ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

Assignment 01
Name Huma khan
Student id 0000365472
Course code 8603
Semester 1st
Program B.Ed. (1.5 years)
Question no 1:

What are the different characteristics of curriculums

planning? Explain the process of curriculum development for
effective curriculum planning.

Answer:

Curriculum Development is the step-by-step process of designing and

improving the course offered at schools, colleges and universities. Even
though each institution will have its own process, the broad stages of
the framework consist of analysis, design, implementation, and
evaluation.

Ski any parent what they want out of a school, and “a good curriculum”
is sure to top the list. But what really is a good curriculum; importantly
how do you identify one? These are questions that are worth delving
into.

What is a Curriculum?

The word “curriculum” comes from the Latin word “currier” which
literally means, “to run”. It refers to a racecourse or a runway, running
on which helps one achieve one’s goal. Put in context, it, therefore, is
the educational program that helps students achieve their goals.

While we may be conditioned to consider the curriculum as study

material alone, seen in perspective, it refers to a series of potential
experiences that are set up in educational institutes. These are a series
of learning opportunities that are planned, which include both
curricular & co-curricular activities. It is really the totality of what
children learn; including through classroom activities, in the
playground, at lunchtime, through sports, music & the like.

A curriculum is typically known to have 3 parts:

 Knowledge- This largely refers to both theoretical & empirical

knowledge
 Skill- This refers to procedural knowledge
 Values- This includes dispositional knowledge
It is how the curriculum integrates these three competencies that lead
to a number of capabilities in children.

It is also important to remember that a good curriculum needs to

inspire the process of individual development as well as that of
socialization in order to lead to the holistic development of the student.

While that broadly defines a curriculum, it is important to know what

quality means in the context of a curriculum.
Some useful indicators of a quality curriculum include:

 Relevance
 Consistency
 Practicality
 Effectiveness
 Sustainability

Of course, a curriculum is not an end in itself. Rather, what it aims to do

is to achieve worthwhile & useful learning outcomes that enable
students to lead meaningful & productive lives. The success of the
curriculum lies in how effectively students use the learning for their
personal, social, moral, and emotional development.

That said let us look at some of the characteristics of a good

curriculum in some detail:
Characteristics of a Good Curriculum

Is based on needs- A good curriculum is based on the needs of the

individual as well as the society as a whole. It, therefore, offers age-
appropriate & developmentally-appropriate material.

Is ever evolving- For a curriculum to be effective, it needs to undergo

continuous monitoring & evaluation for it to evolve to the needs of the
changing times.

It is developed democratically- For the curriculum to reflect the needs

of the society at large, it needs to be conceived of democratically by
individuals from different sectors who are knowledgeable & empathetic
to the interests & needs of the learner & the society as a whole.

Developed and implemented in this manner, a good

curriculum is known to:

Help in the realization of educational objectives and in the acquisition

of knowledge, skill & attitude
Offer guidelines that ensure there is the optimal use of time & energy.
It standardizes learning goals & creates shared goals between teachers
& students.
Value each child & be underpinned by beliefs on how children learn. A
good curriculum in school is therefore inclusive and assists all students
regardless of their capabilities, and background & more and enables
them to rise up to their full potential.

At Pragyanam School, we work with this belief that all children have
limitless potential. A key aspect that enables us to develop students so
that they are prepared for life, is to nurture 10 life skills recommended
by World Health Organization. From teaching them critical thinking
skills, and effective communication to coping with stress, we ensure
that we prepare the child for the road ahead. In fact, “Pragyanam’
which means wisdom in Sanskrit, has been founded on the core belief
that the objective of learning is to raise mindful and conscientious
individuals who value competence over competitiveness and aspire to
live a life of happiness and fulfillment. It is the fact that we are focused
on the holistic development of the child, offering an integration of
knowledge, skill & values, that the school is widely recognized by
parents to be one of the top CBSE School in Gurgaon.
Q.2
Describe the process of change in curriculum development
with special reference to Pakistan.
Answer:

Unprofessional developed or poorly implemented, which describes the

process of curriculum development in Pakistan more appropriately? That
question remains unanswered even after 70 years of our formation as a
nation.

There’s good news and bad news about the processes of curriculum
development in Pakistan. First the bad news: There are many problems.
And the good news? One issue has overshadowed every other situation.
Therefore, at least for now, we need not worry about the rest of the
problems. Hence, we need to find our way out of this one mother of all
issues.

Is curriculum development a federal responsibility for each province is

responsible for forging such a document? Unfortunately, in a politically
divided country like ours, the answer depends on one’s political
affiliation.

The one who believes that a country is a unity will tell you that it’s the
federal government’s responsibility. On the other hand, those who
consider provinces to be independent units of the federation will think it
to be their sovereign right guaranteed by the 18th amendment.

Based on the 18th amendment, the recent Single National Curriculum

document was utterly rejected by the Sindh province, and Azad Kashmir
and Balochistan half-heartedly accepted it.

Hence, Single National Curriculum is implemented in only two provinces,

and yes, you guessed them right!
I had an opportunity to listen to the political leadership of one of the
provinces, where they had all-out rejected SNC more than once. Trust
me; they have a solid argument to show that SNC is nothing more than
an uncalled-for intervention by the federal government in local matters,
which can cause a drift in national cohesion.

But let’s assume for a minute that curriculum development is indeed a

federal responsibility, and there is no problem about provinces claiming
it to be their domain. Then what are the issues with our process of
curriculum development in Pakistan?
I don’t take any pleasure in claiming that I witnessed the creation of
three curriculum documents under three previous administrations. Why
don’t I take any pleasure?

Because all three times, the document was unprofessionally developed

and poorly implemented.

This blog focuses on the development part of the document and even
that of the present one.

1. Curriculum needs a think tank

The curriculum development process in Pakistan, or for that matter in
any other country, requires inputs from a large pool of intellectuals.
These intellectuals come from universities and the business arena.

They tell us which way society and industry are heading. They form the
vision to prepare students, not today but 20 years from now.

I know, I know, some of the readers will be annoyed at this stage by

what I have said. “The government created a pool of 300 plus
intellectuals for this purpose,” they would claim.

Unfortunately, most of the experts never gave any input. Many didn’t
even know that their name was on the list. They found out about it long
after it was all done.

2. Curriculum has to be diverse for a diverse country like ours

The curriculum for us has to be a comprehensive document, covering the
needs of a country where half the population still lives in rural areas, 55%
is under the poverty line, and 60% of the primary school-going children
are enrolled in a private school.

EAST team managed learning needs for over 1500 schools and literacy
centers across Pakistan. With this background, we have gone through
SNC numerous times. The SNC does not address the economic and socio
diversity of Pakistan.
There are still many more reasons that make this SNC unprofessionally
developed and poorly implemented, but there is no point taking up the
rest of the issue. Why?

Because our new head of the curriculum council has rejected the existing
document and vowed to create a more meaningful record in the coming
weeks and months. Hopefully, this time process of curriculum
development in Pakistan will be done more thoroughly.

Unfortunately, with this new document which will come on the horizon
in 2020, the books developed on the existing standards will go down the
drain.

Finally, the shape of the coming SNC, also called Core plus document, as
per the head of curriculum council, will be based on Common Core
Standards. That’s good news!

If you are interested in finding more about Common Core, you need not
go any further than this website, where all the syllabus is already based
on Common Core. In other words, the EAST syllabus is already Core Plus!

Curriculum Development Process in Pakistan

The Significance of Aims. Goals and Objectives

Aims provide a synoptic view of what we expect education hole their
major function is to provided purpose and direction 10 the whole
educational system. (National Education Policy. 1979. p.l). Unless aims
ore first clearly stated. No educational programmed can be meaningfully
conceived. Planned and initialed. Actually aims act as guiding principles
and highlight the major emphases for central concerns of any system.
Hence, knowledge of aims is indispensable to curriculum planners and
other related groups.

American education is wedded by and large to the production of

democratic and pragmatic individuals. While the socialist system
endeavors to produce true "socialists". You can see the typical stamp in
the end- products of the various school systems. And different systems
may operate even within the same country. This is so because aims help
t0 unify different educational programmers’ and objectives. Jamie
Ashrafi (a religious Muslim University) and Forman Christian College,
separated only by the Gulberg Canal in Lahore, represent two different
viewpoints. Each entertains a peculiar outlook that is personified in the
lives the youth ender their care. This indicates the powerful role of aims
in education. Be it Eastern, or Western, public or the private. This
different sets of aims represent ' 'color schemes" and curriculum
developers and teachers should be alert to the and implications of such
schemes.

As for the goals of education. Specific objectives can be of use in many

ways. Firstly, they provide clear guidance in the selection of content and
leaning experiences. Secondly, they classify the how the content IS to be
used types of powers and capacities to be developed in learner and with
what purpose in view. Thirdly. They provide a common and consistent
focus for varied curricular activities. Hopefully. The multiplicity of
subjects and of teaching approaches may be unified through objectives
without which they will simply appear to be discrete and disjointed parts
of an education programmer. Lastly, they guide us in evaluating the
output by providing a relevant and clear set of criteria (Taba, 1962, pp.
196-199). Thus aims. Goals and objectives render positive service to all
concerned. Especially to curriculum planners and teachers.

The Classification of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Generally Speaking. A vertical hierarchy of three broad categories—

aims, goals and objectives is usually mentioned in books on curriculum
and education. However, many eminent writers, particularly in the field
of curriculum. Prefer to use pairs of terms like 'aims and objective' or
•goals and objectives'. Perhaps. To simplify the process of objectives
formulation. Hilda tabaBlooom and his associates, Michael’s. Grossmann
and Scott may be cited as writers who exemplify this approach.

Document entitled "Goals and Alms to Education" (ministry of Education,

1977.p.2), treated aims as something intermediary between goals and
objectives. Aims being mainly concerned with the major stages of
education: while the term 'goals' was used to refer to overall general
statements of the purposes of Pakistani education. One the other hand.
Most of the curriculum experts and philosophers accept that aims are
more general than goals. Ivor K.; Davies (1976.pp.1 1-14), Robert S. Zaid
(1976, p.305) and many other writers forcefully represent the latter
view. And it is this approach, which considers aims, goals and objectives
as a hierarchy, which is adopted in this unit.

The Nature of Aims

Curriculum aim refer to general statements that describes expected life

of outcomes based on some value scheme borrowed from philosophy,
consciously or unconsciously. Their distinctive quality is that they are not
directly related to school or classroom outcomes. "Human Survival"
"self-realization" and "ethical character" are examples of a few
curriculum aims. Aims are thus remote and long-range and have to be
converted into more immediate and specific school outcomes if they are
to be realized in actual practice (Zain’s, 1976, p. 306)

An aim give shape and direction to a set of more detailed intentions for
the future.

Value Pattern

This is the general category which actively influences the character of

aims in the other three categories. Aims in this category represent a
philosophical position and view- point. If the central aim is the
development of Islamic character, all other categories would be geared
to the realization of this pivotal value.

Social Organization

This refers to "patterned relations of individuals and groups" (Broom and

Selznick, 1958.p. 14). The way people behave is largely determined by
their relations to each other and by their membership of different
groups. Actually social organization is a network of relationships of
individuals and groups that may impede or develop a social philosophy
or view point. No set of aims can prove fruitful until il is interwoven into
the entire fabric of social organization.

Social Roles
A social role refers to “pattern of behavior associated with a distinctive
social position" such as the position of a mother, teacher, administrator,
employer or student etc. (Broom and Selznick, 1968, pp.12-13). Aims
specifying preferred social roles would offer a particular set of qualities
to be developed in parents, teachers, family members, neighbors’,
citizens and officials which are in consonance with the national ideology,
The Prophet of Islam (Peace Be upon Him) is the best model of
Muslims. Quran exhorts believers to best model for the Muslims
assimilate this model into their personality.

Life style

Tins refers to the way in which one lives one's life. It is the practical
manifestation of one-s preferred value pattern. You can see a variety of
life styles in any society for example that of a businessman, a gypsy or a
hippy. The Eastern life style is very different form that in the West.
However, each ideology attempts to develop, on the whole, a typical life
style with reasonable scope for variation and spontaneity within its
cultural framework. In brief the life style must be in consonance with the
spirit of the central value pattern.
Q3

Discuss the process adopted for curriculum development in

Pakistan. Which techniques are used for curriculum
evaluation? Discuss with examples.

Answer:

Education in Pakistan

In Pakistan, basically the entire problems stem from the fact that during
the days of foreign rule, the colonialists devised an educational system
which would, on the one hand, reduce the productivity of the locals and
thus enhance their dependence on foreign sources and, on the other,
produce people who would have a respect for the foreign culture and
way of life and would make a positive contribution toward its
perpetuation and continuance.

INTRODUCTION

Broadly speaking the term evaluation refers to the process undertaken

to ascertain as to what extent the aims and objectives of a particular
programmer in education have been achieved. And if the objectives have
not been achieved, what have been the possible hurdles in achieving the
desired objectives. Before we discuss the concept of evaluation with
reference to curriculum, it seems appropriate to briefly describe the
difference between evaluation and measurement. These procedures are
useful in guiding the thinking of those who are carrying out the
evaluation.

THE AIMS OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION

When curricular innovations are introduced, it is an important task of

educators to determine their effectiveness. An assessment of any new
programme has to be made to find out if the desired outcomes are being
achieved; and to what extent, if at all, it results in significantly better
learning than the existing programme. The use of evaluation techniques
should enable curriculum workers to make steady progress in improving
the curriculum.

The major aims of curriculum evaluation may thus be

summarized as follows:

1. To determine the outcomes of a programme;

2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme;

3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content;

4. To help in further development of the curriculum materials for
continuities

Improvement.

Curriculum so that necessary changes can be made in the instructional

programme. In testing and measurement, greater emphasis is placed
upon those characteristics that are easy to quantify and thus important
outcomes such as problem solving, creativity, critical thinking, work
habits, and cultural appreciations tend to be neglected. Uncritical use of
testing and heavy reliance on test results have caused a widespread
spurious sense of certainty about educational accomplishments.
Evaluation, however, is aimed at measuring all the educational
outcomes, not just those which lend themselves easily to quantification.

The purposes of evaluation for curriculum innovations include

the collection of information to be used as:

1. Feedback to the innovators for further revision of materials and

methods;

2. input for decision-making in the course;

3. Empirical data on behavior changes under curriculum treatment.

Professional educators who implement the curricula should be held

accountable for successful achievement of educational outcomes. This
involves:

Developing improved, more comprehensive measurements of pupil

performance, making analysis of the contributions made to the pupils'
performance by educators, administrators, planners, institutions and
other agencies in the educational process.

What processes take place in curriculum development?

It also shows the synergies and links between the four main stages of
curriculum development: (l) planning, (II) content and methods, (III)
implementation, and (IV) evaluation and reporting.

Keep developing: a detailed overview and 6 steps

Whether you are a high school teacher or a college professor, you know
that developing an effective curriculum is essential to successful
education. As any teacher knows, the literature and philosophy
surrounding the concept of the curriculum has evolved over the years.
Today, the term can be widely used to refer to the whole course syllabus,
including learning objectives, learning strategies, materials and
assessments.

In general, curriculum development is the process by which a teacher or

institution prepares or approves a course plan. Because there are many

Curriculum specific assessment methods

Curriculum evaluation.

• Evaluation is the process of collecting data about a program to

determine its value or value in order to decide whether to approve,
reject, or review the program.

1. Curriculum evaluation Special methods of curriculum evaluation

2. Evaluation is the process of collecting data about a program to

determine its value or value in order to decide whether to approve,
reject or review the program. Programs are evaluated to answer
questions and concerns from various parties.

3. TECHNICAL METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF TRANSFERS

I) Desired observation Gather precise information on how the program

actually works, especially in terms of processes. It is a method by which
one or more people monitor what is happening in real life in certain
situations. It is used to assess people's open behavior in controlled and
uncontrolled situations.

4. Types of observation. Unstructured observation.

• Natural or visible observations that collect different types of

information.

• The observer does not manipulate or control anything while in the

observation area.

• The observer enters the observation area and sees and records
something in the natural environment.

• Practice and skill, the observer should focus on decision making and
decision making and fixing what is considered important.

Types of observations structured observation

• Assessors monitor probabilities in a structured environment, knowing

the person (s) being viewed.

• For example, the assessor may monitor the student's behavior in a

sample lesson.

• The main disadvantage of this type of observation is that it is unnatural

and the behavior of the observed people may not correspond to the
behavior in the natural environment. People may behave the way they
think, not the way they normally behave.

5. INFORMATION RELATING TO THE DESCRIPTION OF

OBSERVATIONS - Comments in this area - Observation plans,
checklist - Audio recording - Video recording

What teaching methods are available?

There are four generally accepted organizational approaches to

curriculum development: simple to complex, prerequisite, distance
learning and chronological learning. Of course, learn from simple to
complex. The curriculum is designed so that simpler concepts are
presented before more complex ones.

What assessment methods are available?

Different assessment methods

• Formative assessments. Formative assessments are assessments that

occur in the process.

• Summary of changes. The final evaluation will take place at the end of
the program.
• Process evaluation.

• Impact assessment.

• Evaluation of results.

Promotion

The people of the United States, rich in land, people and natural
resources, and technologically advanced, have a high standard of living
and lead the countries of the world to the south. Indigenous peoples
consist of the descendants of slaves imported from Africa during the
colonial and post-colonial years, as well as Indians and immigrants from
Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, southern and Eastern Europe, and central
and southern America. The combination of geographical and
demographic characteristics leads to great differences from one part of
the country to another. Education systems and structures also vary
widely across the country.

Education System

Each state offers a free kindergarten and a 12-year public school system.
Education is compulsory between the ages of 6-7 and 16, although laws
vary from country to country. Depending on the location, different
structural models are used; kindergarten plus primary school 1-8, where
a four-year high school is attended; Kindergarten plus six basic schools,
followed by a three-year high school and a three-year high school
(sometimes a six-year high school or a relatively new kindergarten plus
four or five basic school classes, a four-year high school and a four-year
high school) All stereotypes

Study program

Typically, the practical responsibility for school management lies with

smaller entities, such as states and districts, where 18,200 local districts
are responsible for day-to-day management. The strong tradition of local
autonomy and the pluralism of society influence the curriculum. There is
no official national program. The state ministry of education creates the
curriculum with different originality, leaving room for local and individual
differences. Subject experts, school leaders and teachers are involved in
the development of research and examination programs. The main
subjects taught at all levels of the school system are English,
mathematics, social studies, science, music, art and physical education.

An intuitive example

The known method of solving shortcuts in troubleshooting is called

representative heuristics. Representation uses mental abbreviations to
make decisions based on past events or characteristics that represent or
are similar to the current situation. For example, Fast Food ABC
expanded its operations in India and the share price went up.

2. An integrated approach to curriculum development

The integrated curriculum refers to learning synthesized in traditional

subject areas and learning experiences that reinforce each other. This
approach increases the child's ability to transfer his or her learning to
other contexts.

What is an integrated approach to the curriculum?

An integrated curriculum is defined as one that combines different fields

of study across subject boundaries and emphasizes unifying concepts.
Integration focuses on making connections for students, allowing them
to engage in important and meaningful activities that can be connected
to real life.

Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation

OBJECTIVES OF THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT PLAN

When innovating in curriculum, it is important for teachers to determine

their effectiveness. Each new program should be evaluated to see if the
desired results have been achieved; and if so, to what extent is it
significantly better expressed in teaching than the current curriculum?
The use of assessment methods should enable curriculum professionals
to make continuous progress in curriculum development.

Development.

Continue making the necessary changes to your resume. Testing and

evaluation places more emphasis on characteristics that are easy to
measure and therefore often overlook important results such as problem
solving, creativity, critical thinking, work habits and cultural preferences.
Critical use of the test and overconfidence in test results have led to a
widespread false sense of confidence in school results. However,
assessment aims to measure all educational outcomes, not just those
that are easily quantifiable.
Q.3

Analyze the causes which led the Colonial British Government

to frame a curriculum in the sub-continent. Discuss their
consequences on educational system of Pakistan.

Answer:

The scope of curriculum development for the economic development

of a country is significant. Economics education plays a crucial role in
equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to
understand and contribute to the economic growth and stability of a
nation. Here’s an explanation of the scope of curriculum development
for economic development, followed by a critical analysis of the
principles of curriculum development.

Scope of Curriculum Development for Economic Development

1. Understanding Economic Systems: The curriculum should provide a
comprehensive understanding of different economic systems, such as
capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies. Students should learn
about the principles, theories, and policies that shape economic
decision-making at the individual, national, and international levels.
2. Promoting Financial Literacy: Economics education should
emphasize financial literacy, enabling individuals to make informed
decisions regarding personal finance, investments, savings, and
budgeting. This empowers citizens to participate effectively in the
economy, manage their resources wisely, and contribute to economic
growth.
3. Fostering Entrepreneurship and Innovation: The curriculum
should encourage an entrepreneurial mindset, promoting creativity,
critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. It should provide knowledge
about business concepts, market dynamics, and the process of starting
and managing successful ventures. This cultivates an environment
conducive to entrepreneurship and innovation, driving economic
development.
4. Developing Analytical and Quantitative Skills: Economics
education should focus on developing analytical and quantitative skills,
including data analysis, statistical reasoning, and economic modeling.
These skills enable individuals to analyze economic trends, interpret
data, and make informed decisions based on sound economic analysis.
5. Understanding Global Economy: Given the interconnectedness of
economies in the modern world, the curriculum should incorporate a
global perspective. Students should learn about international trade,
global economic institutions, and the impact of globalization on
national economies. This prepares individuals to participate in the
global economy and promotes international cooperation for economic
development.
Principles of Curriculum Development (Critical Analysis)
1. Relevance: The curriculum should be relevant to the needs of the
learners and society. It should align with the economic realities and
challenges of the country, addressing current and future economic
development priorities.
2. Flexibility: Curriculum development should allow for flexibility to
adapt to changing economic circumstances and emerging trends. This
ensures that the curriculum remains up-to-date and responsive to the
evolving needs of the economy.
3. Coherence: The curriculum should have a logical and coherent
structure, with clear progression of concepts and skills. It should build
upon prior knowledge and provide a scaffolder approach to learning
economics.
4. Integration: Integration across different disciplines is crucial for a
holistic understanding of economics. The curriculum should incorporate
interdisciplinary perspectives, linking economics with subjects like
mathematics, social sciences, and business studies.
5. Student-Centered Approach: The curriculum should be learner-
centered, considering the diverse learning styles, abilities, and interests
of students. It should promote active learning, critical thinking, and
practical application of economic principles.
6. Continuous Evaluation and Improvement: Curriculum development
should be an ongoing process, with regular evaluation and feedback
mechanisms. This allows for continuous improvement and ensures that
the curriculum remains effective and relevant over time.
7. Inclusion and Equity: The curriculum should be inclusive, addressing
the needs of all learners, regardless of their background or abilities. It
should promote equal access to economic education and strive to
bridge socioeconomic disparities.
8. Stakeholder Engagement: Curriculum development should involve
collaboration and consultation with various stakeholders, including
educators, policymakers, industry experts, and community members.
This ensures that the curriculum reflects the collective vision and
aspirations of the society.
In conclusion, curriculum development for economic development
encompasses a broad scope, aiming to equip individuals with the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to contribute to the growth
and stability of the country’s economy. The principles of curriculum
development should be critically analyzed and applied to ensure the
relevance, coherence, and effectiveness of economics.

There are several approaches to content organization in curriculum

development. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of the best-suited approach for content organization in Pakistan
depends on various factors, including educational goals, cultural
context, and student needs.

Here are three commonly used approaches:

1. Subject-Centered Approach: The subject-centered approach

organizes content based on traditional subject disciplines such as
mathematics, science, history, and languages. It follows a
compartmentalized structure where each subject is taught separately.
This approach allows for an in-depth exploration of each subject area
and maintains the integrity of disciplinary knowledge.
In Pakistan, the subject-centered approach has been widely used in the
education system. It provides a clear structure and focuses on building
a strong foundation in individual subjects. However, a potential
drawback of this approach is the risk of fragmentation, where students
may struggle to make connections between different subjects and
understand their interrelatedness.
2. Theme-Based Approach: The theme-based approach organizes
content around overarching themes or topics that cut across multiple
subject areas. It emphasizes the integration of knowledge and
encourages students to explore connections between different
disciplines. For example, a theme on sustainability might involve
incorporating concepts from science, social studies, and economics.
The theme-based approach promotes a holistic understanding of
content and helps students develop interdisciplinary skills. It
encourages critical thinking, problem-solving, and the application of
knowledge in real-world contexts. This approach could be beneficial in
Pakistan as it promotes a broader perspective and addresses complex
issues that require multidimensional solutions.

3. Competency-Based Approach: The competency-based

approach focuses on the development of specific skills, knowledge, and
attitudes required for success in various areas of life. It identifies key
competencies that students should acquire and designs the curriculum
around them. These competencies can be subject-specific or
transferable across different domains.
The competency-based approach emphasizes learner-centeredness,
active engagement, and the application of knowledge in practical
situations. It aligns with the idea of equipping students with relevant
skills for the job market and societal needs. Implementing a
competency-based approach in Pakistan can help bridge the gap
between education and employment requirements, fostering economic
development and individual success.

Here’s an analysis of these foundations and their significance:

1. Psychological Foundations
Psychological foundations focus on understanding how students learn
and develop, and they inform instructional strategies, assessment
methods, and curriculum design. Key psychological foundations
include:

 Cognitive Development:

Psychological theories such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasize the importance of
considering students’ cognitive abilities and developmental stages
when designing the curriculum. Understanding how students construct
knowledge and develop thinking skills is crucial for effective curriculum
development.
Learning Theories:
Psychological theories of learning, such as behaviorism,
constructivism, and social cognitive theory, provide insights into how
students acquire and retain information. These theories inform
instructional strategies, curriculum sequencing, and the design of
learning experiences that promote meaningful and engaging
learning.
 Individual Differences:
Psychological foundations recognize that students have diverse learning
styles, abilities, interests, and needs. Differentiation strategies,
personalized learning approaches, and accommodations for students
with special needs are informed by an understanding of individual
differences.
Key sociological foundations include:

 Societal Needs and Demands:

Sociological foundations consider the needs, values, and aspirations of
society. They help identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required
for individuals to become productive and responsible citizens. The
curriculum should reflect the societal context and prepare students for
their roles in society.
 Cultural Diversity:
Sociological foundations recognize the importance of cultural diversity
and promote inclusivity in the curriculum. They emphasize the
integration of diverse perspectives, cultures, and histories to foster
cultural understanding, respect, and social cohesion.
 Social Change and Equity:
Sociological foundations address social inequalities and strive for
educational equity. They recognize the role of education in promoting
social change, reducing disparities, and providing equal opportunities
for all students.
The significance of sociological foundations lies in their ability to ensure
that the curriculum reflects the cultural, social, and economic realities
of the society in which it is implemented. By considering sociological
factors, curriculum developers can create inclusive and relevant
curricula that address the needs of diverse student populations,
promote social justice, and contribute to societal progress.

In summary, psychological and sociological foundations are crucial in

curriculum development. Psychological foundations inform
instructional practices, considering students’ cognitive development,
learning processes, and individual differences.
Q.4

Define the concept of "values based curriculum". How does

society and culture influence on curriculum. Justify your
answer with suitable examples.

Answer:

Curriculum organization

In the research literature various useful evidences can be found to help

to design a good curriculum organization. However, there are no
standard solutions. The effectiveness of certain ideas depends on the
particular context of the curriculum: the discipline, the type of
instruction, the culture in the teachers’ team, the aims etc. (Darn, 2010).
A number of research-based evidences that are relevant in making
decisions about the organization of a curriculum in higher education are
presented below.

Jerkens and Van den Bakker (2013) have identified six quality
criterions which should be met when (re)designing a
curriculum:
 Relevance: The curriculum is based on state-of-the-art academic
knowledge and understanding of contextual need and wishes

 Consistency: The structure of the curriculum in logical and coherent

 Practicality: The curriculum is usable in the context it is designed for

 Effectiveness: The curriculum leads to the desired outcomes

 Scalability: The curriculum is successfully implemented scale

 Sustainability: The curriculum remains successful over extended periods

of time

1. An important result of learning research is that mastering the

relevant learning objectives depends on the amount that the students
are involved in activities that are likely to result in their achieving those
outcomes. (Dearns 2010 and Shuell, 1998)). Learning in higher education
is considered to be an active learning process. From the research into
learning specific principles are formulated how the teacher can engage
the study to study actively in order to master the learning objectives or
aims. (Shuell,). In the other posts a detailed insight is given of the
available evidences form the research into learning.
2. According to Dearn (2010) and Van Merriënboer and Kushner

(2013) complex learning is a crucial component of the curricula of

modern higher education. Professionals have to learn complex skills and
competencies during their studies and they will never stop learning
throughout their careers. The authors stress the importance of a holistic
design approach. ‘Often complex content and tasks are continually
reduced to simpler or smaller elements’. ‘Holistic design approaches
attempt to deal with complexity without losing sight of the separate
elements and interrelationships between those elements’. The learning
and testing activities should be focussed on the complex learning of the
students. Besides the professional competencies or complex skills, the
metacognitive learning skills should have a place in the learning process:
how to study, how to profit maximal from a lecture, a working group, a
practical, how to prepare a thesis, etcetera.

3. Bovril et al (2011) concludes that in the existing research, the

curriculum is identified as a key driver for improving the students’
engagement, and thereby success from the first year onwards’. This
means that a good designed and described curriculum is an important
condition to realize a good learning process.
4. Gibbs (2003) has formulated an important the principle
Constructive alignment that aims, learning objectives, learning and
testing activities should be in line with each other.

5. Dearn, 2010; Diamond, 1998; O’Brian, 2015; Overlook and Lock, 2003
and the AACU, 2002 stress that the different courses in a curriculum
should build on each other. The students develop insight in the content
and master the main competencies step-by-step in the consecutive
courses. These developments can be described with help of learning
tracks for the main competencies and the main content. The learning
track in a curriculum can be explained with help of a scheme, or another
visualization to show the steps in the learning process in the involves
courses.

6. Possibilities for personal development are important as well. For

example, most students need half a year or more to learn and work as a
student. They need to learn how to plan, how to study course material
(written texts and digital), how to learn from video-presentations, how
to work systematically, and how to learn new study skills because of
blended learning (Bovril et al, 2011). Also, strengthening of the social
bonding with the educational institute is likely to result in better study
progress and less dropout (Tinto, 2012).
7. Curriculum models: Various curriculum models are introduced in
Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment:
If not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the
appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.

2. Involving youth:
The target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the
implementers’ of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate
as full members of the curriculum development team).

3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators:

Competent and skilled curriculum implementers are critical (the printed
word cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't provide
feedback).

4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum:

Is critical for securing human and financial support from key policy
decision makers and for assessing whether the curriculum has achieved
the intended outcome.
Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps
illustration:
(1)Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the
curriculum,
(2) Summative answers questions about changes (impact) that have
occurred in learners because of their learning experiences. Summative
evaluation provides evidence for what works, what does not work, and
what needs to be improved. In every step of the curriculum development
process, the most important task is to keep the learner (in this case,
youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum
team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience,
should be involved in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs
assessment process, the problem areas are identified, gaps between
what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the
scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt
decision makers to allocate resources for a curriculum development
team to prepare curriculum materials.
ESTABLISHING GOALS AND STANDARDS

As the starting point in the development of an improved curriculum

program, a district needs goals and a set of standards to guide the work
of the curriculum program design committee, particularly in the
important areas of creating a framework and selecting the core
instructional materials.

The previous section of the report, "Components of Coherent

Mathematics and Science Education Curriculum Programs," lists criteria
for goals and standards and indicates how national standards provide
guidance for districts that are writing their own. In recent years, most
states have adopted mathematics and science goals or standards
(CCSSO, 1997). Where local or state-level standards do not exist or where
state standards are optional or do not meet the criteria for high-quality
standards given in the previous section of this report, design committees
may want to use national standards. Many districts and states have used
the following national standards as the basis for their own
standards:

 The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for Mathematics (NCTM,

1989);

 The Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM, 1991c);

 The Assessment Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 1995);

 The National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996b); and

 The Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993).

BUILDING A COMMON VISION

Even with the availability of goals and a comprehensive set of standards,

the curriculum program design committee needs to agree upon and
articulate a common vision for the district in its own language. Teachers,
administrators, and others on the committee should translate what is
called for in national, state, and local standards into administrative and
classroom policy and practice for their district. The committee will want
to consult research literature and other sources on best practices in
teaching and learning science and mathematics. Creating a common
vision of what and how students will learn mathematics and science is
an important component of the development of the curriculum program,
regardless of whether most of the program's components are adopted
or adapted from other programs or developed independently. A
common vision helps focus all stakeholders on what the school district
believes is important.

The curriculum program is fully developed and implemented in

terms
 what students are learning and how they are learning it;

 what teachers are doing to support, encourage, and expect learning;

 the evidence to be used during assessment of student performance; and

 Activities parents, administrators, businesses, and colleges and

universities are engaged in to support and encourage high levels of
student performance.

Many approaches to this part of the design committee's work are

possible as long as members engage in intellectual and focused
discussion regarding issues of teaching and learning. One such discussion
might include tracing the development of a particular concept or strand
across several grade levels, and correlating this development with
Introduction of Technology

As computers and other technologies have become available, they have

become a cornerstone of curriculum development. Education has widely
supported the learning of technology in order to maximize students’
success in a technology-driven world. If we consider that one of the
purposes of school is to prepare students for entry into the workforce, it
makes sense that encouraging systems-based learning and technological
literacy would become a priority.

A More Holistic Approach Based on Research

Research has guided the development of important educational
theories, which have deepened our understanding of how children and
adults learn. This cognitive, social and cultural research directly affects
curriculum development and shapes the way in which we communicate
information to students. Today’s teachers can use a wide array of
classroom practices and tools to effectively convey information to each
student.

Curriculum development in the United States has evolved as trends in

demography, economy and industry have changed. This fascinating
history is further explored through coursework in a master’s of education
program. As a teacher, you will gain perspective on the evolution of
curriculum development over the decades as well as curricula in today’s
educational systems.

Toward Systematic Curriculum Development

Perhaps one of the earliest forms of systematic curriculum building in

career and technical education may be attributed to Victor Della Voss,
director of the imperial Technical School of Moscow. At the Philadelphia
Centennial Exposition of 1876, Della Voss demonstrated a new approach
to teaching the mechanical arts that "became a catalyst for career and
technical education in the United States" (Lennie, 1971). Rather than
leaning through conscious imitation, the Russian system utilized shops
where formal instruction in the mechanical arts could be provided. This
system attempted to teach mechanical arts fundamentals

Curriculum Development Planning

Curriculum refers to running; a course; race-chariot and is derived from

the Latin word currier which means to run for attaining the goals of
education. (Billings & Halstead, 1998:70-71; Brown, 1993:574).

Within the educational context, curriculum refers to a course of study at

a school, university; the subjects making up a course; an educational
journey that the learner embarks upon (Brown, 1993:574; Lovat & Smith,
1995:8-9; 18-19).

Curriculum Development Planning

The curriculum is what happens, what actually takes place among

teachers and students, students and students so that learning occurs.
Even though curriculum cannot be entirely preplanned and prescribed,
to a great extent a curriculum that satisfies the need of the students as
well as the society can be developed. The construction of nursing
curriculum is the responsibility of the faculty of the nursing institute,
but the minimum requirements which are prescribed by statutory
bodies like nursing council or university in the name of syllabus has to
be followed by all institutes.

 A process in which participants at many levels make decisions about the

purposes of learning, teaching- learning situation.

 It is process of gathering, sorting, selecting, balancing and synthesizing

relevant information from many sources in order to design those
experiences that will assist learners in attaining the goals of curriculum.

 It is the orderly study and improvement of schooling in light of stated

objectives.

Characteristics

 It is a continuous process.

 It takes place at many levels.

 It involves many groups, decisions about a variety of planning and issues.

 It is ultimately concerned with the experiences of the learners.

Values-based Education is an approach to teaching that works with

values. It creates a strong learning environment that enhances academic
achievement and develops students' social and relationship skills that
last throughout their lives.
Heuristic Approaches to Problem Solving

“A heuristic technique, often called simply a heuristic, is any approach to

problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical method
not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient for the immediate
goals. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical,
heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a
satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the
cognitive load of making a decision. Examples of this method include
using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intuitive judgement,
guesstimate, stereotyping, profiling, or common sense.” (Source:
Wikipedia)

Here are three:

1. More and Better Relationships

Identifying well with individuals leads to more relationships and, at

times, friendships.

By developing your social skills you become more charismatic, a

desirable trait. People are more interested in charismatic people as
charismatic people are (or at least appear to be) more interested in
them.

Most people know you cannot advance far in life without strong
interpersonal relationships. Focusing on relationships will help you get a
job, get promoted and make new friends. Well-honed social skills can
increase your happiness and satisfaction and give you a better outlook
on life. More relationships can also help to reduce the negative effects
of stress and boost your self-esteem.

2. Better Communication

Relating with people and being able to work in large groups naturally
develops one's communication skills. After all, you cannot have great
social skills without good communication skills and being able to convey
one's thoughts and ideas may be the single most important skill that you
can develop in life..

3. Greater Efficiency

If you are good with people, you can more easily avoid being with the
people you do not like as much as others. Some people dread social
interactions because they do not wish to spend time with individuals
who do not have similar interests and viewpoints. It is a lot easier to
attend a meeting at work or a party in your personal life if you know at
least some of the people who will be there. If you are in a social situation
and do not want to spend time with 'John' because you don't like him or
he cannot help you with a particular issue, a good set of social skills will
allow you to.
Q.5

Describe the importance of objectives in curriculum

development. Explain your answer with practical examples.

Answer:

The Importance of Curriculum Development in Enhancing

Teaching and Learning
Defining Terms: Curriculum

Dictionaries define “curriculum” as a course of study. Educators and

those concerned with educational policy have a more nuanced,
comprehensive view of the word’s meaning, as definitions from an
international organization and a state-level agency illustrate.

The International Bureau of Education at UNESCO, The United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, says, “In the simplest
terms, ‘curriculum’ is a description of what, why, how and how well
students should learn in a systematic and intentional way.”1

The state of Rhode Island defines curriculum as “a standards-based

sequence of planned experiences where students practice and achieve
proficiency in content and applied learning skills.” Rhode Island’s
definition also says, “The structure, organization, and considerations in
a curriculum are created in order to enhance student learning and
facilitate instruction. Curriculum must include the necessary goals,
methods, materials and assessments to effectively support instruction
and learning.”2

Both the above definitions can apply to the learning plan for a single
class, for a grade level, or for the entire span of a K-12 educational
journey. One writer used the metaphor of a puzzle, in which the
learning from individual courses connects to and builds on that of
others to create the final picture of the students’ education.3

Another way to conceptualize the term is to think of curriculum as an

operations manual for the school system, designed to help educators
transport students from one intellectual state to another. To
summarize key concepts in the above definitions, a curriculum answers
the following questions about a subject of any scope:

Defining Terms: Curriculum Development

As global change continues to accelerate, the importance of curriculum

development in enhancing teaching and learning grows. The world is
changing, and how we prepare students to take up their roles and
responsibilities must change apace. In its “Education 2030” position
paper, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) asserts, “The concept of ‘curriculum’ should be developed from
‘predetermined and static’ to ‘adaptable and dynamic.’ Schools and
teachers should be able to update and align the curriculum to reflect
evolving societal requirements as well as individual learning needs.” 4

So curriculum development is an ongoing, dynamic process with a focus

on the individual student’s success and a scope broad enough to
accommodate progress in basic science and technology as well as
changes in culture, politics and the environment. In the iterative
process of curriculum development, the design and implementation of
the curriculum are preceded by the analysis of current conditions and
followed by evaluation.

Analysis and evaluation are critical to the success of curriculum

development. Analysis helps connect education to current events and
connect teaching across disciplines to deepen student learning.
Evaluation informs future cycles of development and provides feedback
to administrators and policymakers as well as students, parents and
teachers.
Given the dynamics of global change and the importance of curriculum
development in enhancing teaching and learning, a systematic
approach to managing development is central to creating desired
outcomes.

In summary, curriculum development is:

 Systematic

 Iterative

 Evolutionary

 Evidence-based

 Comprehensive in scope

 A tool to improve learning outcomes

The importance of curriculum development in enhancing teaching and

learning outcomes comes into focus as the term is defined. Considering
the many players involved in setting curriculum sharpens the focus.

Who Determines K-12 Curriculum?

In the United States, responsibility for setting educational policy rests

with the states, with the federal government influencing policy through
funding and judicial oversight. The U.S. Department of Education has
estimated that federal money makes up 8% of elementary and
secondary school funding. Federal courts also hear cases related to
education and curriculum. For example, in the 1963 case, School
District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Champ, the Supreme
Court ruled that a Pennsylvania law requiring the reading of bible
verses at the opening of the school day violated the First Amendment.

States supervise the work of their public school districts and have “the
authority to impose limits and obligations on both local school districts
and parents.” Locally elected boards typically manage school districts
and delegate direct responsibility for curriculum development, among
other administrative functions, to their school superintendents. The
school board approves curriculum as part of its responsibility to set
policy.

Government entities are not the only stakeholders in K-12 education.

Students, parents, and teachers all have a direct interest in the process.
Stakeholders with a less direct but still keen interest include community
members and businesses who help fund the schools and interact with
students. Advocates for various issues also seek to influence
elementary and secondary school curricula.
Such widespread interest in the process is proof of education’s
importance to society and the importance of curriculum development
in enhancing teaching and learning.

Curriculum as a Reflection of Culture and Values

Curriculum requires careful thought because education reflects and

shapes the values of a society. We teach our children what is important
to us and that education shapes their worldview. The distributed
structure of U.S. education oversight, with several stakeholders
influencing locally elected boards of education, is an excellent example
of how culture and values affect curriculum. The system encourages the
intense interest of disparate stakeholders because people who valued a
pluralistic approach to policy-making designed it.

Other examples of cultural influence on curriculum abound. Countries

or school districts placing a high value on volunteerism may codify that
value in high school graduation requirements. Likewise, societies or
schools valuing science and technology, or social justice and equity,
encode those values in specific curriculum requirements.

We can think of the impact of curriculum and curriculum development

as flexibly as the terms themselves can be defined. A curriculum can
cover a narrowly focused subject for a grade level or be a
comprehensive educational plan spanning K-12. Similarly, curriculum
impacts both the broader culture and individual students' learning
through the work of individual teachers.

The Importance of Curriculum Development in Enhancing

Teaching and Learning

A well-developed, current curriculum provides several benefits for

students and teachers. A curriculum that lays out course objectives and
content sequencing lets the teacher focus on designing specific lessons
and assessments to teach individual students effectively.
See The Importance of Lesson Planning for Student Success for more on
this topic.
A regularly reviewed curriculum benefits from teacher feedback and
incorporates new topics, technologies, and issues. A well-developed
curriculum enhances teaching and learning in myriad ways.