explain ideas in science or learn to

evaluate arguments based on scientific evidence. Science student culture is such that students merely
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 112

memorize, or haphazardly memorize materials without really thinking about or trying to make sense out

of it. Students could talk about the material in vague and general terms, and could repeat the examples

and statements they were given, but they had no real understanding of the problems. Similarly, when

students study science in school they learn the material so they can answer test questions, then move

on without worrying whether it really made any sense to them or not. These methods are the

predominant teaching format in Tanzanian secondary schools as it is in most Sub-Saharan countries.

Kitta (2004) revealed that the performance in mathematics among ordinary level (O-Level)

secondary school students in Tanzania was generally poor. One reason given was teachers’ low

competence in teaching due to substantial deficiencies in pedagogical content knowledge and skills.

Traditional teaching methods are still preferred by some teachers, despite being reported to contribute

to problems in student understanding of introductory physics. Having been taught passively for a long

time, students are usually resistant to changes in teaching methods (Cahyadi, 2004). Furthermore,

Teacher Education Assistance in Mathematics and Science (TEAMS) project researchers reiterate science

teaching problems, but some research shows that change is possible although it requires more work and

government support. Jokolo (2004) shows that classroom practice in biology still discourages girls due to

lack of practical hands-on learning, but suggests some simple tasks which can motivate girls to enjoy

learning about science. Kibga (2004) reiterates the problem of an experimental approach in physics

classrooms and suggests ways of raising interest in practical work, while Maro (2004) shows that there is

failure to relate academic science content with pedagogical training in the current teacher education

curriculum in teachers colleges. Mtaita (2004) shows that by using the five E’s learning model (Explore,

Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate, Engage) it is possible to promote a more practical and stimulating approach

in chemistry.

Experience has shown that despite changes to modernize the teaching and learning approaches of

science subjects and even after Tanzania had put great emphasis on science-based subjects for the
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 113

benefit of future development of the country, educators are astonished to learn that despite their best

efforts, science students do not grasp fundamental science ideas/concepts covered in classes. Even

some of the best students during the lesson give the right answers but are only using correctly

memorized words; when questioned more closely, such students reveal their failure to understand fully

the underlying science ideas/concepts. Amazingly, rote-learning techniques are still prevalent in

secondary schools (Ishemo, 2006). Some studies found that discussion as a participatory teaching

method can facilitate learner participation in the learning process, but the way teachers interpret it into

classroom practice reveals that there is confusion of what it is and how they can use it to enhance

learner participation. In addition there are variations and similarities in teachers’ views on what

participatory teaching methods are, and the reasons for their use (Barrett, 2007; Kimaryo, 2009; Omari,

2008).

In his presentation on whether or not classrooms are really learner-centered, Townend (researcher

from the UK) says many students have little or no experience using their thinking to construct

knowledge. He says students are oriented to rely entirely upon their teachers instead of attempting on

their own to construct knowledge. This causes some subjects, science in particular, to be considered

difficult. Commenting further on Tanzania’s education system and teaching methods, Townend says

things are different from what he expected to see. He adds that many teachers begin a new topic by

asking students what they already know; however at the end of a lecture a teacher asks students if they

remember what he/she taught them. No chance is given for students to construct their own knowledge,

think for themselves and encourage them to become independent learners (“Needed: Learner-Centered

Syllabuses,” 2009).

Recently, education sector stakeholders have called on the government to see the need to arrest

the rising incidence of students doing poorly in science subjects, warning that failure to take immediate

action would make Tanzania run dangerously short of scientists. Most people interviewed expressed
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unease and surprise at the worsening trend of mass failures in science subjects in the last 10 or so years.

They said the nature and level of the country’s social, cultural, political and economic development will

largely be decided by the contribution of scientists and experts in all other areas of specialization. Dr

Matheo Raphael, director of the Centre for Development and Transfer of Technology at the Tanzania

Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH), said the chronically poor performance by students

in science subjects was evidence that it would not be long before the nation faced a crisis resulting from

a scarcity of experts. “What this means is that we will one day find ourselves with even fewer doctors,

engineers, geologists, extension officers and other experts than is currently the case.” He explained

further that the major explanation of the problem was the ever escalating shortage of science teachers,

having too many students in classrooms than is recommended by education experts and lack of well-

equipped science laboratories. “If the government really wants to reverse the tide, it must draw up and

implement a strategy deliberately aimed at churning out dedicated and competent science teachers,

improving school and college laboratories and giving special incentives to science teachers plus in-

service training” (“Government Advised,” 2010).

Research conducted by NGO’s in 2007 at six regions in Tanzania discovered that not a single

community secondary school had a science laboratory. “What kind of science experts would anyone

expect to see emerging from such secondary schools?” queried researchers, calling on the government

to direct more funding and other resources into priority issues such as regularly upgrading training for

teachers “to help them acquire new teaching methodologies and techniques.” They urged education

stakeholders to address the mass failures in science subjects by deploying new teaching and learning

methods. They said the methods currently in use do not encourage innovation “which students need to

perform better,” prescribing innovative learning as “a more proper method sure to help students think

and learn skills rather than merely cramming” (“Government Advised,” 2010).
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There were various efforts to address science problems and how the situation could be improved in

different ways and levels, for example the Science Education in Secondary Schools (SESS) project whose

goal is to equip deprived schools with textbooks and teaching apparatus as well as run in-service

education programs for science teachers. Another project is the Science Teaching Innovation Program

(STIP) project whose provision is to provide up-to-date textbooks to church schools in Tanzania, and to

rehabilitate laboratories and equip them with a basic set of chemicals including science equipment. At

the University of Dar-es-Salaam (USDM), the TEAMS project was established as a response to a study

which showed the poor state of science and mathematics in the country. TEAMS is a cooperative effort

between science and mathematics educators at UDSM and Dutch counterparts aimed at assisting with

the production of more and better-qualified science and mathematics teachers. Specifically the project

has a mission to improve teaching of science and mathematics in secondary schools. Obviously, this

project has brought many hopes for a learner-centered approach in science and mathematics teaching

in Tanzania (Ottevanger, Feiter, Osaki, & Van den Akker, 2005).

A curriculum review conducted by the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE, 2009) on the status of

curriculum for secondary schools showed that the majority of school graduates lack many crucial

competencies including proficiency in spoken and written English, entrepreneurial skills, social life skills,

creativity, self-confidence, numeracy, patriotism and ICT mastery/application. It can be said that there is

a gap between science student experiences and the society needs/demands. So it seems that the

dominant experiences science students encounter during teaching and learning (experienced curriculum)

are generally those of the traditional methods. These methods have a subject-centered orientation

which has the following characteristics:

 Students gain mastery of subject matter predetermined by a set of educators

 Overemphasises on verbal answers, reliance on rote memorization

 Students focus on memorizing what they are told, and one correct answer is sought
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 Students are the receivers of information, and the teacher is the dispenser

 More concern with preparation for the next grade level and in-school success than with helping

students become lifelong learners

 At its most extreme, it omits the importance of learner experience, requiring a learner to accept,

rather than challenge, the information being transmitted

Students graduating in tradition-based education lack crucial knowledge, skills and competences needed

for socioeconomic development (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004; Nyagura, 1996).

Societal needs/demands

The oldest method of meeting societal needs/demands was for the parents to pass on to their

children the occupational information they had acquired from their parents, as well as what they had

learned by trial and error during the generation of productive work. Under this method many

developing countries faced the problem of workers who lack knowledge/skills/competencies; as a result

many societies failed to have people who could meet the manpower needs and societal demands. Due

to changes in manpower and societal needs the transmission of family heritage was no longer a

satisfactory educational program for workers in the newly generated occupations. Others found schools

to be the right places for students to learn and acquire knowledge and skills which could help them cope

with society. However, it was found that the dominant experiences science students encounter during

teaching and learning were still not appropriate in terms of the knowledge and skills needed in society.

The demands of society are aimed at students who possess knowledge and skills needed for rapid social

and economic development and also that will enable them to function in a changing economy and a

changing workplace (Evans, 1971; Murcia, 2005).

Our society apparently needs more and more “polyvalent” individuals, capable of multiple

adjustments, with a vast range, and capable of successive accommodations and re-accommodations, in

accordance with social demands. Our society needs graduates who can be competent in different fields
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 117

like technology, entrepreneurship, language, globalization, teamwork, human rights, good governance,

life skills, networking, etc. So in a context of increasing globalization, millennium development goals and

new challenges posed by new changes in the societies, schools and colleges should re-evaluate their

programs and strategies. School and college graduates can play a dynamic role in engineering the

technological and economic visions of their society. It seems that society has lost its confidence on

school and college outcomes, and due to this fact, the view that schools and colleges should target

pursuit of knowledge/skills for its own sake has lost much of its appeal. The global advance of

information technologies and economic reasons compel us to seek a new role for schools and colleges

(Ilisoi, Naggy, & Constantinescu, 1999).

The need for reform

Due to the existing gap between science students’ experiences gained from the school and the

societal needs/demands, there is a need for reform. To help ensure that reform does happen,

continuing community support for science education is essential. Such support is not easy to sustain in

the face of changing demographics and changing social priorities. Therefore, informed and determined

political leadership at every level and in every sector (government, business, labor, and education) is

crucial for achieving reform. Without such leadership, community support for educational reform will

fade away long before lasting results can be achieved. The reforms in science education are necessary to

improve and enhance science teaching and learning for all students (American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 2006; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991).

Although creative ideas for reforming education come from many sources, only teachers can

provide the insights that emerge from intensive, direct experience in the classroom itself. They bring to

the task of reform a knowledge of students, craft, and school culture that others cannot. Moreover,

reform cannot be imposed on teachers from the top down or the outside in. If teachers are not

convinced of the merits of proposed changes, they are unlikely to implement them energetically. In
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either case, the more teachers share in shaping reform measures, and the more help they are given in

implementing agreed-upon changes, the greater the probability that they will be able to make those

improvements stick. Although teachers are central to reform, they cannot be held solely responsible for

achieving it. They need allies. Thus, school administrators, education policymakers and educators who

are experts on relevant subject matter, child development and learning and the educational potential of

modern technologies need to support teachers. They need help and support of community leaders,

business/labor leaders and parents, for in the final analysis, educational reform is a shared responsibility.

During the reform science teachers/educators need to put into practice the following:

 Students must be actively engaged in constructing their own understanding of science,

technology, and the world in which they live. We need to create more opportunities for

students to engage in science learning that is authentic and patterned after the methods that

scientists use.

 By practicing good habits of research, students will systematically learn the process skills needed

to participate in meaningful scientific investigation of natural phenomena.

 Teachers must use a variety of alternative assessment tools to allow students to demonstrate

their understanding of science by solving authentic, real-life problems.

 Students must develop the skills needed to seek information, construct new knowledge and

solve problems.

 Thinking skills, especially higher-order skills, must be learned through practice.

 Teachers need professional development programs which will enable them to change

instructional strategies and adapt them to new methods for teaching.

 A thorough understanding and application of the constructivist approach to teaching and

learning should be part of the science education program, and “hands-on, minds-on, authentic

science” should be the goal of most science education reform.

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Constructivist approach

Vygotsky and cohort theorists Piaget, Bruner, Dewey and Kelly fall under the paradigm of

constructivism. This is the major instructional practice which has emerged over the last two decades; it

is sometimes termed the constructivist model of learning. A constructivist model of learning assumes

the existence of learners’ conceptual schemata and the active application of these in responding to, and

making sense of, new situations. Perhaps most basic is the idea that learning is an active process within

which learners are constantly constructing thought which always springs from their own experience and

structures of thought. Constructivism is intensely learner-centered; what learners know, what they

need to know next and how they might begin to understand and assimilate such new knowledge is the

focus of the constructivist design. It is a theory of learning based on the principle that learners construct

meaning from what they experience. It sees learning as a dynamic and social process in which learners

actively construct meaning from their experiences in connection with their prior understandings and the

social setting, thus learning is an active, meaning-making process. Students construct their own

knowledge base using old constructs in new situations and adapting them to fit newly learned

information (Driver, Leach, Miller, & Scott, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978).

The constructivist approach to teaching and learning calls for learning that is:

 Hands-On: Students are actually allowed to perform science as they construct knowledge,

meaning and acquire understanding. Students are encouraged to manipulate their

environments or a particular learning tool (e.g., experimentation, group work to solve problems).

 Minds-On: Activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop thinking processes

and encouraging them to question and seek answers that enhance their knowledge and thereby

acquire an understanding of the physical universe in which they live.

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 Authentic: Students are presented with problem-solving activities that incorporate authentic,

real-life questions and issues in a format that encourages collaborative effort, dialogue with

informed expert sources, and generalization to broader ideas and application.

This approach enables students to participate fully in a learning community where the teacher is not

the only source of knowledge and information. It encourages full involvement in a community of

learners that includes other students, parents, teachers and outside experts. Technology becomes a tool

supporting the learning process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. In this framework

students learn science by doing concrete scientific investigations (Christensen, 1995; Linn, 1998).

Use of the constructivist approach in teaching and learning science in Tanzania needs to become a

common agenda in science education as efforts of shifting from traditional methods (teacher centered)

to modern methods (learner centered) of teaching and learning are made. Learner-centered teaching

goes hand in hand with constructivism which maintains that the learner should learn through his/her

activities. Some of the qualities of learner-centered teaching are (Eastern Inspectorate Zone, 2009):

 the learner learns by doing a variety of logical and planned activities

 the lesson is built on what the learner already knows (past experiences are respected)

 the learner seeks knowledge by interacting with the teacher, the peer, the teaching and learning

materials and the subject matter content

 teaching and assessing is done by covering all 6 levels of the cognitive domain

 the teacher is a facilitator of learning rather than a provider of knowledge

One could conclude that the constructivist model of learning is proving to be very useful in helping

students understand science better.

Learner-centered learning is premised in the constructivist epistemology of learning which

advocates the promotion of more learner-centered l classroom activities (Jonassen, 1991). With

constructivism, learning is founded on the premise that “we are able to construct our knowledge and
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 121

understanding of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences” (Smith &

Ragan, 1999, p. 15). That is, when we encounter new experiences, we have to reconcile them with our

previous ideas and experiences. This may result in changing what we believe, or maybe in discarding the

new information as irrelevant. Regardless of which action we take, we are active creators of our own

knowledge. When we construct our own knowledge we are learning. This is achievable through mental

activities that enable us to generate our own rules and mental models which we can use to make sense

of our experiences. Learning, therefore, becomes the process of adjusting these mental models to

accommodate new experiences. That is, learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start

with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. To do this, we must ask

questions, explore, and assess what we know. This construction of knowledge is developed from

previous knowledge.

Smith and Ragan (1999) highlight some key assumptions of constructivism that may have

implications for instructional design and development for educational purposes. These include:

 Knowledge is constructed from experience.

 Learning results from a personal interpretation of knowledge.

 Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience.

 Learning is collaborative, with meaning negotiated from multiple perspectives.

 Learning should occur (or be “situated”) in realistic settings.

 Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. The purpose of learning is

for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just to memorize the “right” answers

and regurgitate someone else’s meaning.

 Teaching and learning materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials.

 Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own knowledge.

 Testing should be integrated into the task, not a separate activity.

The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 122

One of the objectives of teaching science subjects in Tanzania is to provide opportunities for the

acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes, abilities and understanding in prescribed or selected fields of

study. The constructivist approach during teaching and learning is an area of much current interest; this

is because it is more appropriate for developing effectively the competencies stated by the Tanzania

Institute of Education (TIE) for students to acquire in order to solve social, economic and scientific

problems. Thus, the system of education should respond to the reform movement in science education

and sensitize awareness in order to modernize teaching and learning processes which could finally

translate into everyday classroom instructional methods (United Republic of Tanzania, 2007).

The principles that provide the essence of constructivist pedagogy are: emphasizing the student’s

role in knowledge and skill acquisition through experience, puzzlement, reflection, and construction.

Pedagogy is based on the dynamic interplay of mind and culture, knowledge (content and skill), meaning,

reality and experience. The general theoretical and practical constructivist consensus indicates that

these principles are essential in constructivist pedagogy (Brooks & Brooks, 1999; Doolittle & Camp, 1999;

Larochelle, Bednarz & Garrison, 1998) These principles are appropriate to employ during the curriculum

implementation processes because they put more emphasis on learner-centered classroom practices

which currently could be taken as quality teaching and learning for solving problems in Tanzanian

secondary science education.

a) Learning should take place in authentic and real-world environments

Whether building accurate representations of reality, consensual meanings in social activities, or

personally coherent models of reality, experience is paramount. Experience, both socially oriented and

object oriented, is a primary catalyst of knowledge and meaning construction. Experience provides the

activity upon which the mind operates. In addition, knowledge construction is enhanced when the

experience is authentic. For the cognitive constructivist, authentic experiences are essential; so the

individual can construct an accurate representation of the “real” world, not a contrived world.
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 123

b) Learning should involve social negotiation and mediation

While only social constructivism emphasizes social interaction as a basis for knowledge construction,

cognitive and radical constructivisms do assign social interaction a role. Social interaction provides for

the development of socially relevant skills and knowledge, as well as providing a mechanism for

perturbations that may require individual adaptation. In some cases, such as cultural mores and

culturally arbitrary rituals (e.g., greetings, gender relations, dress), knowledge can only be attained

through social contact. In addition, as an individual gains experience in a social situation, this experience

may verify an individual’s knowledge structures, or it may contradict those structures. If there is

contradiction or confusion, then the individual must accommodate this contradiction in order to

maintain either an accurate model of reality or a coherent personal or social model of reality. Finally, an

integral component of social mediation is the use of language. Language is the medium through which

knowledge and understanding are constructed in social situations (Spivey, 1997).

c) Content and skills should be made relevant to the learner

Constructivism generally emphasizes the concept that knowledge serves an adaptive function. If

knowledge is to enhance one’s adaptation and functioning, then the knowledge attained (i.e., content

and skills) must be relevant to the individual’s current situation, understanding, and goal. This relevancy

is likely to lead to an increase in motivation (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996) as the individual comes to

understand the need for certain knowledge. Ultimately, experience with relevant tasks will provide the

individual with the mental processes, social information, and personal experiences necessary for

enhanced functioning within one’s practical environment. In agricultural education, for instance, a

problem-solving approach to teaching has long emphasized the importance of personal relevance in

learning (Hammonds & Lamar, 1968).

The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 124

d) Content and skills should be understood within the framework of the learner’s prior knowledge

All learning begins within an individual’s prior knowledge, regardless of constructivist affiliation.

Understanding a student’s behavior requires an understanding of the student’s mental structures, that

is, an understanding of the student understanding. When a student replies that the answer to 54 - 38 is

24, the teacher must not think “Oh, that is wrong,” but rather “What is the student’s understanding of

subtraction that has led to this answer?” In this case, the student appears to be using the following rule

of subtraction, “subtract the smallest from the largest.” While this rule is “incorrect” given our current

system of mathematics, it is, nonetheless, the rule the student is using. Understanding the student’s rule

usage makes it much easier for the teacher to demonstrate, using manipulatives of some type, the non-

viability of the student’s understanding (e.g., have the student count out 54 blocks, then take away 38

blocks from that pile, and finally count the remaining 16). Only by attempting to understand a student’s

prior knowledge will the teacher be able to create effective experiences, resulting in maximal learning.

e) Students should be assessed formatively, serving to inform future learning experiences

Constructivism asserts that the acquisition of knowledge and understanding is an ongoing process that is

heavily influenced by a student’s prior knowledge. Unfortunately, knowledge and understanding are not

directly visible, but rather must be inferred from action. Thus, to take into account an individual’s

current level of understanding in this ongoing teaching and learning process, a teacher must continually

assess the individual knowledge. This formative assessment is necessary to accurately create the next

series of experiences and activities for students.

f) Students should be encouraged to become self-regulatory, self-mediated, and self-aware

The underlying tenet of constructivism, and the main thread that holds together this array of theoretical

positions, is the claim that learners are active in their construction of knowledge and meaning. This

activity involves mental manipulation and self-organization of experience, and requires that students

regulate their own cognitive functions, mediate new meanings from existing knowledge, and form an
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 125

awareness of current knowledge structures. Within a cognitive constructivist perspective, self-regulation,

self-mediation, and self-awareness would be subsumed under the construct of metacognition.

Metacognition is considered an essential aspect of learning and consists of (a) knowledge of cognition

(i.e., knowing what one knows, knowing what one is capable of doing, and knowing what to do and

when to do it) and (b) regulation of cognition (i.e., the on-going task of planning, monitoring, and

evaluating one’s own learning and cognition) (Brown & Palincsar, 1987).

g) Teachers/instructors serve primarily as guides and facilitators of learning

In actuality, in the cognitive constructivist perspective, the role of the teacher is to create experiences

for student participation that will lead to appropriate processing and knowledge acquisition.

Consequently, cognitive constructivism supports the teacher as a guider or facilitator to the extent that

the teacher is guiding or facilitating relevant processing. The teacher-as-guide metaphor indicates that

the teacher is to motivate, provide examples, discuss, facilitate, support, and challenge, but not to

attempt to act as a knowledge conduit. The role of teacher as guide was described by von Glasersfeld,

(1996), “From this point of view, then, the task of the educator is not to dispense knowledge but to

provide students with opportunities and incentives to build it up” (p. 7).

h) Teachers should provide for and encourage multiple perspectives and representations of content

The relationship of multiple perspectives and multiple representations is one of cause and effect within

cognitive constructivism. Experiencing multiple perspectives of a particular event provides the student

with the raw materials necessary to develop multiple representations. These multiple representations

provide students with various routes from which to retrieve knowledge and the ability to develop more

complex schemas relevant to the experience. This being the case, a student’s understanding and

adaptability is increased when he or she is able to examine an experience from multiple perspectives. In

almost all settings, there is more than one solution to any problem, more than one way to accomplish
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 126

any task. A fundamental assumption of inquiry-based instruction is that multiple solutions to any

problem are possible (Hammonds & Lamar, 1968).

Conclusion

This paper explained, adopted and suggested the use of a constructivist approach during teaching

and learning in order to fill the gap between science students’ experiences and societal demands, the

ultimate goal being to improve teaching and learning of science in secondary schools in Tanzania. The

forum organised by Oxfam GB played an important role in allowing all relevant players to improve their

understanding and knowledge of learner-centered innovations in Tanzania through sharing of best

practices. The emphasis is on training and capacity building in teachers so that they can impart quality

education to their students, and also to press for its effective adoption in all science classrooms in the

country. We know in any education system the quality of the teaching force is an indication of the

quality of education in that system. A well-educated science teacher must develop an understanding of

how different students learn, who can help individual students learn and assess when that learning has

taken place.

The conclusion drawn in this paper asserts that the constructivist approach introduced via carefully

designed curriculum materials has the potential for improving teaching and learning practices which

make science classes more interactive, interesting, and enjoyable. It also allows students to carry out

many practices for themselves, collaborate with peers, and communicate with their teachers freely.

There is a need to promote Tanzania’s system of education so that it can be guided by a constructivist

approach for the purposes of meeting the needs/demands of society. Stakeholders can understand the

importance and desirable outcome of science schooling especially its fundamental role in helping

students to solve problems effectively. One of the most significant factors in improving the quality of

teaching and learning by a constructivist approach is the teacher. Thus, it is recommended that
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 127

educational jurisdictions provide teachers with support of ongoing professional development to help

them teach science in ways that promote the constructivist approach to improve learning outcomes.
The Constructivist, 21(1) Summer 2012 128

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