Gender and Development

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ST. VINCENT’S COLLEGE INCORPORATED

Padre Ramon Street, Estaka, Dipolog City 7100 Philippines
www.svc.edu.ph. | (065) 212-6292 | Fax #: 908-1133| [email protected]
COURSE MODULE

In
GE ELECT
(Gender & Development)
First Semester, S.Y. 2020
Faith Mikee J. Embol

Instructor
OFFICE OF THE GUIDANCE COUNSELOR| Ground Floor, San Pedro Calungsod Building, Main Campus, Padre Ramon Street, Estaka, Dipolog City
SUBJECT: Gender & Development

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
One may wonder why it is necessary to conduct a course and write a book focused on women and
development. How is women’s development different from human development? After all, woman’s issues are
a question of human development. However, this thinking assumes that human development is
comprehensive enough to respond to women’s issues. In this day and age, when various forms of unjust and
destructive development are being held as models’ people must subscribe to, a genuine reflection on human
development is imperative. So, the reader may ask: Why do woman have to be singled out as a special topic?
In the Philippines, woman is an integral part of development. In fact, women’s importance and
participation are highlighted in the Philippine Constitution. Article II, section 13 of the 1987 Philippine
Constitution emphasizes that women are a vital aspect of nation-building, and their inclusion in societal
structures and processes are key towards equality and development.
The Philippines has had two women presidents, are considerable number of women national leaders
including a chief justice, as well as numerous local officials including competent governors, mayors, and
council members. Women have also been known to lead guerrilla units of the Huk and the New people’s
Army, with some of them gaining iconic status.
Women have become leaders in the fields of education and the arts, with many taking positions as
advocates and pioneers. They have galvanized original dances and concert music. In the areas of business
and industry, many women likewise taken managerial roles. Women have become bank managers, police
officers, and CEOs. In 2016, the Philippines was ranked 7 th in the world for gender equality by the World
Economic Forum. This status does not seem surprising given the influential role that women play in the
Philippine society.
DISCRIMINATION TODAY
Women have made many advances throughout the years. However, the roles mentioned above are
not representative of the status of most women in the Philippines and around the world, as seen in women’s
roles in both the reproductive and productive spheres. In the reproductive sphere or the household, childcare
is left mostly to women. The mother often ensures that her children are clothed, sheltered, educated, and keep
in good health. These roles are expected whether the mother is a single mother, the primary source of
income, or the supplemental source of income. On top of this, married woman is expected to take care of their
husbands.
Women it the workplace often face a pay gap: they earn consistently less than men. Women are often
confined to low-paying professions or those which mirror their reproductive roles in the household, which can
be seen as servile. The glass ceiling, in which certain attitudes or beliefs about women’s abilities limit the
positions they can attain in a company, is also observed. Although some women have broken through various
areas reserved for men, they are exceptions that prove the inequality. A quick look at the list of international
CEOs and top executives will prove this statistic. Often women who are in high positions play supporting roles
to men. Moreover, even if women do hold positions of power in political or corporate governance, they are
usually standing in for a husband or a father who has retired or reached his term limit.
Many societies consider women as the weaker sex, physically and emotionally. In terms of capacities,
women are considered less than men, functioning to support the ambition of men. They are not valued highly
in the productive realm---one that may often be dominated by men. In other nations and cultures, women have
less freedom. For instance, the impoverished women of Bangladesh are not generally allowed to take loans of
even interact with development workers who sought to organize them in a savings coop. Moreover, there are
still barriers that prevent women from obtaining education in many traditional communities in India and
Pakistan
A woman’s worth may not be equal to a man. Elsewhere, women are systematically mutilated, female
fetuses aborted, and young girls neglected to the point of starvation or even death. In some areas of East
Asia, women without husbands are deemed not valuable, such that they are killed or force to commit suicide
when they are without male guardians. Woman of Saharan Africa are still to female circumcision, or genital
mutilation, to control their sexual desires. This ritual is done merely because of their sex.
Women in certain countries may have little to no influence in the public sphere. They have no voice at
all in states that adhere to traditions that leave women in the Philippines are heard in the public sphere, there
is still much work to do for them to realize their creative potential in society. Countries such as India and
Pakistan have active female political leaders, yet these countries experience a high incidence of incidents of
extreme violence against women. India, for example, has more than 36.7 million missing women. According to
Amartya Sen, Missing women statistically represent the gap in the male-female ratio in a country. The gap is
caused by death due to the neglect of the health and nutrition of the women and girls. It may also be the result

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of the underreporting of births due to strict policies on the reproductive health, such as China’s one-child
policy. Sen’s statistics are astounding because he estimates that 2.4 million girls are missing in Southeast
Asia, 44 million in China, and 36.7 million in India.
Discrimination against women may be less obvious in the Philippines. Women in the country are
recognized as capable on many areas of the life, protected by numerous laws for equality and against
discrimination due to sex. Several Republic acts are women-specific precisely because of the necessity to
protect women from systematic forms of discrimination and violence. Despite all these developments,
discrimination still exist in the Philippines. Women in the public Philippine Culture are seen as primarily
responsible for childbearing, childrearing, and keeping the family whole. This responsibility is not in itself a
problem; however, this belief excuses or even excludes men from participating in the nurturing of their
children, and prevents women from entering the public domain, limiting women’s roles as active partners in
industry, nation-building, and wealth creation. In the Philippine society were human fullness is defined by
production, consumption, and wealth accumulation, reproductive roles in the home are often ascribed to
women.
In many other fields, women have a tough time getting ahead because of how men set the kinds of
activities and forms of behavior women have to engage in. Boy’s clubs dominate various domains such as in
the productive or economic sphere. For instance, to get ahead in some corporations, one has to engage in
after-hour activities with the bosses. Lawyers need to play golf with clients or have a cocktail, as well as
commit to long work hours. Thus, a woman who has childrearing duties after work will have a hard time
advancing her career because she has to go home early to take care of her children. On the other hand, if she
opts to participate, she will be seen as a bad mother. Similarly, after-hour bonding activities often take the
form of competitive drinking rituals or some kind of activity that sexualizes women, making them
uncomfortable.
Numerous literary anthologies render women invisible. Women writers are scarcely present in the
known list of works. Is it because women are writers of less consequence? Or is it possible that women do not
make it to anthologies because men set the criteria of what good writing is, what themes are considered
timeless, and what styles are worth anthologizing? It is because, more often than not, male editors determine
what themes of these anthologies. Male sensibilities determine what themes worthy of high literature, what
styles are genuinely literary, and what innovations push the borders of art. However, as the eminent critic
Soledad Reyes noted, women writers had other concerns than their male counterparts, and their themes could
be considered as not serious enough for artistic recognition. Thus, women are hardly anthologized on 20 th
century collections. While this trend is changing, men still write most of the literary works studied.
The same scenario is also true of women artists. Men who have shared values, interests, and hobbies
dominate artist group who put together exhibits. Thus, it is rare for women to be part of the inner circles that
collectively create the aesthetic standards that determine what works are to be exhibited. Female artists may
have to adhere to industry standards, and befriend and conform to the desires of those who control this
aesthetics.
Systemic violence against young girls is not widespread in the Philippines, yet numerous women
suffer various forms of gender-based violence. Filipino women are not denied the right of freedom of
movement, enterprise, or expression unlike in the other countries, but they are at risk for sexual harassment
and violence from their relatives, classmates, colleagues, strangers, and even significant others. Even access
to sexual and reproductive health services is limited in the Philippines. In fact, the passage of the
Reproductive Health Law was stalled because of the opposition of the church and its patriarchal hierarchy.
Other cultural expectations add a hidden burden on women ----society pressures women to look fair, act
docile, and be caring. Most women are told that they must earn less than their husbands to be desirable, and
that their end goal is to have children and take care of the family. Because of the patriarchal social structures
that are shape the world according to men’s standards, the flourishing of women is hindered, even if there are
no overt forms violence committed against them. Thus, the position of women is far from ideal, even in a
nation like Philippines with laws for gender equality.
The problem with being a woman in a patriarchal society is that most women cannot define
themselves and be free to enact their full capabilities. Numerous oppressive forces define the female identity
in ways that exclude women from creative participation in their shared communities, or our case, the nation
that serves commerce. Because the women are designated to be homemakers, they are not expected to have
the capacity to make complex decisions regarding production schedules of large corporations or understand
the intricacies of military strategy. Women are thought to be inadequate for the complexities of governance of
the civil or religious government because of their supposed docile nature and weak temperament. Only
certain, specific areas of endeavor are open to them---which, as mentioned earlier, are connected to the areas
of care. In extreme cases, women are prevented from engaging in enterprises or financial transactions outside
of household chores. Of course, this is not entirely accurate in the Philippines, yet discrimination is still seen in
a woman’s capacity and roles. If women are considered the subordinates if men and powerless in the society
they live in, the injustices against women abound because, in whatever endeavor, women are still living in a
world shaped by male values.
Discrimination perhaps is the first and most important problem that women face. Women are meant to
flourish in a world defined by men and male priorities. Although women are possibly different in their way of
doing things, what they value, what they feel, and how the learn, they are still assessed according to men’s

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standards and defined by men’s systems. Thus, women have a difficult time realizing their potentials and
excelling because their ways are not the norm that defines our creative functioning in society.
CHAPTER 2
Leveling off: Gender and Sexuality
Learning outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Differentiate gender from sexuality;

2. Explain gender socialization;
3. Identify gender stereotypes and the problem stereotyping brings; and
4. Discuss sexual orientation and gender identity and expression of SOGIE.
Pre-work for the chapter
Complete the following statements;
I think girls are________________________________________________________________________
I think boys are _______________________________________________________________________
I think girls should ____________________________________________________________________
I think boys should_____________________________________________________________________
Society thinks that girls should ___________________________________________________________
Society thinks that boys should___________________________________________________________
Form a group of at least 3 persons. Discuss your answers in a small group. Outline the similarities and
differences in your answers. What should girls or boys be or do? Discuss what roles society thinks boys and
girls should play.
While discussing your answers, think about the themes present. Do any of your answers have to do
with the innate biological ideas that concern being a girl or boy? Note if most of the answers actually discuss
attitudes and appearances instead of innate biological traits. The characteristics such as looks, attitudes, and
roles concern gender. Traits related to biology have more to do with sex. Gender is identified first because
differences based on gender roles are the easiest to describe.
GENDER AND SEXUALITY
To prepare for this journey into gender studies, reflect on your own experience of gender
differentiation. A sample realization is the “eureka moments” of one author:
When did you first realize that you were a girl of a boy? I can’t exactly say I had one defining eureka
moment. Reflecting on my past, I can name three distinct memories that involve my gender. The first eureka
moment I had involved my being teased about having a best friend of the opposite gender. My mother’s
friends would tell me that my best friend was my “sweetheart”, implying that we would one day be married. He
was a boy; I was a girl. We were both three years old, and I realized we were different. The next eureka
moment had to do with my taking the lead in a school play. I was meant to be a mother. Specifically, I was
made to be the mother in the children’s book. Are You My Mother by P.D. Eastman. I refused, because as a
child, I felt awkward being placed in a mother role, as though I knew that being a child-mother was bad, even if
it was just a play. Lastly, I was made an extra in a movie that my mother was dramaturg for.it was a historical
documentary-slash-movie about the life of Rizal, the Philippines’ national hero. They needed someone to play
the hero’s nephew. I was chosen because I was young and androgynous enough to be seen as a little boy. I
distinctly remember refusing, because I did not cut my hair. “I don’t want to be a boy!” I said. The gay
hairdresser, upon over hearing my refusal, with a “me too”. I then accepted my fate. I realized that my hair
would grow back and I could be girl again. My hairdresser had no option, and would be stuck as a woman
trapped in a man’s body.
There are three similarities with the anecdotes I shared. First, all involved my mother or being a
mother. Even at a young age, I had associated being a woman with motherhood because I was only child and
had no other female role models aside from my mother, aunts, and grandmothers, all of whom had offspring.
Another theme has to do with relationships. I was sexualized as a young child, as the people around me
automatically declared my relationship as romantic because of it involved someone of the opposite sex. And
while these do not seem like important moments, they are moments that I am sure many can relate to,
especially in the Philippine culture. Form a young age, children are teased for who they are friends with. If they
are girls, they are told not to have too many boyfriends, or not to act like their boyfriends. If they are boys
perhaps some older relatives would tell them not to be too close or act too much like their sisters or mothers.

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Because this moments concern boyhood, girlhood, and the differences between sexes, one can say these
moments involve sex and gender.
Sex and gender are two very essential yet underrated parts of human life. They affect all aspects of
our lives; form how we look at and act in the jobs we take to how we regard the laws and values of our society.
This chapter we establish the difference between sex and gender, define gender roles and relationships
according to the United Nations and other relevant national bodies, and determine how gendered
interactions affect one’s everyday lives. It will examine gendered interactions at various levels within the
family, workplace, community, and larger society.
What is Sex?
Let’s talk about sex--- the good, the bad, and the complicated. While sex is often referred to as the act of
reproduction (scientifically, copulation), it is, nonetheless, an important notion of how pop culture sees sex.
According to popular culture, sex is something done for pleasure, and perhaps in a more Freudian sense, it is
what drives people to so certain things. The association of sex with pleasure and vice versa may make people
dismiss it as serious topic for study. Meanwhile, because sex is so often equated with and related to gender,
gender as a topic for discussion is likewise disregarded. Yet, by showing the difference between sex and
gender, and laying the groundwork for this difference, perhaps as you as a reader may start questioning
discriminatory practices in society that relate to sex and gender.
This book defines sex through its biological, and not cultural, definition. Sex in the biological sense is
a category for living beings specifically related to their reproductive function. For most living creatures, there
are two sexes, the male and the female. The female sex is determined by the following characteristics:
produces egg cells which are fertilized by another sex, and bears the offspring. The male sex, on the other
hand, produces sperm cells to fertilized the egg cells.
Chromosomes determine one’s sex. Chromosome XX equates to female, and XY equates to male.
These pairs of chromosomes are distinct because the differences in their characteristic are necessary for
reproduction. Copulation, or the union of the sexes (XX and YX or male and female), produces offspring.
Genitalia, or the organs used for reproduction, and secondary sex characteristics are largely
influenced by one’s X and Y chromosomes. These chromosomes determine whether someone’s body will
express itself as a “female” or a “male”.
Hormones also play a large part in the definition of one’s sex. The exposure to hormones in the womb
affects how the organism develops as a male or a female. Physical features related to secondary sex
characteristic are influenced by hormones. Both males and females have estrogen, testosterone, and
progesterone but in varying amounts. Usually, males have more amounts of estrogen. Hormonal imbalances,
both natural and induced, can result in someone born as a female to have more testosterone than her male
counterpart.

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Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
ACTIVITY 1. WHAT ABOUT YOUR GENDER?
A. Complete the following sentences:
1. When I was a child, my favorite toy was______________________________________________.
2. I first found out I was girl/boy when__________________________________________________.
3. Because I am girl/boy, ___________________________________________________________.
4. Because he/she is a boy/girl, ______________________________________________________.
5. Because X are LGBTQ+, _________________________________________________________.
B. In groups of three to four members each, discuss your answers to the questions. What were your
favorite toys growing up? Why were these toys your favorite? Were there toys you shield away from
because you felt they were not for you?
C. When did you realize that you were a boy or a girl? For non-binary students, when did you realize that
you feel outside the boy and girl label? What are the different expectations for girls, boys, and the
LGBT according to your families and school?

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Biology is learned in school, but the enactment of one’s sex is experienced differently in one’s
culture. When one sees a person, he or she does not see an XX or an XY, but a male or a female.
Perhaps in more accepting societies, one sees a male, a female, or an LGBT. Because of one’s
perception of maleness and femaleness, his or her view of another is prone to change. Take for example
the case of commercial models displayed in advertisements along EDSA. These models are perceived to
conform to society’s definition of what is conventionally attractive, enough that they become the face of
certain products or brands. Because a model on a billboard is two-dimensional, his or her looks allow
people to assume anything about him or her. If that person is a male striking what seems to be a powerful
pose, it could be assumed that the man is powerful person. If all the males presented in advertisements
are in powerful and dominant poses, one can presume that power and dominance are associated with
maleness or masculinity. Similarly, if all females in advertisements are seen to care of people---their
spouses, children, or parents---one associates females with caring roles. Thus, to be female is to care.
These roles, which do not necessarily have anything to do with reproduction, become tied to one’s sex.
This is where gender comes in.
What is gender?
Gender is a socially learned behavior

usually associated with one’s sex. It is short for
gender relations between the sexes, or how
the male and female relate to one another,
gender is also based on how people see
themselves and, on their tendency, to act along
the masculine or the feminine line.
Gender is a social construct that

determines one’s roles, expected values,
behavior, and interaction in relationships
involving men and women. It affects what
access is available to men and women to
decision-making, knowledge, and resources.
Sex and gender are two different things, but
one’s gender is usually associated with one’s sex. Note the difference between sex and gender in the
following table.
Table 1. main differences between Sex and Gender
Sex Gender
Physiological Social
Related to reproduction Cultural
Congenital* Learned Behavior
Unchanging* Changes over time
Varies within a culture/among cultures
1. Due to advances in science and other societal trends, one can now legally and physically change his or her gender.
Does Sex Correspond to Gender?
Many scientist, psychologist, and sociologists believe that sex does not determine one’s gender.
Femininity, or the behavior that one associates with females, may not actually be tied to a woman’s sex.
Similarity, Masculinity is not tied to one’s gonads. The whole idea of being a woman, therefore, is based on
gender and society’s belief in how a woman should act, instead of biological functions that are inescapable.
The notion that one’s biology predetermines the roles one must have in life should not be the case at all.
Doing household chores is said to be a woman’s job, yet there are some men who do the cooking and
cleaning at home. Aggressive sports are said to be more for men, but for every men’s sports team, there is
counterpart for women. In these types of scenario, gender role socialization comes in.
Gender role socialization is defined as the process of learning and internalizing culturally approved
ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It starts as soon as one is born and manifests from the color
associated with one’s gender to the roles one sees his or her gender perform the most. Socialization affects all
parts of one’s identity by dictating what is acceptable to do because of one’s educational background, class,
religion, and gender. Thus, female and male gender roles develop.

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One's socialization regulates his or her perceptions of genders in two ways-external regulations and
internalized self-control. Each society has social norms that have been developed over time due to the values
and beliefs that it holds. External regulation involves various institutions dictating what is proper and normal
based on one's identity. It affects how one sees his or her gender, and that gender in relation to other
genders. External regulation can happen through censorship of some forms of sexuality (“Homosexuality is
bad!") or subtle forms of control such as microaggression (subtle messages with sexist assumptions behind
them—"Only girly boys do housework!"). Because of these external regulations
enforced by society, notions on gender are absorbed and internalized social control is formed Internalized
social control causes a person to police himself or herself according to society's standards and norms. A
consistent practice will eventually affect all aspects of his or her personality, in turn, resulting in the policing of
others, expanding and perpetuating this regulation. Similarly, if someone finds himself or herself deviating
from what society finds normal, he or she may become deviant and excluded from society.
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes develop when different institutions reinforce a biased perception of a certain gender's
role. These institutions include the family, the church, the school, the state, and the media These beliefs can
be limiting if seen as prescriptive of a gender's role rather than descriptive of the many possible roles one can
have.
Gender stereotypes are of four types:
1. Sex stereotypes are a generalized view of traits that should be possessed by men and women, specifically
physical and emotional roles. These stereotypes are unrelated to the roles women and men actually perform.
2. Sexual stereotypes involve assumptions regarding a person's sexuality that reinforce dominant views. For
example, a prevalent view is that all men are sexually dominant. Another notion is heteronormativity, or the
assumption that all persons are only attracted to the sex opposite theirs.
3. Sex-role stereotypes encompass the roles that men and women are assigned to base on their sex and what
behaviors they must possess to fulfill these roles.
4. Compounded stereotypes are assumptions about a specific group belonging to a gender. Examples of
groups subject to compounded stereotypes are young women, old men, single men or women, women factory
workers, and the like.
SOGIE
The abbreviation SOGIE stands for sexual orientation and gender identity and expression. Sexuality is
different from sex, as the former is the expression of a person's thoughts, feelings, sexual orientation and
relationships, as well as the biology of the sexual response system of that person." The different terms
standing for SOGIE are further defined below.
1. Sexual orientation covers the three dimensions of sexuality, namely:
a. sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies;

b. emotional preference, social preference, self-identification; and
c. heterosexual or homosexual lifestyle.
Sexual orientation involves the person to whom one is attracted and how one identifies himself or herself in
relation to this attraction which includes both romantic and sexual feelings.
2. Gender identity refers to one's personal experience of gender or social relations. It determines how one
sees himself or herself in relation to gender and sexuality. A person could identify himself or herself as
masculine or feminine.
3. Gender expression determines how one expresses his or her sexuality through the actions or manner of
presenting oneself.
LGBTQIA
The abbreviation LGBTQIA is short for lesbian, gay, transgender,

queer/questioning, intersex, asexual. This category describes distinct
groups outside of heteronormativity who are usually defined by their
SOGIE. Heteronormativity is defined as the notion that being
heterosexual, or the attraction to the opposite sex, is the standard for
correctness. Heterosexual, or straight, refers to people who have
sexual and romantic feelings mostly for the opposite gender-men who
are attracted to women, and women who are attracted to men.
Homosexual describes people who have sexual and romantic
feelings for the same gender-men who are attracted to men, and
women who are attracted to women. Cisgender is someone whose gender identity corresponds with his or her
biological sex. A person can be a homosexual and at the same time a cisgender (identify with the gender they
were assigned to at birth because of their sex).

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In addition, lesbian pertains to

women who are attracted to other
women. Gay refers to men who are
attracted to other men. It can also be
used as an umbrella term for
homosexuality. Bisexual or "bi"
denotes people who are attracted to
both genders. Finally, transgender is
an umbrella term that
refers to someone whose assigned sex at birth does not represent his or her gender identity. The labels were
created to recognize the identity of those who are considered outside the norm of society. These words and
terms were popularized to show those who fell outside the norm that they are not alone, and that there are
others facing the same struggles. While these are the usual words used when discussing LGBT issues. they
are in no way stable, fixed, or exclusive. They are temporary, as the terminologies for sex and sexuality can
change depending on the direction of the LGBT movement.
These scenarios are brought to light because of how Trans issues are slowly coming to public
awareness, but the same issues have been faced by women throughout history
Although this book does not tackle LGBT issues in depth, it hopes to open readers to these issues as future
topics of interests, especially as these are relevant issues in society, Gender advocates want to expand
gender issues to include the LGBT, as there is much discrimination against the LGBT in the Philippines.
Sample Case
A young woman, fresh out of college and ready for work, had trouble securing a job. Her friends
could not figure out why. She
graduated with Latin honors and topped the board exam in her respective field. She had applied to
numerous jobs which granted her interviews. However, after her face-to-face interview with
numerous potential employers, she was never contacted. When asked why, the company HR merely
stated that they do not allow "cross-dressing" for their employees. That young woman is a trans
woman who, while expressing herself as feminine, was recognized by professional institutions as
male.
The issue of discrimination based on gender is very prevalent

for the LGBT. The woman in the scenario was a transgender, whose biological gender (male) did not
reflect who she is (female).
Many posts about trans rights and trans issues circulate in social media. These problems are
everyday issues that show how people who only wish to express themselves are prevented from
doing so, and are blocked from academic and economic opportunities.
Why Equate Gender Issues with Women's Issues
By definition, gender issues are equated with women's Issues

because of sexism and gender stereotypes. Sexism is defined as a
prejudice against a certain sex. Because we live in a patriarchal
society. men are still seen as dominant, leaders, and the "norm." This
new place woman and the LGBT at risk for discrimination This book
then becomes a pledge for gender equality. Gender equality is
defined as the recognition of the state that all human beings are free
to enjoy equal conditions and fulfill their human potential, to contribute
to the state and society. It can also be defined as equality of the sexes, visibility in public and private spheres,
and full participation in society. Gender equality is the opposite of gender inequality, not of gender difference,
and aims to promote the full participation of women and men in society.
While some may say women have equal opportunities because they are allowed to have education, livelihood,
and political participation, women still have "less access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making.
These asymmetries and inequalities limit their ability to develop and exercise their full capabilities for their own
benefit and for the benefit of the society as a whole.
This discussion is not to state that men do not face discrimination. However, men in a male-dominated
society have various advantages over women and the LGBT in all spheres economic, political, social, etc.
Discriminatory gender roles can be institutionalized through laws and policies. A historical view of the women's
movement will help one situate women's and gender issues as we know it. The next chapter will provide more
context on the women's movement, gender and development, and women's and gender issues in the
Philippines and around the world.

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Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 2:
A. (Make an Insights)
Point for Reflection
How does your society or culture teach you to think, feel, and act based on your gender? How is it limiting?
How is it liberating?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
B. Gender Socialization (Minimum of 150 words)
Discuss what is expected of girls and boys in the following institutions:

1. your school (college);
2. your household; and
3. your church.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
C. Choose 3 Questions to answer. Write/encode in a separate paper
1. How do gender, sex, and sexuality differ from one another?


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2. What role does gender socialization play in the perception of gender roles?
3. What are some examples of gender stereotypes and how do they affect the genders?
4. Who perpetuate gender stereotypes and what does it say about society?
5. What is SOGIE and how is it relevant to the Philippine society?
CHAPTER 3
Cultures and Rationalities
Objectives/ Learning Outcomes:

1. discuss how culture or rationality shapes people's perception of reality:

2 state the effects of culture on a person's perception of gender and sexuality, and
3. explain how rationalities shape sexism and discrimination.
Pre-work for the Chapter
Guide Questions:
1. What for you defines maleness and femaleness

2. What do you think is the difference between gender and sex? How is this difference determined by
your physical bodies? By your culture?
Write down your responses. At the end of the course, look back and compare how you
understood these questions now and how you understand them after the course.
Instinct and Culture

Human beings, unlike animals, are not heavily dependent on instinct. Certainly, instinctual aspects are
present in specific actions such as breathing, making sounds when surprised or shocked, upright walking, or
choosing between fight or flight. More than these instinct-driven actions, humans are distinct from other beings
because they possess systems of meanings that tell what is right or wrong and good or evil. Most of what
people do is shaped or determined by these systems. For instance, procreation is an instinct as there is a
drive in people toward procreation. However, this urge takes different forms. A number of people want to have
many children while others want to have a few. Some people suppress the instinct for procreation altogether,
such as members of religious orders. These decisions all depend on the meaning people give to procreation.
Is the number of children about survival or happiness? Should one not have children at all because of certain
lifestyles of existential considerations. These choices are shaped not by instinct but by a frame of
understanding that determines a person's giving meaning to society."
This frame of understanding is what Clifford Geertz calls culture. Culture is the system of symbols that
allows people to give meaning to experience. It bears all the accumulated knowledge of people coded into
symbols that will help them interpret what is happening to or around them, and how they can give an
appropriate response to the experience. This system is necessary because when an event or phenomenon
takes place, people need to respond to it in a way that is rational to them. The meaning of a stimulus and the
kind of response appropriate to it depend on one's systems of understanding. Every person has internalized
shortcuts for giving meaning meaningful responses coded into the system, especially inherited culture.
Culture provides people with systems of shortcuts for meaningful interpretations and responses.
Because a culture handed down through generations, everyone knows that doctor cure you when you are
sick: that profit is always good; that women raise children and that men should set time aside to drink with
their friends.
These examples are ideas we do not even think about bin merely accept as true because culture has
provided their meaning and the proper action with regard to them. This is what culture does take the place of
instinct to give people a quick representation and response based on collective experience to the things that
confront them.
Cultures Can Change
Culture is superior to instinct because it is malleable or adaptable. It is both learned and inherited and
readily determines how one understands and acts. It also changes when its framing of reality is no longer
useful. It is the main difference between culture and instinct. The system that shapes human behavior is
malleable Unlike instinct that is genetically coded and needs generations of mutation to be recoded, people in

12
their lifetime can transform their culture and effectively reshape their being in the world. Just imagine how in
one generation, self-promotion and publicizing the self, such as in social media websites like Facebook, have
become acceptable behaviors. If it becomes necessary to become vegetarian, a person can choose it without
having to reconfigure his or her DNA. Thus, culture is the versatile system of meaning-giving.
The problem in this set-up, however, is that when cultural systems orient people to act in a certain
way that is harmful, individuals tend to act destructively toward others without conscious decision. If a
community devalues women and oppresses them, people are almost always programmed by their cultural
system to act this way. It can thus be said that treating women badly and women being receptive to this bad
treatment are due to a cultural system. This thought is worrisome because it means that the unjust things, we
do are not the acts of our free will. On the other hand, it is hopeful because it means that we behave the way
we do due to systems that can be changed. Thus, we can work together to change these systems After all, the
superiority of the systems of culture versus instinct lies in the fact that culture can be transformed without
waiting for genetic mutation to take effect. Culture can change when its system of meaning no longer serves
human flourishing. We must understand how culture can be changed so that the world becomes more just to
women.
To illustrate this point, examine micro-aggression as a form of violence. Microaggression refers to

"hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults that can cause potentially harmful or unpleasant
psychological impacts on the target person or group. It is a subtle form of aggression that often works against
historically marginalized social groups. Microaggressions against gender involve everyday acts that send
subtle messages about one's supposed inabilities and roles because of gender. Some effects of
microaggression include internalized emotions such as guilt. resentment, anger, as well as a negative
implication on relationships. Microaggression is also a form of social control.
Examples of microaggression include instances in which boys are teased for engaging in culturally
feminine activities such as playing house or playing with dolls. Girls are teased for engaging in sports, Men are
told to "man up if they need to be tougher. Women are admonished or ostracized when they are too
ambitious. Thus, bakla, the term for homosexual male, is used to berate and control men's behavior. The
statement “para kang babae," when used on men, is used to challenge masculinity and to show that being
woman-like is bad, thus demeaning women as a gender. Although seemingly harmless, these instances are a
form of correction that ensures that people do not stray from the culture's definition of the good. In this case,
men as strong and masculine is considered "good," and men as feminine is "bad. Below is typical situation to
illustrate this case.
Sample Case
Sean's group of all male friends makes sexist jokes at the expense of women, stating that being a
woman is a disability, and that women are less logical than men. He shared that while he himself is pro
women and a feminist ally, he gets pressured into making these jokes to bond with his block mates.
This picture is similar to what is called the "boy's club," that uses "banter" to "marginalize women" to
keep its power, and inadvertently reminds women that they are only allowed in certain spaces.
Violations of this space merit reprimand through jokes that are essentially sexist and hurtful.
This form of control can be understood as violent because it curtails individual freedoms by limiting
people in narrow definitions that may not contribute to human flourishing. However, those who commit acts of
microaggression do not in any way feel that they have violated the rights of others because they are acting
according to the good defined by their culture. Often, they cannot understand the world according to any other
reasoning. It shows how culture can determine the way we act toward others and ourselves without even a
critical awareness of what we do and why we do it.
In the realm of women and their rights, this scenario illustrates the necessity for critical reflection. At present,
there is an awareness that women are unfairly treated in society such that their human flourishing, even their
basic survival as human beings, is threatened. Thus, everyone has to take a closer look at the culture and
systems that define social structures in order to bring about genuine development to all the people of the
world, especially oppressed women. How cultures get in the way of and support the flourishing of women
should be understood. Cultural systems should be reflected on.
It is difficult to change culture. How do people change the way they perceive things and the way they
value or disvalue things Humans are born into their ways of thinking? Sexist or misogynist thinking is inherited,
which is why sexist jokes or harassment come so naturally to some. And so, we must ask ourselves how to
transform destructive ways of existing. One important way is by consensually proposing universal standards
by which societies can be measured. Ideally, these universal standards are put forward by international bodies
such as the United Nations. If the people of the world can understand that there are certain benchmarks of
humane and just behavior, then nations and their governments could be criticized and held accountable for
violating universally agreed upon rules. Today, with regard to human beings in general, and women in
particular, there are two such universal standards. One is already accepted by most countries, and another is
being proposed by a philosopher especially for her advocacy of women's rights.

13
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: ____________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 3
For this part of the lesson, you will engage in an exercise that will make you more aware of your rationalities.
(10 examples)
I.
a. What are the characteristics of an ideal woman in your community?

b. What are the characteristics of an ideal man in your community?
c. Give ten examples of unacceptable behavior for men.
d. Give ten examples of unacceptable behavior for women.
e. Compare the differences in your conceptions of acceptable and non-acceptable
behavior and discuss why there are differences.
f. Do you feel that the unacceptable behavior you identified violate fundamental
characteristics of human beings? Is it bad based on what being human really is? If so,
why are there differences among groups? If not, what could be the source of the
conceptions of acceptable and unacceptable behavior?
II. (Explanation- Choose 3 topics only)

Guide Questions:
1. How does culture shape people's perception of reality?
2. What is the main difference between instinct and culture?
3. How does the Philippine culture view women and the LGBTQIA?
4. Why is a change in culture important in achieving gender?

CHAPTER
5. Why are sexism and discrimination associated 4 and equality? Rationalities?
with culture

14
Chapter 4
Women's Ways of Knowing
Learning Outcomes
1. identify the women's ways of knowing:
2. explain why there are different ways of knowing: and
3. discuss the implications of women's ways of knowing

A student is graduating from college. In her last semester, she was failing her accounting class. In order to
pass it, she could get a cheat code from the class' teaching assistant. She only had to agree to go out on a
date with him to get it. She has a boyfriend, but she also needs to pass in order to help her parents pay for
her diabetic mother's medicines.
Reflect upon this situation. Do men and women reason differently about this?
Women and the Metaphor for Silence

The previous chapter discussed knowledge and culture, and what it takes to help people make sense
of the world around them through these systems, people assign and give meanings to the different
phenomena they experience. It was shown that femininity and masculinity are not inherent but learned.
Culture plays a large part in determining what are considered masculine or feminine traits Likewise, individuals
in particular cultures are taught to conform to these standards. Thus, even a woman's way of understanding
the world is affected by socialization. Women may address problems differently or be less inclined towards
certain disciplines. They may also be excluded from certain schools of thought because of traits associated
with their gender. This chapter will tackle women's ways of knowing as identified by the book Women's Ways
of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind by Mary Belenky, Blythe McVicker Clinchy, Nancy
Rule Goldberger, and Jill Mattuck Tarule published in 1986. It will also discuss the implications of the identified
ways of knowing in relation to the greater societal context.
Western male reasoning uses images that are related to visuals, seeing, or illumination to represent
knowledge. Light as a representation of knowledge stems from Plato and his Allegory of the Cave. In the
allegory, he likened an enlightened individual to a person who leaves the cave and is suddenly exposed to the
light of the sun, which can be seen to represent knowledge. While the common metaphor for knowledge is
light, this image is not representative of how other people, specifically women, view knowledge.
Women associate silence with knowledge as they themselves are often left unheard and silent. In the
study, silence and voice were dominant themes for women-a person who had knowledge and authority was
supposed to be listened to, but women who spoke out were silenced. To be quiet was to feel dumb, as the
voice had come to represent one's intellectual and ethical development. To have a voice was to have a self; to
have a voice was to develop a sense of voice.
Differences in Ways of Knowing: Women and Connectedness
Women and men have different ways of knowing, judgments, forms of human development, values,
and visions of humanity and existence. This book assumes that the main difference between men
and women comes from upbringing and gender socialization. The role of universal caregiving in all societies
was given to women. Because of this, girls learned to be women by copying their mothers, and boys learned
to be men through a disassociation with their mother's role. Because young girls had their mothers as role
models, they learned through association and connectedness. Women then learned through empathy. Men
learned through the separation of the self from the other. These themes of connectedness and separation will
be used in this chapter to describe women's ways of knowing.
How Women Know
According to Belenky and colleagues, women use the following perspectives to see the world and to
understand knowledge and truth:

15
1. Silence
2. Received knowledge: listening to the voices of others
3. Subjective knowledge: the inner voice
4. Subjective knowledge: the quest for self
5. Procedural knowledge: voice of reason
6. Procedural knowledge: separate and connected knowing
7. Constructed knowledge: integrating the voices
These perspectives comprise of five categories (silence, knowledge subjective knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and constructed knowledge) which describe the general ways women learn about their world and
come to conclusions about truth.
Women and silence
Silence as knowing indicates an absence of thought or reflection. Women who live in silence are often
disconnected from their families and communities due to their situation, the geographical separation of the
families from the greater community, and suffocation, all of which bring about lack of space for constructive
thought. These women usually come from families that are abusive or violent. Their knowledge comes from
authorities and focuses on their need to survive.
Women who learn through silence lack the ability to understand abstract thought. They do not enjoy a
space for introspection given their environment while growing up, or a greater awareness of their own mental
capacity. Reflective thought, characterized by ideas that are developed from back-and-forth communication
between two people, is stunted. Therefore, there is no dialogue with the self. In summary, women who do not
have a voice end up having no internal voice as well, no self-perception, and lack an identity separate from
what is dictated to them.
Received knowledge: Listening to the voices of others
Received knowledge is developed by absorbing knowledge.

Silence is still valued in this way of knowing as the receiver must be silent to receive the knowledge
transmitted. However, the silence is not always internal. Women who learn through receiving knowledge listen
to friends and authorities, and understand what is being said enough for them to repeat the words.
Subjective knowledge: The inner voice and the quest for self
Women who learn through subjective knowledge learn to trust what is called their "inner voice and
infallible gut." Women who utilize this form of knowledge are often those who have awakened to the previous
abuses they have suffered, or have broken off with the authority figures they have held dear. They also realize
that following rules will not make them happy. Hence, they move from passivity to action.
Subjective knowers depend on their selves and their experience to attain truth. Logic, rhetoric, and
theory are viewed with suspicion for these tools are associated with forms of knowledge that these women are
not familiar with, or are used to discredit or debase them. Women who fall under this category of learners use
their intuition to decipher truth from fiction, as they believe their intuition is the only thing, they can trust
Women with subjective knowledge often experience a break, a separation of self from their previous
communities that may have been harmful to them. In severing connections, these women learn to depend on
themselves and find themselves as their own authority. Because of this break from the woman's previous
(often abusive) environment, a new quest for self is done in relation to her new community. New connections
are formed, and the woman is able to find herself.
Procedural knowledge: Voice of reason and separate and connected knowing
Procedural knowers learn through processes. Often, the women utilizing this method have learned
well from formal systems of knowledge, enough to excel. However, they have views that differ from what they
are taught. They then use the tools they acquired from these formal systems to defend their own worldview.
Rather than moving on from subjective knowledge, they learn to defend their beliefs and rationalize their
thoughts. Women with this form of knowledge learn the language of the experts and apply this to their own
views. Those who use procedural knowledge usually focus more on the method and less on the problem.
Since the method centers on the debate and winning, it may not allow women the space to voice out their own
concerns and bring their needs to light.
Procedural knowers believe that catch person views the world differently and is entitled to his or her
own opinion. They pay attention to how different people form their views of the world. The question "Where
are they coming from?" is pivotal for them.
Understanding then comes as a vital aspect of knowing. The importance women give to connections is
reflected in how they come to learn about things. Understanding involves acquainting oneself with the object
to be known, and forming a connection with it. To understand, as women say, there must be a form of
acceptance, which is achieved by questioning what the object is trying to show in relation to one's self.
Through this process, procedural knowledge and connected knowers learn through acquiring the knowledge
of others.
The ideas of connection and understanding show an important difference in how men and women
view morality. Men tend to separate themselves and become impartial when it comes to giving justice. Women

16
often see themselves as connected to other people, arc more empathetic, and create morality based on care
for others.
Constructed knowledge: Integrating the voices
In the end, women need the ability to reflect on and accept themselves. Instead of learning to play the
system, women must learn to value their own methods of knowing and their own constructed knowledge. To
do this, the constructed knowledge must turn inward instead of outward, with the idea that "knowledge is
constructed, and the knower is an intimate part of the known."
The connectedness that women value must not be discounted. The notion of "real talk-the sharing of
ideas through open and honest discussion should be valued. This is the optimum setting for the co-creation of
knowledge. By valuing themselves and seeing themselves as an indispensable part of knowledge-creation,
women may become empowered, working towards an improvement in their lives as well as in the lives of
others.
Meaning of Differences in Knowing
The first wave of the Western Women's Movement often equated

women's liberation with reason; its main aim was to achieve
equality with men. This goal was to be realized through the
inclusion of women in all aspects of society, meaning that all the
rights afforded to men must be afforded to women. Observably,
true inclusion through equal access does not immediately mean
equal opportunities. To have equal rights as men is not the same
as having actual equality since the structure of the world is based
on male ways of knowing. The education system is an example
of this inequality. It was founded on the interests of the dominant group, specifically men. Education was
modeled after what they needed to know and how they were socialized to learn. Women's schools were then
modeled after their systems, ignoring the specific ways that women were taught to experience the world.
Exclusion of Women in Disciplines?
Knowledge, specifically in the sciences, are said to be gender neutral. However, many feminists argue
that this is not the case. Male bias is present in different disciplines, from the topics one chooses to study, the
kinds of research questions one develops, to the observable data that is deemed relevant."
Carol Gilligan in her book A Different Voice highlights male bias in psychology. She notes that
different psychologists often highlight women's failure to fit into existing models of human growth. All women
were thought to have these problems and these delays. Yet, this conception of human beings showed that
something was lacking in the analysis of women. Specifically, men were often used as the template for studies
on human beings. The male as a dominant model made men and men's behavior the basis of assessing
human development. Because women did not conform to this behavior or pattern of development, they were
thought to be abnormal. Women were also missing from research studies on human behavior. Hence, it can
be assumed that there is a gap in previous theorists' knowledge on the human condition.
___________________________________________________________________________

17
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: ____________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 4
A. Discussion.
Guide Questions (Explanation)
1. What are the differences among the women's ways of knowing?
2. Why are there many different ways of knowing and what are their implications?
3. How is silence associated with knowledge?
4. Why is procedural knowledge not enough to voice concerns of women?
5. Historically, what are the advantages enjoyed by men with regard to the human
psychology?
B. Integration:
There are five categories under women's ways of knowing. Discuss each category and ask
yourselves how this way of knowing affects your way of being in and interacting with the
world. What are the positive and negative aspects of this knowing?

18
CHAPTER 5
Gender-fair Language
Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, the students should

be able to;
1. identify the ways language discriminates against women;
2. state forms of discrimination in language; and
3. explain how gender fair language can be realized.

Observe yourself for a day and answer the following questions: 1. How do you speak to your female friends
and how do you speak to your male friends? Do you shift in tone or word choice?
2. How do you use communication to assert yourself and your ideas? How do you think people of the other
gender would use language to assert themselves? Would it be the same or different? Why or why not?
3. How do you describe feminine speech? What about masculine speech?
4. How differently do men from older generations speak as compared to women from their generations?
How is this different from how you and your friends speak today?
Language and Gender Relations
Language is a potent tool for how humans understand and

participate in the world. It can shape how we see society. It is a part of culture. In this regard, language is not
a neutral force; it enforces certain ideas about people including gender.
Many gendered assumptions are present when it comes to language. Language defines men and
women differently as seen in common adjectives associated with these genders. Unequal relations can stem
from statements that trivialize one gender's experience or perpetuate one gender's supremacy. It evaluates
gender, insomuch as language trivializes or devalues certain characteristics." Thelma Kintanar and Angela
Tongson, in their 2014 book Gender-fair Language: A Primer, focused on three aspects of language that
inform how gender is shaped-language articulates consciousness, reflects culture, and affects socialization.
Like gender stereotyping, language influences how one sees his or her gender and perceived other people's
gender.
Violations of Gender-fair Language
Sexist language is a tool that reinforces unequal gender relations

through sex-role stereotypes, microaggressions, and sexual harassment.
Language can be used to abuse, such as in the case of sexual harassment,
or to perpetuate stereotypes. It can form subtle messages that reinforce
unfair relations, such as how "men cannot take care of children" or "women
cannot be engineers" which may impact how one views his or her
capabilities. All in all, language is a powerful force that plays a significant role
in how one perceives the world." Kintanar and Tongson gave extensive
examples of these violations in her book. The following are condensed
versions and real-life examples of violations of gender-fair language.
Invisibilization of women
The invisibilization of women is rooted men are dominant and are the norm of the fullness of humanity and
women do not exist. Some obvious examples of women in the assumption that invisibilization in language are:
• The generic use of masculine pronouns or the use of a masculine general. The use of the word "mankind"
assumes that men are representative of all people on this planet and that women's presence or roles are not

19
acknowledged. Similarly, saying "guys" when referring to a mixed-gender group assumes that girls are
invisible, and calls attention to the male gender, giving them a stronger presence.
• The assumption that certain functions or jobs are performed by men instead of both genders. For example,
the sentences "The farmers and their wives tilled the land. or "The politicians and their wives lobbied for
change." assume that men can have jobs as farmers and politicians, and women who do the same work are
still made to be known as wives, with their identities forever linked to being married to their husbands,
• The use of male job titles or terms ending in man to refer to functions that may be given to both genders. For
instance, the titles "businessman" and "chairman" assume that all businessmen or chairmen are men and that
certain jobs may not be for women, which is not true.
Trivialization of Women
Bringing attention to the gender of a person, if that person is

a woman. The use of "lady." "girl," or "woman” along with the noun brings attention to the gender of the person
rather than to the job or function. Examples of these include "girl athlete," "woman doctor," "lady guard," and
"working wives." This notion also works for men who enter traditionally female jobs such as "male nurses,"
"male nannies," or "male secretaries."
 The perception of women as immature. Women may be labeled as "darling" or "baby" by those who
do not know them, making them appear childlike or juvenile,
 The objectification, or likening to objects, of women. By being called "honey," "sweets," or "chick,
women become devalued, especially if they are in an environment that merits formality such as the
workplace.
Fostering unequal gender relations
Language that lacks parallelism fosters unequal gender relations. The use of "man and wife" assumes
that men are still men and
women's identities are subsumed and shifted into beings in relation to their husbands.
Gender polarization of words in use of adjectives
The personal care brand Dove recently came out with an advertisement that used parallel adjectives
to show the difference in perception regarding men and women. Both men and women did the same activity,
but were described differently. In the ad, men who took the lead were considered the "boss," while women
who had the same initiative were considered "bossy." Men who worked overtime were seen as "providers,"
while women who did the same were seen as "uncaring." This polarization of adjectives shows how perception
does change how one sees certain acts, depending on who performs them.
Hidden assumptions
Hidden assumptions in sentences can also be forms of microaggression if the underlying perceptions
are sexist and degrading. For example, the statement. "The father is babysitting his children," assumes that
father is not a caregiver, and that any attempt he has at parenting is temporary as the mother is the main
caregiver. A typical example of a situation involving sexist language is shown in the following sample case.
Sample Case
Aaron mentioned that his friends from his all-boys high school would often use the word "bakla"
as an insult. They would also use bakla to describe someone who lost at games or was weak at sports,
He stopped doing this in college. He shared that he already "grew up, and stopped using terms like
bakla as insults because he knows thar doing so may hurt someone who is actually gay. Perhaps,
Aaron sees gender sensitivity in language as a sign of maturity.
Philippine Culture and Language
Filipino or Tagalog is mainly gender-neutral, without gendered characteristics or titles for men or
women. Words that are gendered came from another culture, which were adopted after 400 years of
colonization. The values and the shaping of the education system were influenced by Western powers and
ideals. Filipinos portray a mix of identities, an infusion of both native and foreign perspectives and values
Identities and Naming Things
The previous chapter defined sex and gender, and explained how these points can help reflect one's
identity. Language is used to define what is feminine, masculine, and outside feminine or masculine. It is a tool
for understanding the world as well as for naming and describing people and things. Language gives a person
the power to define oneself and the external world and one's place in it. It provides a definition of others as
well, and one's relationship with them. Through language, people can reflect on their own gendered identities,
and battle the definitions society imposes on them.
Naming things give them power. For example, sexual harassment was never seen as an issue as it
was never given a name. It was unwanted behavior in the workplace, but was seen as something that could
not be contended with. Because it was unnamed, it was ignored by those in power as if it did not exist.

20
Recognizing harassment for what it is by defining and describing the act helped women around the world put
mechanisms that would address workplace harassment. Similarly, women who experienced date rape had no
term to describe what occurred to them, but naming their experience helped them come to terms with their
issue."
Another example of the problem that has no name" was given by Betty Friedan in her book. The
Feminine Mystique, in 1963. Friedan described it as the discontent that middle-class housewives felt in the
United States during the 1950s to the 1960s. In naming the issue that her fellow housewives felt, Friedan was
able to highlight the structural oppression experienced by housewives, that despite their basic needs being
met, they themselves were unable to take control of their lives due to the limits the society enforces on their
reproductive roles.
Sexist Language and Culture
A previous chapter noted that gender socialization is the process in

which roles are learned. Language that admonishes certain acts depending on
one's gender is a form of externalized social control; Common themes of a
sexist language are the commercialization and the trivialization of women.
These sexist portrayals of women extend to the advertising industry,
entertainment industry, and the arts. The normalization of sexism makes violence against women and children
acceptable or tolerable. Using language for gender stereotyping can contribute to sexism by reinforcing the
idea that certain words and traits should only be associated with specific genders.
How people related to each other on a day-to-day basis reinforces behavior, both positive and negative. To
call someone stupid everyday could have an effect on his or her potential. In turn, language through its
repetition of roles, stereotypes, and adjectives affects how one person enacts his or her capabilities.
Constantly mocking or joking about women/LGBT, sexualizing them, and making them appear weak would
indeed make them internalize these ideas.
That being said, language is not inherently sexist. Being sexist depends on a specific culture.
Similarly, the attitude of a culture towards a certain gender may influence the words used, creating sexist
language. Language is both a symptom and a perpetrator of sexism, and is the very telling of how a society
sees a certain gender.
Toward a Gender-fair Language
The use of gender-fair language in educational institutions and the removal

of sexist language as imperative to gender-responsiveness is currently being
advocated. GABRIELA (General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms, Integrity,
Equality, Leadership, and Action) Women's Party national president and party-list
representative Liza Maza called for a ban of sexist language in all official
communication and documents in the House of Representatives. The creation of 1
comprehensive gender fair language policy and the evaluation of the effectiveness
of gender-fair language in institutions are indicators for a gender-fair institution.
These actions are small steps one can take in ensuring that institutions are indeed
gender-fair.
Language, then, is more than just the arrangement of words. Cultures and values come from
language and vice versa. Language is also a process that represents one's views, beliefs, and experiences. It
must be changed to reflect the changes in the world as well as to be free from bias since words can affect how
a person sees oneself and others around him or her.

21
Accomplish the following tasks:
1. Find texts which are supposed to be gender neutral. For instance, you can look for laws, religious
texts, or even local textbooks. Examine these texts and mark specific parts that violate gender-fair
language. After having identified the discriminatory parts, provide gender-fair edits or revisions. Pick
five samples which you can present in class.
2. Research the lyrics of your favorite rap song that speaks to or about women. How are women
portrayed in this song? What words are used to describe men and women? What verbs are used to
discuss them? If there is a music video, how are men and women portrayed? How would you write a
more gender fair version of this song? Does it still work?
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 5
A. TASKS
B. Explanation
Guide Questions
1. Why is language important?
2. What is sexist language?
3. In what ways can language be used to discriminate?
4. How can a name give power to ideas?
5. What are some steps that can be taken to achieve gender-fair language?

22
CHAPTER 6
Women: A Sectoral Situation
Learning Outcomes
1. identify major areas where women are discriminated:
2. explain why discrimination is unjust;
3. describe the challenges women face in various sectors in the Philippines; and
4 state existing institutional mechanisms that protect woman against discrimination and violence.

Think about the education sector. What kinds of women are involved in this sector? Quite possibly,
they include athletes, teachers, administrators, and students. Are they treated differently because of
their gender? What challenges are particular to female students, if any?
Sectoral Situationers
Gender permeates all aspects of society. This idea may be hard to imagine because oppression due to
gender has been so normalized that even those who experience the brunt of this system see no wrong in it.
The sectoral situationer below will give an overview of the condition of women both in the Philippines and
around the globe in relation to oppression. This situationer may hopefully serve as a lens in which students
can view and understand the gender inequality women face everywhere.
The chapter will focus on the 12 critical areas of concern of the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA) as
they apply to the situations of women in various sectors in the Philippines. The developmental thrust of the
Beijing Platform has inspired many agencies worldwide toward improving women's plight. Women's issues are
a very comprehensive and difficult topic to tackle in depth. In fact, data are still lacking for several years up to
now. Hence, discussion shall be limited on selected issues specific to Filipino women in certain sectors and
the progress the Philippines has attained in fulfilling the goals of the Beijing Platform of Action. May this
chapter open your eyes to the issues concerning women in different areas and show the real impact of sexism
and gender-biased principles on women.
Women and the Economy: Women and Work

Work is often understood as livelihood. For a good
reason, it is seen as a survival mechanism for many
as work provides money necessary to buy goods for
a person to live. While both men and women have
problems concerning work, women have specific
labor issues related to their gender. Moreover,
women's work is often invisibilized due to their
socialized gender roles.
The following are work-related issues surrounding
women around the globe, as described in the 2015
UN World's Women Report. The range of issues
includes the conditions that surround men and
women who work, how much women get paid, and
the kind of work they are allowed to do.
• There are fewer women than men at work, and most women only work in one sector. Only half of
women are employed in the labor force, versus three quarters of men globally. The type of work women is
engaged in is also difficult to comprehend. Despite women contributing to all aspects of the economy, they
often participate in "vulnerable employment" or work on their own account. It involves taking jobs with no job
security or with dangerous working conditions. Women working in home-based employment are at risk for
unemployment and maltreatment. Women who work in the public sphere are delegated to the service sector,
such as education, social work, health care, and domestic work in private households. This phenomenon is
called the occupational segregation of women.

23
• Not only are fewer women employed, they also experience the pay gap-they are paid less than what
men receive for doing the same work, across all sectors and occupations. Specifically, women earn 70%-90%
of what men earn in most countries. In addition, due to the socialized gender roles between the two, women
also work an average of two more hours than men a day due to their productive work at home or housework.
The sharing of unpaid work at home is also an issue as family responsibilities may get in the way of women's
career advancement."
• While many issues concerning women and work have yet to be addressed, some issues have
gained ground, such as maternity and paternity leaves. Thankfully, the number of paid workdays that can be
taken by a woman to care for her newborn child has increased in most countries. There has also been an
increase in initiatives for paternity leave.
Women, Work, and Poverty in the Philippines
Women as a social class are the fifth poorest, as 15.6% of women are classified as poor in 2015. The
structural adjustment program has a negative impact on women living affects the availability of work, the
nature of one's work, and job security poverty, as it
The 2015 Beijing Platform for Action (BPA) +20 NGO Report of the University of the Philippines
Center for Women's Studies confirms that women still to face the same issues at work today as they did ten
years ago. Issues such as poverty and the lack of decent work opportunities still affect both women and men.
Women also experience gender biases in the Philippines, such as their "limited career choices, lack of support
facilities, sexual harassment, lack of protection for the informal sector and domestic workers, tenuous social
protection, limited monitoring on labor standards, and unremitting promotion of labor export policy.
The Labor Force Survey of the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) defines work as an economic
activity that a person does for pay. It involves a person who serves in private companies, private households,
family-owned businesses, establishments, government-controlled corporations, or the government.
Women and work have multiple overlaps in the Philippines. Numerous women-specific issues are
present in the sectors of agriculture, formal labor (retail or factory work), and informal work. Women overseas
Filipino workers are also at high risk.
Fast Facts
Women and Work
The 2013 gender statistics of the Philippine Statistics Authority reported that:
 Women make up 37.5% (8.3 million) of salaried workers in the Philippines.
 Three out of five women are underemployed. Of the underemployed women workers, half are wage
and salary workers. Of these underemployed women, three out of five are in the service sector.
 Four out of five women wage earners work full time. Four out of five of these women wage earners
work in the service sector.
Women and Education
What exactly is the state of gender and education in the global context? The 2015 report by the United
Nations titled The World's Women 2015: Trends and Statistics gives a summary of gender issues in education
Gender parity in primary education is present not just in the Philippines, but also in the rest of the world, with
girls performing better than boys in some regions. However, for the countries that have not reached gender
parity, girls are at high risk for discrimination. More than three-fourths of the 58 million out-of school children
live in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, with half of the out-of-school girls coming from these regions.
While gender parity has been achieved at the primary level, inequality still increases at higher levels of
education. Generally, fewer students enroll in secondary education than in primary education, and even so in
tertiary education. However, an increase can be found in female participation in higher education."
Issues in education involve the gendered nature of certain specializations. Women may be
underrepresented in STEM fields-science, technology, engineering, and mathematics-for both tertiary
education and postgraduate studies. Women are also underrepresented in areas that involve physical activity
in vocational courses, such as manufacturing and construction. While illiteracy has been eradicated in most
countries, 781 million people aged 15 and over still remain illiterate, with women making up two-thirds of this
statistics
The UN developed the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for the year 2000 to year 2015. The
MDGs comprised of eight goals and 21 targets, each with associated indicators. The Philippine government
committed itself to the Millennium Development Goal No. 2, ensuring "that by 2015, children everywhere, boys
and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling," and to Goal No. 3, Target 3A, "to
eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of
education no later than 2015.
Fast Facts
Women and Education
The Philippine Statistics Authority reported the following data on education:
Literacy (2008)
Sixty-eight million or 95.6% of Filipinos aged 10 years old and over are basically literate.

24
Basic literacy is at 96.1% for women and 95.1% for men. Women have higher basic literacy and
numerical skills than men. Specifically, 26 million women have basic literacy, versus 25 million men.
• Functional literacy in terms of numerical statistics is at 25 million

for women versus 24 million for men • Functional literacy in terms of communication is at 20 million for women
versus 18 million for men. • The trend of higher literacy for women corresponds with the face that more
women finish elementary school and high school than
men. Enrollment in Primary and Secondary School (SY 2010-2011) Enrollment for public primary education
was at 91.07% for girls versus 88.78% for boys,
. Statistically, nine out of 100 girls aged six to 11 did not go to school during this period, versus 11 in every
100 boys.
• Enrollment for public secondary education was less than elementary education, consistent with the global
statistics - 66.09% of girls aged 12 to 15 years enrolled in secondary education, versus 56.63% for boys.
• About 80.27% of girls completed their secondary education versus 69.88% of boys.
• For every 100 boys, 69 girls dropped period. out of school during this stage. More girls were able to
complete both primary and secondary education in school year 2010-2011. Alternative Schooling Systems
• Madrasah schools, or alternative schools for instruction on Islam, only accounted for 2% of primary school
enrollees for the period of 2006-2007. lie • About 52.57% of enrollees were female, while 47.43% were male.
Even less students enrolled in public secondary Madrasah schools, with a total of 34,241 enrollees, 57.24% of
which are women and 42.76 % are men. 52
Fast Facts (cont.)

 Barely 3% (337,616) of the total elementary level enrollees were from the indigenous peoples' community. Approximately 49.65% of
these IP enrollees were female.
 Only 86,771 students from the indigenous peoples enrolled in secondary education, with 53.76 % female enrollees.
Higher Education
 For higher education enrollment during school year 2005-2006,
54.48% of enrollees were women, versus 45.52% for men.
 There was a higher preference for private higher education for both male and female students. In terms of school preference, six in
every 10 women and seven in every 10 men preferred to enroll in private universities and colleges than in public schools.
Education as a Vocation
 Education as a vocation is also gendered, with 89.58% of public elementary school teachers and 77.06% of public secondary school
teachers being female. The data are based on a 2008-2009 survey of the Philippine Statistics Authority.
Women and Health
Access to health care and health services constitute issues surrounding women and health, as well as
a woman's emotional, psychological, and social wellness." Women-specific health issues are often linked to
sexual and reproductive health needs. Globally, maternal health has improved considerably. However,
pregnancy and childbirth are still the main health concerns of women aged 15-29. These issues are also
complicated by HIV/AIDS. Women in developing regions are most prone to death due to these complications
The average life expectancy of women has risen to the age of 72 years, while it is 68 for men.
However, issues surround the care for elderly women as the gender gap for this service continues to increase.
There is a rise in obesity cases, with women becoming more obese than men. However, men are more at risk
for tobacco-related illnesses as men smoke more.
Issues surrounding health care in the Philippines involve the lack of access to healthcare facilities, quality
services, and actual health centers in the communities. The lack of services may be caused by the decrease
in healthcare practitioners, The Philippines underspends for health, lower than the 5% benchmark suggested
by the World Health Organization. The medicines available to the Filipinos are not subsidized by any
insurance company or the government. Incidences of maternal mortality, teenage pregnancy, and HIV/AIDS
are rising as well, despite the decline in these issues globally.
Access to Services
Women seeking treatment for abortion are still stigmatized, regardless of whether the abortion was
self-induced or spontaneous Patients are often scolded by doctors or ignored when availing of this care. Many
leave before treatment occurs due to this discrimination, posing a threat to their health
Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights
Teenage pregnancy in the Philippines has been increasing specifically, a 65% rise from the years
2000 to 2010. One in ten teenage girls is pregnant or is already a mother. Teenage pregnancy poses a threat
to both the mother and the child. Infants born to girls below 20 years old are 30% more likely to be victims of
infant mortality whereas teenage mothers make up 20% of all maternal deaths in the Philippines.
The reason for the increase in teenage pregnancy is the lack of information on sexual and reproductive health
and rights (SRHR). comprehensive sex education both inside and outside the school, and the universal
access to contraceptives. Teenage pregnancy is also a factor for high dropout rates-young mothers or fathers
drop out of school to support their families or take care of their children.

25
The groundbreaking Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 (R.A. 10354) aims
to address the gaps in reproductive health. It guarantees universal access to all methods of family planning,
fertility management, sexuality education, and maternal care" for all Filipinos. It aims to be pro women as it
helps young girls take charge of their own bodies and pushes for adolescents' access to SRHR information.
The promotion of this information empowers adolescents to make informed choices about their bodies while
respecting their autonomy. However, a part of this law states that persons below 18 years of age must have
parental consent to avail of family planning services and contraception, unless that person has already been a
parent or has had a miscarriage. Given the taboo nature of sex and sexuality in families, parents may not
discuss this information with their children until it is too late. This provision may prevent young persons from
accessing SRHR information because they do not want to approach their parents regarding this concern.
The issues surrounding R.A. 10354 include proper implementation and the definition of "age-
appropriate" sexual reproductive health issues. There must also be consultations with young girls and boys to
customize the RH programs for their needs. Sexual and reproductive health and rights have a long way to go
in the Philippines, with the right to education being hampered by the lack of access to SRHR information.
Violence against Women
Violence against women (VAW) exists on a global scale, and

affects millions of women on a daily basis. Statistics on VAW show the
reach of this gender-based epidemic. Globally, one in three women has
experienced some form of VAW in her life. Of these women, one in five will
have experienced attempted or actual rape in her lifetime. Furthermore,
half of these victims are made girls below the age of sixteen worldwide. Up
to 30% of women’s sexual encounter is forced or non-consensual.
Meanwhile, culture-specific violence such as bride burning child brides, or

female genital mutilation is still practiced despite in violation of a person's
basic human rights. Specifically, 130 million girls annually have become
victims of female genital mutilation, with 3 million girls at risk for this
practice in Africa. Lastly, women make up 80% of the victims of human
trafficking, showing that women are quite prone to becoming victims of violence due to their sex.
Women and Armed Conflict
Armed conflict is seen as a critical area of concern in terms of

women's participation in peace panels and peacekeeping, as well as in
terms of their victimization during conflict around the globe. Included as
well is the situation of women who have been displaced due to armed
conflict or are living in refugee camps, as well as those living under foreign occupation.
The UN Women Report states that only seven

out of ten peace agreements had special provisions for
gender in 2015. In addition, the UN Women Report on
Peace and Security cited a 20% increase in peace
agreements lasting at least two years and a 35%
increase of the agreement lasting up to 15 years if
women are included in the peace process. Despite this
consideration, only 9% of those in peace negotiation
tables were women based on statistics from the year
1992 to year 2011. As for the UN military peacekeepers,
only 3% are women.
A special form of victimization occurs for women in armed conflict. Women have gender-specific
needs apart from the basic survival needs that other victims of conflict have. The Global Study on the
Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) states that:
Women and girls are disproportionately affected by crises. They are exposed to increased risk of violence,
more likely to die than men in natural disasters and have less access to resources. Girls in conflict settings, for
example, are 2.5 times more likely to be out of school than those in countries at peace. Furthermore, women
are often excluded from the decision-making processes that shape humanitarian planning and programming
and as a consequence their specific needs are
inadequately addressed. "
Due to women's socialized gender roles as the keepers of
culture and bearers of a race, rape and sexual violence
are seen as war tactics to instill fear in communities.
Women in communities occupied by armed forces are
prone to harassment or are made to enter domestic
servitude. Many cases remain unreported because of the
stigma that comes with sexual violence and because of the
lack of awareness as to whom the case should be
reported." Women's mobility is also affected, and their

26
access to employment is hampered due to displacement. Others who hope to find work outside of their camps
become victims of forced prostitution and human trafficking
Support systems and responses for girls and women in current and former conflict-affected areas are lacking.
The long-standing conflict in Mindanao has displaced 240,000 people as of 2009. Ride, or clan violence, as
well as military occupation make indigenous Filipino women prone to harassment and sexual violence or
displacement.
The Philippines has adopted international mechanism to secure women's safety during times of conflict
through the Philippine National Action Plan on Women, Peace, and Security (PNAPWPS). This action plan
reflects Chapter 4 of the Magna Car on Women: "All women shall be protected from all forms of violence as
provided for in existing laws."** This protection includes women representation and role during roundtable
discussions on the peace process.”
Women in Power and Politics
The number of women in parliament worldwide has doubled in the years since the implementation of
the BPFA. However, women compose only 22% of the parliament today. Globally, 143 of 195 countries have
constitutional provisions to ensure gender equality.
The Philippines made it to the top ten countries in the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap
Index for 2015. It has risen from 13th place to 7th of the 142 countries surveyed in terms of gender equality.
The markers for this study include education, health, economic participation, and political empowerment.
The Philippines ranks high in the said markers due to the number of women participating in the
election process, as well as those in office. The 2016 elections show that 28,052,138 registered voters were
females while only 26,311,706 were males. While no sex-disaggregated data are available for the 2016
election, the 2013 elections showed that 25% of those elected for the Senate and 27% of those elected for the
House of Representatives were women. Further data from the year 2001 to 2013 are shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Comparative Statistics of Candidates by Sex from 2001 to 2013
Election year Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of

male candidates female candidate male candidates female candidates
elected elected
2001 84.59 15.40 82.84 17.16
2004 85.14 14.86 83.37 16.36
2007 83.93 16.07 82.61 17.38
2010 83.04 16.60 81.44 18.56
81.89 17.82 79.75 19.92
Despite the Philippines' getting high marks for women's political involvement, women in power still make up
less than half of those elected. Similarly, analysis on the gap of political empowerment between men and
women is only available in the highest levels of the government and does not include data at the local level.
From the data, it can be concluded that gender equality in decision-making still has a long way to go.
Some issues that hamper women's participation in the elections involve sex-role stereotypes and
gendered assumptions. Women in the political sphere deal with the multiple burden of their own political
career and taking care of their families. Also, because women in politics are stereotyped by their roles, Filipino
voters often look for someone who is aggressive and assertive. Moreover, women in positions of power may
not even prioritize women's issues.
Institutional Mechanisms and the Human Rights of Women
The Magna Carta of Women is a groundbreaking law that

serves as the "comprehensive bill of rights for Filipino women,"
ensuring that gender equality is met in various sectors. While this law
will be discussed in depth in another chapter, it is important to note
that it exists, and is a major mechanism that enforces gender equality
in the Philippines. It calls for the abolition of structures that cause
gender inequality, and all forms of discrimination.
Gender equality and the advancement of women in the Philippines are

accomplished under three tracks: (a) issuance of administrative
memorandum circulars by PCW and partner agencies across the three
branches of government; (b) issuance of guidelines to enhance the
capacity of agencies in gender planning; and (c) legislative review to
amend discriminatory provisions of existing laws and advocate for the
passage of new ones to address festering and emerging gender issues. 67 The PCW notes that these
initiatives are done in consultation with gender advocates from the public and private sectors. However,
recommendations may not be reflected in the final plans and policies. Despite institutional mechanisms
existing for women's advancement, the human rights of women are still violated in various ways due to sexism
and misogyny that pervade every aspect of society. For example, the struggle for the Reproductive Health
Law shows that the issue of sex overcomes the urgent need for reproductive health services that women,
particularly the poor, need.

27
Rampant sexism and violations against women on the basis of gender and sex occur, especially on
certain laws that are anti-women. The Penal Code, for example, imposes a heavier consequence for women
who commit adultery versus men. The law also gives the last say regarding joint property to the male spouse.
While women may legally separate from their husbands, the patriarchal issues behind this separation, such as
abuse in intimate relationships, remain unaddressed. Similarly, those who face harassment and gender-based
violence have a hard time establishing their case and getting the authorities to believe them, despite the law
clearly giving favor to the victims.
Discrimination against the Girl-child
The Beijing Platform for Action sees the girl-child as an important sector that faces numerous forms of
injustice. Female children are particularly vulnerable due to their double oppression. Children are not old
enough to be respected and treated as adults, and have less access to resources that the adults hold. They
are often dependent on adults to make decisions for them. They have few or no representations at all in
decision-making bodies. In the same manner, girls are also treated as women who are socialized to take on
caregiving roles despite their young age.
Women experience their first forms of discrimination during childhood. When this experience
continues until their adult life, it creates a systematic cycle of abuse. Globally, it is the girl-child who is most
vulnerable to harmful cultural practices. Because some cultures value boys
over girls, girl-children may fall victim to female infanticide and sex-selective
abortion. In other developing countries, poor families choose to give boys
more food, causing malnutrition in girls. Despite child marriage being illegal in
most countries, there is a prevalence of forced marriages that involve
marrying young girls to older men. Teenage pregnancy is still an issue that
hampers the young mother's access to education and economic
opportunities. Child trafficking, child labor, and domestic slavery are issuing
that girls face.
In the Philippines, child is defined as any person below the age of 18.
Approximately 40% of the Philippine population is composed of children, with
half of this number as the girl-child.' In 2015, the population of children is
estimated at 41 million, around 20 million of which are girl-children. Filipino
children have a poverty incidence of 36.5% for the year 2012. A young girl
from the Philippines has to contend with numerous issues both girls and
children face. However, some children are more vulnerable to these issues.
Many children in conflict-affected areas in Central Mindanao are out of school due to military and rebel
attacks. Seven thousand children have been displaced. Particularly, the girls often face harassment from the
members of the armed forces. Indigenous and Muslim girls in the Philippines are subjected to forced and early
marriages. This practice is allowed due to the indigenous customary laws and the Code of Muslim Personal
Laws. Children may be married off as a repayment for a loan, or a way for parents to receive a large dowry.
"Child marriage has been found to have impacts on girls' health and education, and also exposes them to
risks of rape and other forms of sexual abuse."
Female circumcision is a harmful traditional practice that targets young girls. This indigenous practice
serves as a rite of passage in certain tribes, such as the Yakan tribe of Basilan. Girls as young as five years
have their labia majora scraped off while a prayer is whispered before and after the procedure. This ritual is
part and parcel of the women's identity as part of the community, yet it poses risks to the path girls' health due
to infection and bleeding. More importantly, a large has value is placed on a woman's genitalia and purity,
reinforcing the idea of the woman as a sex object.
Teen pregnancy is also on the rise due to the low use of contraception and lack of access to sexual
and reproductive health and rights information.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a summary of rights that seek to protect the basic human
rights of children and ensure their holistic development. The local adaptation of this convention is Republic Act
No. 7610 or the Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation, and Discrimination Act. While
laws exist to protect children, they still fall short to address the actual needs of young persons around the
globe.
Women and the Environment
Talks about the environment have remained mostly gender neutral before the BPFA. However,
"women and the environment" has been named as a critical area of concern due to the disproportional impact
of environmental issues on women. Global
concerns of women include access to clean water and sanitation, 5 access to energy, exposure to natural
disasters, and lack of consultation and position of women in decision-making bodies abou the environment
While men and women are equally affected by access to water or the exposure to disasters, women are more
burdened. The caregiving role of women gives them the task of preparing the daily need of their children. It
means that women cook and clean, making water and fuel a necessity in their homes. The right to safe and
clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is a human right, 663 million people have no access to drinking
water. One billion people have no improved sanitation. Globally, poor women from families without piped

28
water walk around 20 minutes to an hour to get water. They often have to go multiple times a day, Others also
have to collect firewood before cooking. Time spent on these endeavors is time taken away from a woman's
productive work or educational pursuits, Economists and policymakers do not see
these activities as worthwhile, invisibilizing women's contribution to society.
Furthermore, women are often excluded from land titles and ownership of other natural resources. They do
not have the ability to absorb environmental shocks such as drought or floods as they have fewer assets to
sell. While both women and men fall into chronic indebtedness, the former are more pressured to find
solutions and borrow money from different sources. During food shortages, women often prioritize the needs
of their husbands and children over their own.
The issues for women and environment in the Philippines lack discussions on women's climate resilience,
women's access to and control of natural resources, and women in disaster-affected areas." Lastly, women
are not sufficiently involved in decision-making bodies about environmental management due largely to the
lack of their resources, such that they are not considered proper stakeholders for this issue. The conservation
of the environment is something that all Filipinos must prioritize. The issue involves poor environmental
management and large natural disasters. These topics touch on women's access to resources such as food
and fuel, as well as their overall health.
Women and Disaster
The accelerating effects of climate change have increased the unpredictability of the weather systems around
the world. Climate change has caused major disasters such as tsunamis, typhoons, and hurricanes in various
countries. The Philippines is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a prime area that places it on an earthquake
belt and in the common pathway for typhoons.
Gender and disaster resilience are strongly correlated. Case studies on post-disaster communities
show that women and girls are more susceptible to the effects of a tragedy. Their resilience depends on their
economic, cultural, and legal status. Gender inequalities brought
about by poverty rates, migration, and low literacy rates increase
women's vulnerability. They are often obstructed by the social and
cultural traditions that limit their movement, jeopardizing their lives
during natural calamities and even man-made disasters. Most often,
being the primary care worker in households, women tend to think
more about how these events might affect members of the family
such as children and other dependents. Women are most often the
ones who attend to the immediate survival needs of their family
members such as setting up their temporary shelter and lining up
for relief goods from the government and other organizations. Yet,
existing inequalities prevent them from participating in consultations
and planning processes for disaster preparedness and management.
Post-disaster scenarios have incidences of gender-based violence that include rape, human
trafficking, and domestic abuse. Prostitution also increases in evacuation areas and temporary shelters; these
situations are brought about by disaster management planning that lacks gender equality in its framework.
Recommendations have been forwarded from various initiatives concerning disaster response and
mitigation, such as ensuring participation of women in consultations, gender-based information gathering,
further information dissemination to raise awareness on gender-sensitive planning, and programming for
disaster relief and response. Moreover, enhancing structures such as gender-balanced support networks and
coordination among institutions are being promoted.
Women in the Indigenous Communities
According to the United Nations Development Programme in

2013, 14 to 17 million indigenous peoples (IPs) in the Philippines
belong to 110 ethno-linguistic groups. They are concentrated in
Northern Luzon (339) and Mindanao (61%), with the remaining
percent found in other parts of Luzon and the Visayas. Historically, the
indigenous peoples have been subjected to discrimination and
marginalization in the course of political processes and economic
activities. They have little access to the government's provision of
services in education, health, and other necessities due to their
location or distance from the capital. The Cordillera Administrative
Region, Caraga Region, and Zamboanga Peninsula (Region IX) have a high concentration of IPs, but the
2008 national budget allocated only 1.22%, 1.38%, and 1.58% to these regions, respectively. In some cases,
they are frequently caught in armed conflicts between the government and insurgents.
Sex-disaggregated data in the indigenous communities are lacking. However, women in IP

communities are heavily affected by IP issues, as well as the other burdens caused by their gender. Similar to
the situation of women in the agriculture sector, women in the indigenous communities face issues regarding
land ownership." Government resettlement projects award land certificates and titles to men as heads of the
family, excluding women IPs.
In relation to the reproductive rights of women in indigenous communities, the Department of Health
discourages home births, dubbed as the "no home-birthing policy," which affects the traditional birthing
practice of most indigenous women. Although the policy intends to provide "proper" maternal and child care

29
for women, it poses problems as some health facilities such as clinics and hospitals are far from their
communities. Furthermore, in some cases, indigenous women deal with "discriminatory attitudes and
insensitivities” of mainstream health facilities." As mentioned earlier, child marriage is another pressing issue
in the indigenous communities.
Extractive industries such as mining operations are also mattering that greatly affect women in the
indigenous communities. Violence against indigenous women occurs when indigenous communities resist the
intrusion of mining companies. Displacement of communities and serious health concerns due to negative
environmental impacts such as water pollution arc brought about by large-scale mining operations. Women
IPs have to take care of their community members who are affected by pollution and are tasked to find other
sources of water.
While IP women's issues overlap with the issues of other marginalized sectors, it must be noted that
IP women face multiple oppressions. All IP groups face the fear of cultural erasure that may come with the
push for obligation. Displacement and the destruction of their homes are also a concern, alongside
environmental degradation and the militarization of their communities. However, the responsibility of keeping
culture and peace falls on women as keepers of the household.
Filipino Women in Other Sectors

Muslim Women/Women of Islam
Historically, the "Moros" or Muslims in the Philippines were said to come from at least two sultanates
in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan, during the pre-Hispanic era. They are now concentrated in the five provinces
composing the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). In the vast array of resources pertaining to
Muslims in the Philippines, information is limited with regard to disaggregated data on the population of
women in the Muslim communities. However, there are references on the practices of Muslim women and
narratives on some of the conditions they are facing in the current times.
Muslim women in the country are affected by armed conflict. They have become widows and survivors, and
consequently bear the burden of solely providing for their respective families. Armed conflicts in Mindanao are
reportedly concentrated in Muslim majority areas and are considered one of the world's longest-running
violent conflicts. Also, when communities are displaced due to such situation, women and children are the
majority among the internally displaced people. For example, in 2003, due to the war between the Armed
Forces of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, the Department of Social Welfare and
Development reported that the number of displaced persons reached around 90,000, 70% of which were
women and children.
The status of the world's women comes from NGO reports, specifically the UN reports. Multiple
overlaps can be observed, yet some issues are more pervasive in the Philippines. The aforementioned NGO
reports highlight the problems faced by women. It is important to make a collective effort towards gender
equality for all women from all sectors.

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Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 6
A. Explanation
Guide Questions
1. What areas of concern stand out from the rest? Why?
2. How does gender affect a woman's financial stability considering different aspects of their lives?
3. What do statistics on education say about women and literacy?
4. What could be the effect of women's insufficient access to health information and services?
5. Is the discrimination on women justified? Why or why not?
B. TASKS:
Choose a particular area or sector discussed above that most interests you (women workers, access of
women to basic services). Keep in mind that you will be working on your chosen area for the remainder
of the course. Gather basic data as well as the problems of the sector (a particular form of
discrimination propagated in that sector). You may use current events, history, and the like. Make sure
to gather facts from credible sources. Discuss why you believe women particularly suffer this form
of discrimination. Make an infographic that captures your ideas for this issue, then explain and
justify your chosen indicators.

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CHAPTER 7
Women, Development, and the World
Learning Outcomes
1. identify the ways women are excluded from the discourse of development: and
2. explain how women can and should be involved in the definition and realization of development.

Watch the latest Filipino television show or movie that features a poor woman. What are the woman's
dreams? Do you believe these dreams can fulfill her capacities as a woman? Discuss why she is poor
and what hinders her from attaining her creative potential.
Growth and Development
Issues of growth and development deeply affect how individual structures his or her life. Thus,
everyone needs understand key development issues the world is facing today, including global poverty and
ecological crisis. This chapter will tackle these development issues in relation to poor and vulnerable women
around the world. These problems can have genuine solutions if women's perspectives are allowed to shape
the shared economy.
Measurement of development is based on a simple scheme that determines the thinking of most
people who control the world's economy. Development is assessed in terms of the gross national product
(GNP) and the gross domestic product (GDP), which means that growth is measured according to how much
a country is able to produce, consume, and carn. GNP includes earnings from foreign investments while GDP
estimates the wealth produced from local investments and activities. GNP and GDP measure economic
activity based on how much people in a country are producing in terms of income-generating products and
services. These variables show the amount people are paying for certain services, and the amount of
consumable and non-consumable products they are buying. The higher the GDP and GNP, the greater the
economic activity. Presumably, more economic activity equates to greater earnings of the people in that
country, raising, their general well-being. A continuously growing GNP means a healthy economy because
more people are earning better incomes and are buying more products, thus, stimulating production. This
simple concept yields a very straightforward explanation of economic growth and defines a healthy economy.
However, the quest for constant growth is problematic for some reasons. First, the desire for constant
growth drains our natural resources. The more products or services are consumed, the more resources vital to
human survival are used up. Although most people accept this notion as a fact, it is something that must be
avoided. Humanity is now facing a severe water crisis, such that most of the world's people will not have
enough water for irrigation and bodily consumption by the middle of this century. The earth is also losing
thousands of species of flora and fauna annually. Forests are disappearing rapidly every year. The decline
and eventual end of the world's petroleum supply is also imminent. Scientists estimate that we have reached,
or will soon reach, "peak oil." Peak oil refers to a state in which all the easily accessible oil has been
consumed and that the only available petroleum supply come from sources that are very difficult to access.
The world has yet to feel the effects of this oil crisis, although difficult-to-access sources of oil and natural gas
have recently been discovered in the Balkan Peninsula and the US. However, with the world's current level of
consumption, peak oil is only being delayed.

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It is not hard to imagine the suffering people might face with lack of water. The very survival of
human beings, their livestock, and their crops will be threatened by crisis. Loss of species is a great threat to
human survival because genetic variety is the basis of the resilience of all living creatures. Extinction shrinks
the DNA variety which developed over millions of years, and may affect the chances of survival of the world's
creatures, including the plants and animals that human beings depend on for survival. A drastic decline in
petroleum supply will also be devastating. Oil is not only the main fuel in manufacturing and transportation, but
is also a major resource for agriculture since modern nitrogen fixers are now petroleum-based.
People must begin reflecting the causes of these destructions and depletions. What is causing the
severe shortage of water that will soon reach crisis proportions in the foreseeable future? One answer is
global warming. Because Earth is getting warmer, the wind patterns in the sea are changing directions such
that rain is not reaching its usual destinations. Thus, underground water tables fed by rainwater are drying up.
Because temperatures are climbing higher, mountain glaciers are also beginning to melt which implies water
scarcity in some areas dependent on mountain water. Moreover, pollution is threatening the water supply
systems, making water harmful for consumption and even toxic to the animals that live there.
What is causing the great warming and pollution that is threatening the world's water supply? The
answer is human production and consumption. Mass production is pushing current agricultural activities to use
too much water from the water supplies, and is inducing other industries to give off waste in the environment,
resulting in widespread pollution. The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change-a study group of the most
influential scientists who study the world's climate-reiterated in 2014 that global warming is caused by carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted by human modes of transportation and energy-intensive
production systems. In total, daily human activities generate large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions-from
driving between destinations, to eating food imported from other parts of the globe, to using air-conditioning or
heating systems for regulation of temperature. The human carbon footprint is very heavy on Earth. In the end,
high levels of production and consumption are the major reasons of mankind's dependence on oil and its
depletion.
Women and the Dominant Economic System
The pursuit for development is destructive to the world, threatening human existence and well-being.
It is unsustainable yet people insist on pursuing growth because it is assumed to be necessary for sustaining
economics and maintaining collective existence. This road toward development, however, is causing vast
ecological destruction and is not benefitting the majority of the world's people. In fact, it is keeping the majority
poor. Environmental destruction exposes most of the world's people to flooding and severe weather
conditions, causing loss of homes, food and water shortages, and diseases. Unfortunately, a greater
proportion of these vulnerable
people are poor women. These rather unfortunate effects of growth and development sadly affect
women negatively, in part due to their socialized gender roles. Global warming directly affects workers in the
agricultural sector who are mostly women. People in households responsible for providing water for their
families are also women.
Development continuously draws cheap labor to the cities where economic activity is high. However,
women participating in cheap labor have to take on the additional burden of child-rearing. Women who work in
factories are also prone to risky jobs in exchange of lower pay than men. Being the primary health providers in
their families and communities, women too suffer from the negative health effects of global warming,
industrialization, and the squalor of expanding urbanization--all of which are the direct effects of the pursuit of
growth.
The dominant system toward development needs to be re-examined because of its potential for harm.
However, no opportunities for re-examination are available at present. All people are convinced that the
existing system is beneficial and that it is the only route worth realizing because people's values are
determined by this system. Somehow, all people are recruited in making sure production and consumption are
preserved at levels that sustain the existing system of wealth accumulation. Unfortunately, the world's
governments and economic elites are maintaining this system to serve a small minority. It can be said that
economic development is threatening humanity's well-being and perhaps even its survival.
The existing development models are clearly very Western. They were developed from a history of
wealth accumulation that required the colonization of non-European peoples and lands. Although people will
argue that the development and great wealth accumulation of the West is rooted in their creativity and
inventiveness, it is clear that they would not have grown their economies to their present proportions without
having extracted resources from their colonies. A large factor for the development of European economies
was the use of slave labor from Africa, the acquisition by force of land from various peoples such as the native
Americans for cotton production and the Philippines for sugar, the extraction of resources like gold and spices
in ways that destroyed native habitats and cultures, and the imposition of products that destroyed local
economies like how they imposed cheap textiles in India and mass-produced livestock that compete with the
backyard livestock farmers of the world.
Western countries used the resources of their colonies to accumulate the capital that allowed them to
develop their industries and support their standard of living. Thus, even if the former colonies, which are
known as the developing nations of the Global South are disadvantaged by the existing system, they have no
choice but to further and implement this system because the so-called developed nations insist that the world
supports their affluence. Even if backyard farmers suffer from competition with giant food corporations that
produce cheaper meat using energy-hungry, carbon-intensive, and polluting systems, national governments

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still support the entry of global, multinational corporations into their territories. Some powerful corporations
even control how nations use land, resources, and labor. These shared resources of nations are employed for
wealth creation through processes that are determined by multinational corporations. Whether one agrees or
opposes liberal trade and the market economy, the fact is that developed nations are what they are because
they historically exploited the colonies they conquered.
Although it is debatable to what degree these corporations control economies and how much harm
they can do, this system is still based on conquest and exploitation. Without conquest and exploitation, there
would have been no massive and phenomenal wealth accumulation. Even if one claims that Western
development is due to their technological inventiveness, the product of this inventiveness, however, required
some form of violence against nature and their colonized peoples. Women have particularly suffered this
violence. When industrialization began to peak and cheap labor was needed to address the growing demands
for workers, women were made to fill the gap. 10s Women are traditionally paid lower salaries than men. In
the developing world, sweatshops employ women to produce high-end fashion products for less costs.
Women are also expected to produce and raise the future manpower for industries, often having to take on the
double burden of child-rearing and income generation because economic development demands that their
husbands be paid insufficient wages.
Gender and Development
Women who choose to participate in the dominant system are made to accept its values. From the
perspective of the dominant system, these values are supposed to result in a better life, although these same
values compel women to decide between success in the economic system and the cultivation of family and
community life. It has been the situation because the dominant system, which remains unchallenged, is mainly
defined by Western male values that do not hold high regard for alternative values. Well-being based on
consumption, income growth, and the push for more wealth is never questioned, while well-being founded on
relationships, community, and fulfillment is set aside.
An individual is expected to earn a living and almost everyone will end up working in institutions that
operate on profit and growth. One has to be involved in some form of livelihood where the accumulation of
personal wealth is a primary value, continuous growth and improvement are a matter of well-being, and one's
worth is based on what one is able to consume and own. These values have implications for the way a person
lives his or her life. An individual is obliged to acquire a certain level of income to feel his or her value and
worth in a community, and to keep up with accumulation, growth, and consumption at levels that can support
his or her society.
What kind of economic activities docs one has to engage to afford overpriced coffees, dinners in the
latest artisanal restaurants, and expensive gadgets? What does a person have to do to afford designer clothes
and bags and be able to travel to exotic locations? One has to participate in economic activities that allows for
considerable income generation. For instance, he or she may need to become a successful entrepreneur to
afford these expenses.
If you are to become a successful entrepreneur, you must be driven to find new ways to increase
production and sales, to source the cheapest supplies, to ensure market visibility, and to constantly keep an
eye for "the next big thing to sell. You must be able to keep inputs low and sell products high. In a very
competitive market. You may be forced to source from exploited producers who pay workers or suppliers
amounts that cannot even provide the latter access to decent health care. Successful entrepreneurship may
entail employing poor women who will have to work for long hours in unfavorable conditions in order to cut
expenses and increase profit. It may mean frequent commutes and long hours of work for the employee,
which translates into less time with his or her children as you are busy building wealth and income through
continuous growth and development. Such a life takes away time from the family and community, and pushes
one to adopt values of individualism and aggressiveness that do not encourage or allow for deep
relationships.
These observations may be thought of as sexist, and even detrimental to women because these
beliefs tend to place women in a position of subordination in dominant economic systems. The and very
reason why women are relegated to roles such as teaching health care is because they are perceived to be
more caring. Women are also thought of as not capable of thriving on competition or being in managerial
positions. Cultural circumstances and historical gender assignment of roles have enforced internal and
external controls that make women genuinely develop certain values. These values revolve around the
building of community and solidarity, the preservation of relationships, and the care of people. Women are
said to value dialogue and accommodation because of the recognition of the pluralism in society, and they
tend to see personhood as "relational" rather than "autonomous" or "individualistic." Feminist scholars have
noted that patriarchal values, or values associated with the subordination of women, have influenced the
present economic system to be built on aggression. This economic system has taken the form of war,
colonization, land-grabbing, strip mining, deforestation, and intensive farming. Many of these activities use
slave labor, and the dispossession of most of the peoples of the world of their ancestral lands and access to
livelihood, only in order for a few families to accumulate wealth. Modern Western economies are built on these
acts of violence and the values of individualism, conquest, and contests which inspire and fuel them.
Agriculture and the Values of Development
Examine the development of agriculture to see how patriarchal values define what a big business is.
In today's world, food is controlled by a few large corporations that value profit over ecology. These
corporations produce a variety of food from freshly packed meat and canned goods to fast foods and snacks.
These companies supply the world with meats and cereals that are mass-produced. In order to mass produce

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they need farmers who will grow large amounts of chicken, pigs, and cows in pens. These livestock will all
come from a particular genetic stock and will be kept alive with feeds that are filled with vitamins and
antibiotics. The same is true for the wheat, rice, and corn they produce which are used for many human
needs. These plants are all developed from one kind of stock that can only survive or be made fruitful if
supplied with artificial fertilizers and pesticides. Also, the seeds of these plants cannot be replanted because
they are designed in such a way that they cannot be fertilized.
Big companies’ plant in large farms where their crops will be grown by the ton. For instance, if they
need corn, they will grow all the corn using massive machinery that pumps large amounts of chemicals. This
breed of corn can only grow with specific fertilizers and pesticides designed for it. If one owns a medium-sized
or small farm, most of the seeds available for commercial planting are also designed for mass production and
demand the input of specific fertilizers and pesticides. Why is this advantageous for big companies? First, they
get a supply of corn in the size and shape that they can process to cereal in large volumes efficiently. Second,
producing this way provides a cheap supply of corn because it can be farmed in mass. Third, this practice
allows big companies to earn more because they are the main buyers of this type of corn and thus, they can
dictate the buying price to the farmers: Finally, this system of factory farming allows other multinational
corporations to earn more money by producing and selling the inputs that are required by the seeds. They end
up having a monopoly of the inputs and also dictate the price to the farmers.
What is the problem with this form of production? One major problem is that it pollutes water systems
and destroys the soil. When the fertilizer seeps into the waterways, it kills the life or encourages the growth of
alien organisms, thus negatively affecting the native aquatic life. Small farmers do not actually earn enough
from this system because they have to keep buying expensive seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides from
multinational corporations, Farmers hardly break even because, in many instances, they have to borrow
money for these inputs from traders who charge high interest rates. Lastly, this system promotes monoculture
which means that many species of plant life will eventually get wiped out because they are no longer
cultivated by farmers or their habitats are being destroyed to plant the commercial corn for cereals
This great reduction in biodiversity has a destructive effect on the sustainability of life as we know it.
The lack of diversity leads to the depletion of DNA stock that may influence the resilience of the surviving
species. It is imperative to maintain the diversity of species especially in the face of the adverse effects of
climate change.
Fast Facts
FAO
 Some 75% of plant genetic diversity has been lost since the 1900s as farmers worldwide have
left their multiple local varieties and
"landraces" for genetically uniform, high-yielding varieties.
 Around 30% of livestock breeds are at the risk of extinction: six breeds are lost cach month.
 Today, 75% of the world's food is generated from just 12 plants and five animal species.
 Of the 4% of the 250,000-300.000 known plant species that are edible, only 150-200 are used
by humans and only three- rice, maize, and wheat-contribute to nearly 60% of calories and
proteins obtained by humans from plants.
 Animals provide some 30% of human requirements for food and agriculture, and 12% of the
population live almost entirely on products from ruminants.
How Women Feed the World
Women are known keepers of biodiversity throughout the world. In small farms in Africa and many
parts of Asia, women cultivate small backyard farms, thus preserving hundreds of species. Around 18 to 120
species are farmed in small gardens that are separate from cash crop hectarage. As much as 230 plant
species in Thai home gardens and some 150 plant species in Indian backyard farms are used for food, fodder,
or medicines. Mexican peasants use nearly 435 flora and fauna species for various purposes. 19 The
preservation of plant species in these countries is directly tied to how the locals utilize their understanding of
which species are suited to a given environment without resorting to planting methods that impose the use of
artificial chemicals and processes. Thus, small agricultural farms are hundreds of times more productive than
industrial farms based on conventional farming." Women plant more nutritious food than those produced by
multinational corporations. Food produced through women's ways of knowing that is rooted in traditional
methods is healthier because the food is not processed, hence, offering a variety of natural sources of
vitamins and minerals.
Multinational companies are aggressively pushing for monocultures in the quest for wealth
accumulation. This aggressive push is founded on patriarchal values. Vandana Shiva, an ecofeminist and
environmental activist, makes this observation:
"Agriculture based on diversity, decentralization, and improving small farm productivity through ecological
methods is a women-centered, nature-friendly agriculture. In this agriculture, knowledge is shared-other
species and plants are kin, not property and sustainability are based on the renewal of the earth's fertility and
the renewal and regeneration of biodiversity and species richness on farms. There is no place for
monocultures of genetically engineered crops or IPR monopolies on seeds. Monocultures and monopolies
symbolize patriarchal agriculture.
She adds:

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"The violence intrinsic to the destruction of diversity through monocultures, and the destruction of the freedom
to save and exchange seeds through IPR monopolies, is inconsistent with women's diverse, non-violent ways
of knowing nature and providing food security.
The observation illustrates how the world and its development-is built on violent traits that are
essentially masculine and patriarchal. It also shows how women's ways can cultivate sustainable human
existence and may hold clues to how humans can develop the world without violence and self-destruction.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations claims that women-cultivated small
farms feed more people and provide better nutrition than large monoculture farms. The report explains exactly
what women do and how they do it. Below is an excerpt from the report.
"Women produce more than half of all grown food produced globally. Women produce more than half of all the
food that is grown. In sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean. they produce up to 80 percent of basic
foodstuffs. In Asia, they provide from 50 to 90 percent of the labor for rice cultivation. And in Southeast Asia
and the Pacific as well as Latin America, women's home gardens represent some of the most complex
agricultural systems known.
Women in the rural areas are almost exclusively responsible for the nutrition of their children, from
gestation through weaning and throughout the critical period of growth In addition, they are the principal food
producers and preparers for the rest of the family. In general, most of this food comes from home gardens or
from family and community plots. But it has been found that women also spend a significant part of their
household income-a much larger part proportionately than men-on buying additional food for the family.
Food preparation involves work far beyond caring for crops and livestock. Women must gather the wood for
fires and carry the water they need for cooking and processing food. In many regions of the world, women
spend up to five hours per day collecting fuel wood and water and up to four hours preparing food. In addition,
rural women provide most of the labor for farming, from soil preparation to harvest. After the harvest, they are
almost entirely responsible for operations such as storage, handling. stocking, marketing, and processing
As more and more men migrate from rural areas in search of work, women bear a heavier burden. In
some regions of Africa, 60 percent of households are now headed by women. The expanded workload can
prompt women to cultivate less labor-intensive-though less nutritious crops and to use agricultural practices
that may harm the environment
Women also play a crucial role as custodians of genetic diversity and related knowledge on varieties
and their uses, be it for food, medicine, or cultural or other applications. From generation to generation, they
pass on this vital knowledge to their daughters."
Although focused on food security, these insights show how women are vital to human growth. While this
growth does not necessarily involve economic growth, rural women can sustain life better than big businesses.
Despite the important contribution of women in food production, they are not supported as producers
and feeders of the world. They neither have access to land nor are given rights for land use. Few programs
are available to support their work in cultivation because government and private investments are focused on
commercial farming in the belief that the latter can feed the world better and create greater wealth. The world
market is also primarily focused on sustaining the activities of commercial producers who have confined
human diet to a few species of livestock and vegetables. The moneyed consumers would rather buy food
produced by large corporations because it is cheaper and is deceptively more attractive due to artificial
flavors, fats, salt, and sugar. This cheaply produced food does not contribute to good health, in fact, it
marginalizes poor farmers. In sum, these dominant economic practices could bring about the demise of the
practices of women who care for the earth and who favor alternative practices.
Women in Relation to Development
This chapter is written not only to expose the present flaws of patriarchal values on liberal capitalism,
but also to initiate critical thinking about development and to reflect on the vital role of women, especially poor
peasant women, on humanization. Because development is still based on aggressive masculine values,
women themselves must act together in enriching, or correcting, this narrow view of development. Thus, there
is a need to articulate a potential framework for the participation and engagement of women as agents of
development.
Many non-governmental and multi-lateral agencies like the UN and the World Bank understand that
women empowerment and capacity building are key to realizing self-development and achieving the well-
being of women. However, these goals are hampered by social and economic systems, hence the many
efforts of these agencies to transform these obstructive systems. A crucial area is the exclusion of women in
decision-making and governance structures and many agencies have worked at overcoming hindrances
against the participation of women in these processes. However, this approach implies a tendency that
women need some form of intervention from an influential agency to effect change. What this approach
misses out is the need for women to realize change according to their own agency. Often, when an institution
like the World Bank institutes change, it creates reform according to its own agenda-which inevitably promotes
the dominant economic system. Thus, empowerment of women is only encouraged within a system that is
determined by dominant agencies and only according to certain conditions. Women are not still the primary
agents who would determine the shape of the economic order they will follow. In addition, the system in which
they are empowered to serve do not serve their interests. The Women, Culture, and Development (WCD)
approach to development is a new model for empowering women. This approach advances women liberation
by realizing the capacity of women to become agents of change.

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The WCD approach builds the possibilities of women as agents of change in a holistic perspective
that is based on women's culture, system of values and understanding, as well as economic structures and
social systems. WCD partners are tasked with encouraging women to take on this role. To see the potential of
women shaped by this perspective allows a WCD practitioner to appreciate the multifaceted forces hindering a
woman's development and emancipation. As practitioners of development, they will have to work with women
toward their emancipation, study women's situations, and understand their concrete possibilities and their
desires regarding emancipation. This would mean engaging in holistic studies and women's initiatives around
the world, and discovering what women are doing to emancipate themselves.
The most important purpose of WCD is to support women's initiatives that liberate themselves without
imposing ideas. In India, WCD partners have formed cooperatives for women vendors to increase the latter's
economic advantage and to protect them against exploitative men. Women of the Amazon have organized
themselves together with other rubber tree tappers to resist rubber tree destruction. Women in several
communities in Africa have also gathered together to resist genital mutilation. These examples are only a few
of the many instances mentioned in the book Feminist Futures about initiatives undertaken toward women's
liberation. The book highlights the importance of women-initiated projects rooted in their real situation and the
actions women undertake for emancipation. WCD advocates believe that women as active agents should and
can be emancipated only if they emancipate themselves, with the supporting development agencies
respecting their process toward this liberation. Therefore, women's development must be rooted in the
transformation of the totality of societal/cultural and economic realities that shape and limit a woman's agency.
They should be agents of their own development according to their understanding of human growth.
Women today are said to have acquired economic power. They are now able to shape policies in corporations
as executives (although rarely as CEOs) and as consumers who have buying power. This progress means
that women can be influential in determining what gets manufactured, how employees are treated, and what
safety standards should be adopted. However, women still has to conform to the underlying patriarchal values
of endless growth and wealth accumulation, and the prioritization of societal and abstract relations over the
building of communities and families. This system to which women must conform is called a paternalistic
system.
Pro-Women Perspectives on Development
Pro-economic development may be detrimental to everyone but it has a more negative impact on women.
According to Shiva, an economic system that is geared toward growth and accumulation is anti-women and
anti-environment. She has a point. The way humans realize this accumulation is through a system of growth
that understands development as the transformation of nature through manpower and technological
intervention.
From the perspective of Western development, raw nature is a wasted resource that ought to be
transformed into a tradable commodity or things that can then be transformed into instruments of wealth
accumulation in the market. Thus, a forest is underdeveloped unless it can be harvested for wood and
converted into agricultural land for cash crop production or into real estate. Bodies of water are a waste unless
they can be utilized for irrigation, hydroelectric power, or bottled water. However, the more transformation
goes into production, the more expensive a commodity can be sold and the more money can be made from it.
In sum, the economic systems intervene and harvest nature so that it can be turned into commodities using
energy-hungry multistep processes. This cycle of intervention, transformation, and processing for
accumulation and consumption form what may be called destructive development
Western people intervened in nature and traditional cultures using violent means of processing and
appropriation. They took away from nature its capacity to renew itself and sustain life, and from women their
ability to create non-destructive engagements with nature centered on preserving life. Women and traditional
communities were denied access to their most fundamental source of life and livelihood. Using intrusive and
destructive means, forests were cleared; wildlife was depleted: soil was made barren; and water was polluted
and drained. Thus, nature could not renew itself according to its natural cycles. Women had to work harder to
obtain water from displaced waterways, plant crops in less productive soil, and lose access to fish and other
accessible sources of protein because their natural supplies have been removed or depleted as a result of the
modernization of economy. Development as we know it, destroys the resource base of women's creativity and
productivity and nature's sustainability
The reason for this deprivation and destruction is the insistence on man's domination over nature. Shiva
describes:
"Activity, productivity, creativity which were associated with the feminine principle are expropriated as qualities
of nature and women and transformed into the exclusive qualities of man. Nature and women are turned into
passive objects, to be used and exploited for the uncontrolled and uncontrollable desires of alienated man.
From being the creators and sustainers of life, nature and women are reduced to being resources in the
fragmented, anti-life model of maldevelopment."
Subsistence economies are assumed to be underdeveloped because they do not participate

overwhelmingly in the market economy, and do not consume commodities produced for and distributed
through the market even though they might be satisfying those needs through self-provisioning mechanisms
Nonetheless, many subsistence economies can provide a good quality of life. Shiva rightly observes
that, "On the contrary, millets are nutritionally far superior to processed foods, houses built with local materials
are far superior, being better adapted to the local climate and ecology, natural fibers are preferable to man-
made fibers in most cases, and certainly more affordable."1" Western societies undermine these economies
because they wish to promote and press their own version of a good human life. The imposition of their ways

37
of living, however, "destroys wholesome and sustainable lifestyles and creates real material poverty, or
misery, by the denial of survival needs themselves, through the diversion of resources to resource-intensive
commodity production. Cash crop production and food processing take land and water resources away from
sustenance needs, and exclude increasingly large numbers of people from their entitlements to food."120
Clearly, modern development does not exactly lead to greater well-being. Hence, much of human subsistence
and even flourishing is endangered by the reduction of nature to the market. There is a genuine need to re-
examine what most understand as development. This task is particularly important for women to realize
because it is now imperative to recover the feminine principle as the basis for development which conserves
and is ecological."121 Women in traditional societies still understand how to provide for living since they have
not fallen into the destructive traps of development. Their voice needs to be cultivated and allowed to influence
and transform the dominant model. The discussion above does not necessarily claim that the current
development model is by nature patriarchal. It, however, asserts that the existing values of aggressive
consumption and accumulation. Neither does it claim that, women are by nature more prone to have a
sustainable relationship to the source of life. The values that allow for sustainability care, solidarity, and
cooperation with nature and the community, cooperation, relationship building, and preservation of life-are nor
exclusively female. However, women, especially from traditional societies, are socialized to promote these
values. The question now is how poor, marginalized women can be given a genuine voice in the society.
Women who reside in the rural and more traditional world are oriented toward the care of the
environment, the community, and the family. Because the dominant male-centric economic rationality is so
pervasive, these women need to preserve their way of life against this aggressive, destructive system. As
noted above, women are responsible for the care of their families while men are recruited for cheap labor
under the Westernized world. Women preserve their natural environments, keep their traditional wisdom,
preserve sustainable practices, and even take responsibility for the natural world's reproductive health.
Despite all these tasks, their labor is not valued. In fact, they are looked down as underdeveloped and are
seen as dependent on the dominant system for assistance in realizing genuine human flourishing
No matter how much improvement happens on this Western system to fight poverty, a significant
population of the Earth will still remain poor. It is because the kind of wealth accumulation demanded by
Western development requires that the majority of the people work for less so that a few can accumulate
more. This view is now an accepted fact but it has no trickle-down effect. This reality for women is summed up
well in following paragraph.
"The UN Decade for Women was based on the assumption that the improvement of women's
economic position would automatically flow from an expansion and diffusion of the development process. Yet,
by the end of the decade. It was becoming clear that development itself was the problem. Insufficient and
inadequate 'participation' in 'development' was not the cause for women's increasing under-development; it
was rather their enforced but asymmetric participation in it. by which they bore the costs but were excluded
from the benefits, that was responsible. Development exclusivity and dispossession aggravated and
deepened the colonial processes of ecological degradation and the loss of political control over nature's
sustenance base, Economic growth was a new colonialism, draining resources away from those who needed
them most. The discontinuity lay in the fact that it was now the new national elites, not colonial powers, that
masterminded the exploitation on grounds of 'national interest' and growing GNPs, and it was accomplished
with more powerful technologies of appropriation and destruction. 1122
Clearly, women need to participate in development that is more than just an expansion of the existing
economic system. Development should not simply mean the Westernization of the world. Women of different
cultures must come together and demand that their voices be heard. It is important for both men and women,
Westernized or not, that women be given the chance to participate in re-imagining a possible economic
system that defines prosperity and well-being. Since women have valuable knowledge about ecological
preservation, solidarity-building, and shared prosperity, they can enlighten the dominant system about how to
build a more sustainable and humane economic order amidst threats of global warming and poverty.

38
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 7
A. Explanation
1. The dominant system for growth and development is said to be patriarchal in nature. Why?
2. How are women displaced from dialogues about development? Cite some examples
discussed in the text.
3. Differentiate the perceived gender roles of women from men. How can these roles
influence the existing models of development?
4. Distinguish the pro-women perspective from the Western view of growth and development.
5. How can women advocates realize the inclusion of pro-women perspective in the present
economic system?
B. Tasks:

39
Watch the film Food Inc. or Story of Stuff. Then, reflect on it using the concepts discussed
in this chapter. In addition, take the opportunity to ponder on the economic system that
governs us.
CHAPTER 8
Gender Interests and Needs
Learning Outcomes
1. identify the difference between gender interests and needs:
2. give examples of gender needs and explain how policy can be made responsive to these needs and
3. discover his or her own strategic and practical gender needs.

Think about your needs as a person. Make a list of these basic needs and find out how society
responds to them. Do women have particular needs in which the Philippines society must be
supportive of?
Gender Interests and Needs in Development
The previous chapter pointed out the need to restructure the current model of development and world
economics to become more sustainable and friendly. Empowerment of women, especially the poor and
marginalized, is crucial to sustainable human development. Similarly, importance must also be given to care-
oriented-or socialized feminine-values. The challenge now lies in the structures of development programs.
However, varying policies and programs are often imposed on women in the discourse of formal economic
systems. Women's roles are still shaped by development agencies that somehow do not understand the
context or rationale of the women from the grassroots.
Caroline Moser in her landmark book, Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and
Training, discussed feminist theories in relation to trends in gender and development and gender planning. In
this work, women's needs are categorized into two to help development planners efficiently identify programs
that would best benefit low-income women in developing nations. These needs are concerned with gender
roles, empowerment, and women's access to resources and decision-making both in the public and private
sphere. Moser focused on women's liberation and empowerment in relation to practical and strategic gender
needs, particularly the need of grassroots women.
Development plans and policies often view women as one homogenous group. This view, however,
assumes that the needs of women are all the same. Imagine a white, Catholic housewife in New York. Are her
needs similar to that of a Muslim housewife in Saudi Arabia? The roles may be the same for both but the
context is completely different. Consider another case. Does a housewife in a developed urban city have the
same needs as a female farmer in an isolated rural village? People involved in planning for gender programs
in the 1980s thought these needs are the same. However, previous chapters discussed that socialized roles in
each gender differ in each context. For instance, a woman's role as a farmer in Ghana is totally different from

40
a woman's role in the Philippines. Their freedoms and the laws protecting them are different as well. Hence, it
is important to determine a woman's gender interests versus her gender needs in the context of her culture
and religious identity.
Gender Interests
Gender interests are assumed by many to be the same for all those belonging to the same sex. This
notion also applies to the gender interests of women: their gender interests are presumed to be one and the
same because they share similar biological characteristics. However, this view discounts women's socialized
gender roles. Maxine Molyneux, a feminist often quoted for her ideas on gender interests in different social
movements, defines gender interests as interests that are developed by men or women by virtue of their social
positioning through gender attributes.":24 Molyneux also suggests the use of the phrase "gender interests"
over "women's interests" because the latter has the tendency to focus on the generic notion of women based
on their biological similarities.
Planners translate gender interests into identifiable and concrete gender needs. Gender interests are
considered prioritized gender concerns while gender needs are "means by which their concerns may be
satisfied."125 Gender interests are further differentiated into cither practical or strategic depending on how
these gender interests are addressed.
Gender Needs
Practical Gender Needs
While gender interests are important in gender analysis, these interests should be translated into
needs in gender planning. Similar to gender interests, gender needs are of two types: practical and strategic.
Practical gender needs, in terms of planning, are not necessarily feminist in content. Practical gender needs
are concerned with women's immediate needs for survival-nutrition, living conditions, health care, and
employment. These needs are formulated from women's lived experiences, are immediately perceived
necessities, and are identified by women themselves in their specific context. They are based on the existing
gender division of labor: the needs of women as mothers and wives according to their socially constructed
roles in their society.
Women's practical gender needs often involve their roles in the households as primary agents in the
reproductive sphere. These roles may include child care, food provision, housework, and often augmented
income for the household. Much of the practical gender needs that development planners target involve these
domestic roles. Policies and programs can reinforce these socialized gender roles of women. For instance,
aiming at women for policies on vaccination or nutrition reinforces the status of women as caregivers."
However, it may burden women assuming two roles: as caregivers and corners. It also excludes men from the
care work for their families.
The statement that practical gender needs, such as access to water, child care, and nutrition, are
women's needs obscures the true women-specific needs many women face. Access to water and proper
nutrition are universal needs. However, masking these needs under the guise of "women's needs" may
distract women from their true need: gender equality.
According to Moser, unequal gender division of labor and the structures that support unequal gender
relations are not sufficiently challenged by merely addressing practical gender needs. Dealing with practical
gender needs alone will not transform social structures and processes. Meanwhile, strategic gender needs are
women identify because of their subordinate position to men in their society. "I These needs are different from
women's practical gender needs because they go beyond acceptance of the existing gender division of labor,
focusing more on the attainment of gender equality and women's empowerment. Strategic gender interests
confront issues that are at the heart of the feminist movement: gender inequality, gender justice, and women's
empowerment. Addressing these interests may bring about structural change and empowerment
Strategic Gender Needs
Strategic gender needs are those that stem from a woman's strategic gender interest due to her
socialized gender role as a woman: one who has a subordinate position in the society. These are needs that
are rooted in gender inequality-- lack of political representation, the unfair gender division of labor, violence
against women, and the non-observance of equal pay. If a woman's gender interest is that of gender equality,
and the issue tackled concerns domestic violence, then the gender need involves the creation of laws that
could protect women from domestic violence.
Activity:
Determining your Gender Needs

Reflect on your own life experience. What are your current needs for survival? List down five to ten of these
needs. Now think of the needs you have based on the gender identity you have chosen, and the gender roles
that society has placed on you. List down five to ten of these needs.
Speak to a woman from a marginalized sector. Ask her needs based on gender. Then ask her what
she thinks she needs to survive daily. List down her needs for survival and categorize them into either
practical or strategic gender needs.
Go back to the needs you listed for yourself. Do they fall under strategic or practical gender needs?
How different are the needs of the person you interviewed from your own needs? What factors may have
influenced this difference? Next, compare the strategic gender interests of the woman above from yours. How

41
different or similar are these interests from one another? Remember, your lived experience such as your
culture, where you grew up, and your religion are factors that can shape your practical and strategic gender
needs.
Table 3. Examples illustrating Practical/Strategic Gender Interest or Need
Gender interest Gender Need
Practical Gender equality in planning terms elimination of gender

division in labor
Strategic Human survival provision of food,

water. and employment
Strategic gender needs relate to "gender division of labor power and control" and "may include such issues as
legal rights domestic violence, equal wages and women's control over their bodies. Addressing strategic
gender needs involves an analysis of gender subordination. The structures and relationships that allow this
subordination to take place must also be challenged. By identifying strategic gender needs along with practical
gender needs, policymakers can contribute to the attainment of strategic gender interests such as gender
equality, empowerment, and equity. With this knowledge, gender policies and plans can be formulated, and
the tools and techniques for implementing them can be identified.
Challenges for the Fulfillment of Gender Needs in the Philippines
The Philippines enacts gender mainstreaming or the strategy for the inclusion of a gender perspective
in all policies and programs. However, Philippine gender literature only assumes two genders (male and
female), and that one's sex is the same as one's gender (biologically male persons are all masculine:
biologically female persons are all feminine). This thinking, ignores the existence of LGBT persons, or persons
who do not fall categorically into masculine or feminine roles. Another concern is that gender needs ate
equated to women-specific, practical, and strategic gender needs. Confusion also arises because "gender"
and "women" are not defined in primary gender mainstreaming texts such as the Magna Carta of Women.
This assumed homogeneity also disregards LGBT persons gender needs.
Gender mainstreaming policies group women into one homogeneous category, while vaguely defining who
women are. While women do have some similar needs based on their biology, nuances are present in the
needs of women as influenced by their religion, class, race, nationality, and age. While there are specific laws
and provisions for Muslim women, indigenous women, women with disabilities, and women from other
disadvantaged groups in the Philippines, those enacting policies and laws often assume these women are the
same and experience similar factors that influence their access to resources, and which issues constitute
needs. This lack of clarity in addressing women's needs based on their roles, biology, culture, and subordinate
positions shows how gender needs may become confused.
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 8
A. Activity/TASKS:
Determining your Gender Needs

Reflect on your own life experience. What are your current needs for survival? List down five to ten of these
needs. Now think of the needs you have based on the gender identity you have chosen, and the gender roles
that society has placed on you. List down five to ten of these needs.
Speak to a woman from a marginalized sector. Ask her needs based on gender. Then ask her what
she thinks she needs to survive daily. List down her needs for survival and categorize them into either
practical or strategic gender needs.
Go back to the needs you listed for yourself. Do they fall under strategic or practical gender needs?
How different are the needs of the person you interviewed from your own needs? What factors may have
influenced this difference? Next, compare the strategic gender interests of the woman above from yours. How
different or similar are these interests from one another? Remember, your lived experience such as your
culture, where you grew up, and your religion are factors that can shape your practical and strategic gender
needs.

42
B. Explanation
Guide Questions
1. Differentiate gender interests from gender needs. How are they related to one another? Give two
examples for each.
2. Why is it necessary to distinguish "gender interests" from "women's interests"?
3. Identify the two categories of gender interests according to Moser. What are the focal themes in
each category of gender interest?
4. What is gender mainstreaming? What factors hinder true gender inclusion in the Philippines?
5. How can policymakers contribute to the achievement of gender equality and women empowerment?
C. Discussion
Activity
Make a list of at least seven practical and seven strategic gender needs of women in a sector assigned
to you. Discuss what you find the most interesting.
CHAPTER 9
Laws, Policies, and Programs for Philippine Women
Learning Outcomes
1. name Philippine laws that protect and empower women;
2. explain the importance of policies that protect and empower women; and
3. state the aims of these policies for women and for the society as a whole.

Divide yourselves into groups of five members each. Look for news articles or current events that show
how women are regarded or treated by powerful people in the country. Discuss with your group what
you notice. Do you think these actions empower women?
Human Rights Approach
The way the world is structured places certain groups at a disadvantage. These groups have particular rights
that are specific to their needs, which include sexual and reproductive health care, protection against gender-
based violence, and the right to non-discrimination in education and the workplace. The respect for and
promotion of these rights are necessary because they help expand women's access to resources and their
roles in communities, for instance. Thus, the human rights approach to women's development is essential
since it can serve as a means to increasing awareness about women: their plight and particular needs. If
these human rights-based development initiatives are ratified and accepted by states, they can be an effective
instrument for enforcing the promotion and protection of women's rights. It is the reason why most women
advance gender equality using the rights-based approach. When organizations expose violations of rights and
ask their governments to rectify the situation, they often refer to internationally recognized and guaranteed
rights. Laws have been passed responding to these demands for the protections of women's rights. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) of 1979. the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA) of 1994, the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2000, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of 2015 are
among the many advocating gender equality and human development.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a common standard of achievements for all peoples
and all nations." Its underlying premise is to provide all people the same basic human rights, regardless of sex

43
or gender. These rights are fundamental human entitlements of a person, first, because his or her existence
as a person has intrinsic value, and second, because certain entitlements are necessary for one to realize his
or her humanity. Without these rights entitlements on individuals, human growth is almost impossible.
Therefore, in the rights-based approach, human rights must be protected and promoted. All humans have the
right to life, the right to a nationality, the right to education, the right to a livelihood, etc. These rights ratified by
an overwhelming majority of the members of the United Nations are fundamental to the realization of a
genuine human existence. They are universal and necessary to all human beings. However, women have
particular rights due to their particularities or specificities.
International Treaties for Women's Protection
International instruments provide a context for gender mainstreaming initiatives in the Philippines and
serve as a basis for the assessment of these initiatives. Because the Philippines is a signatory to these
instruments, it must create programs or laws to operationalize them. The Beijing Platform for Action, the
MDGs, and the CEDAW all advocate gender equality in the national and international spheres.
These instruments were identified by the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW), the government
agency that promotes gender equality and women's empowerment.
The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women
The CEDAW) (also known as the International Bill of Rights
of Women) is the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women and targets culture
and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations,
Timeline of Notable Policies and Laws for Women
1975-1985 The United Nations Decade of Women. This period gave attention to women's issues in the global
perspective. While the initial focus of this decade was on domestic violence, other various forms of violence
against women were later added such as domestic violence. trafficking and sexual exploitation and women in
detention and in armed conflict
1979 The CEDAW was adopted
1985 General Assembly Resolution on Domestic Violence was adopted
1989 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) was adopted. CRC is concerned with the protection of
the dignity of children. It contains specific notes against abuse and violence, including domestic abuse and
child trafficking
1994 The International Conference on Population and Development was initiated upon recognition of the
relationships between violence against women and reproductive health and rights, from the health
consequences of domestic violence and harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, to women's
increased risk of HIV and AIDS as a result of violence. Its Program of Action called upon governments to take
legal and policy measures against violence of women and girls
.
1995 The Beijing Platform for Action identified specific areas of action for governments to take the prevention
and to violence response to against women and and girls The issue of violence against women is featured as
a chapter, and is one of the 12 areas for priority action with an expansive definition of forms of violence
1999 November 25th was designated the United Nations International Day for the Elimination of Violence
against Women (which also marked the United Nations formally joining the "16 Days of Activism against
Gender Violence" proclaimed and commemorated by the international women's movement since 1991)
2008 The United Nations Secretary General launched an unprecedented global campaign UNITE to End
Violence Against Women calling on governments, civil society, women's organizations young people, the
private sector, the media, and the entire UN system to (1) adopt and enforce national laws that address and
punish all forms of violence against women and girls: (2) adopt and implement multi-sectoral national action
plans, (3) strengthen data collection on the prevalence of violence against women and girls; (4) increase
public awareness and social mobilization, and (5) address sexual violence in conflict by 2015
2013 Member-states adopted the agreed conclusions during the 57th Commission on the Status of Women on
the prevention and elimination of all forms of violence against women
Created by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, it
seeks to identify the different places where women may experience discrimination, and suggests policy
strategies to overcome this problem. The CEDAW define discrimination as "any distinction, exclusion or
restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition,
enjoyment, or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and
women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil, or any
other field.

44
Any state or country that adopts the CEDAW must commit itself to ending discrimination against
women. Specifically, a state must work:
 to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all
discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women:
 to establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against
discrimination; and
 to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations, or

enterprises.
The Magna Carta of Women (MCW) "establishes the Philippine government's pledge of commitment
to the CEDAW.
Beijing Platform for Action
The Beijing Platform for Action (BPPA) "emphasizes that women share common concerns that can be
addressed only by working together and in partnership with men towards the common goal of gender] equality
around the world. It was a result of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women
held in 1985. The BPFA aims for the complete participation of women in all spheres of life through the shared
responsibility of men and women at home, in the workplace, and in the public sector. It seeks a people-
centered sustainable development.
The BPFA is a landmark act that recognizes the subordinate position of women in the globe, and aims
to promote and protect their full rights while diagnosing problems related to women's issues. It proposes
strategic objectives and concrete actions that can be taken by various concerned agents to address these
issues. The aim of this platform for action was the enactment of policies and programs addressing women
concerns within five years of its creation in 1995. The UN mandated its Commission on the Status of Women
to monitor the integration of gender perspectives on critical issues highlighted in the BPFA.
The BPFA has special considerations for the girl-child, indigenous women, women workers, and
women who were victims of violence in armed conflicts. It also focuses on the social dimension of growth,
recognizing that structural adjustment plans had left behind women and had led to a feminization of poverty-
the phenomenon in which majority of the world's poor are women?
To ensure gender equality, the BPFA formulated areas of concern that need urgent action:46 the 12
critical
1. the persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women;

2. inequalities and inadequacies education and training: in and unequal access to
3. inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to health care and related services;
4. violence against women:
5. the effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under foreign occupation;
6. inequality in economic structures and policies, in all forms of productive activities and in access to
resources;
7. inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all levels;
8. insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women;
9. lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights of women:
10. stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to and participation in all communication
systems, especially in the media;
11. gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safeguarding of the environment;
and
12. persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl-child.
Gender mainstreaming as a strategy for gender equality was established as an outcome of this Fourth United
Nations World Conference on Women. It was then seen as the "most important mechanism to fulfill the
commitment made to the Beijing Platform for Action (BPA) in 1995."* Signatories of the BPFA must adopt
national policies and programs that incorporate gender
mainstreaming," defined as:
"the strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the
design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and
societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. It is the process of
assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action including legislation. policies, or
programs in all areas and at all levels.
Gender issues and gender mainstreaming are the adopted mechanism

of the Philippine government to address gender needs.
Millennium Development Goals
The MDGs are a collection of eight goals that focus on major issues of the underprivileged people around the
globe. They were drafted by the UN in 2000 as a way to combat the most pressing issues of developing
countries. The goals focus on reducing poverty, hunger, discase, and gender inequality, as well as ensuring
access to water and sanitation by 2015. The MDGs promote international commitment to meeting women's

45
needs and women's empowerment. Three of the eight MDGS focus on education and/or gender: Goal 2, "to
achieve universal primary education": Goal 3, "to promote gender equality and empower women"; and Goal 5,
"to improve maternal health.
All state parties to the UN Millennium Declaration in 2000 committed to incorporating these goals into their
own development agendas. A country that is a signatory of the MDGs must commit to addressing these
concerns. 12
Sustainable Development Goals
The new SDGS aim to address the root causes of poverty and inequality in the world today. The SDGs are
built from the Millennium Development Goals and aimed at continuing the latter's goals and completing the
targets by 2030. Below is one specific goal concerning gender equality along with its associated targets. SDG
5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. Goal 5 has the following targets:
 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres,
including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early, and forced marriage and female genital
mutilation
 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services,
infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the
household and the family as nationally appropriate
 Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of
decision making in political, economic, and public life.
 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health. and reproductive rights as agreed in
accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and
Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review
conferences
 Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to
ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance, and
natural resources, in accordance with national laws.
 Enhance the use of enabling technology. particularly information and communications technology, to
promote the empowerment of women.
 Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality
and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
Gender-specific targets of the SDGs include "the end of all forms of discrimination against all women and
girls everywhere." Numerous forms of discrimination against women still occur today. These include violence
against women and girls, cultural practices that harm women, the lack of valuation of women's work, the
limited participation of women in the political field, and the inadequate access to sexual and reproductive
health and rights for women.
Women's participation in the public arena is being pursued, making sure they are well-represented in the
political and economic domains. The inclusion of women in technology is also added as a development target
because technology can be used to empower women and create a more equitable society. The last target is
the thrust for social welfare and social protection for all. A consistent theme in these international guidelines is
the call for legislation, policies, and programs that promote gender equality and the empowerment of women
and girls. Perhaps the strict enforcement of these policies should be taken into account as well.
Laws and Policies for Women in the Philippines

Filipino women have been active participants in almost every aspect of positive social change in the
Philippines. The current laws protecting Filipino women's rights are a testament to our foremothers'
determination to fight for gender equality. The formalization of women's rights started during the post-Martial
Law era, when the 1987 Constitution declared the equality of women and men before the law.
Women's rights are mandated by the Philippine Constitution. Women play a vital role in nation-
building. Their inclusion in societal structures and processes are key toward equality and development.
Republic Act 7192, or the Women in Development and Nation-Building Act, stems from this portion of the
Constitution. The Act tasked the then National Commission on the
Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW), now the Philippine Commission of Women (PCW) to provide assistance "in
ensuring the formulation and nationwide implementation of gender-responsive government policies, programs,
and projects."155 The NCRFW is "the primary policy-making and coordinating body on women and gender
equality concerns. As the oversight body on women's concerns, the PCW acts as a catalyst for gender
mainstreaming, authority on women's concerns, and lead advocate of women's empowerment, gender equity,
and gender equality in the country."
The PCW is an advisory body to the President and Cabinet members on issues concerning gender
and development. By forming six clusters with civil society partners and government organizations, the PCW
addresses the concerns and issues highlighted in the CEDAW. It is the monitoring body for the
implementation of gender mainstreaming in the country
The national government then aimed to adopt gender mainstreaming to address gender issues in all
aspects of life. Executive Order No. 348 created the Philippine Development Plan for Women (PDPW) for the
period 1989-1992. It was the first development plan to integrate women's interests. It listed the Philippine
objectives for gender mainstreaming and projects until 1992. The Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive

46
Development (PPGD) was later drafted to supplement the PDPW. This 30-year perspective plan from 1995 to
2025 covers the following domains: the individual, the family, as well as socio-cultural, economic, political, and
legal issues. The PPGD considers gender and development mainstreaming a priority concern and seeks to
achieve gender equity in all public programs and policies. It was created to integrate a gender-responsive
framework within development plans, policies, budgets, and programs under the Philippine government. The
PPGD was adopted as the country's implementing vehicle for the Beijing Platform for Action. Like the BPFA, it
pays special attention to women in difficult circumstances by analyzing national policies and programs that
affect these women.
All government departments, bureaus, offices, agencies, as well as affiliates or government-controlled
corporations are required to formulate and realize a gender and development (GAD) plan of action that would
incorporate gender perspectives in their institutional frameworks. GAD planning includes allocation of at least
five percent of an agency's total budget to GAD-related programs, policies, and projects such as gender
mainstreaming.
The Philippine government produced two recent publications on gender mainstreaming. These are the
successors of the PDPW and PPGD, which were created more than two decades ago. The first is the
Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines published in 2010 by the National Economic and
Development Authority (NEDA), PCW, and the Official Development Assistance Gender and Development
Network. 161 The guidelines are concrete responses to the Magna Carta of Women, which also calls for
gender mainstreaming in all government programs and policies. The document outlines sector-specific
implementations of the GAD perspective in gender-responsive planning.
The other publication is the Women's Empowerment, Development and Gender Equality (EDGE) Plan 2013–
2016 published by the PCW. It addresses previous gaps in the PDPW and PPGD, while calling attention to
emerging issues on gender-responsiveness. 162 It aims to address women's issues through women's
economic inclusion and creation of concrete mechanisms for the gender responsive provisions of the previous
Philippine Development Plan (PDP). The Women's EDGE Plan promotes the integration of a gender lens into
all aspects of planning, with an emphasis on the efficient use of the annual GAD plan and budget by
government agencies and local government units.
The government has enacted numerous laws to protect Philippine women from gender-specific forms
of discrimination and violence. Meanwhile, policymakers continue to file women-specific bills as exemplified in
the following press release by a woman senator.
The protests against the dictator Ferdinand Marcos burial at the Libingan ng mga Bayani sparked outrage
throughout the nation. Various people marched against this Jaw. Many of those marching were young women
from grade school students to young professionals. These women had their pictures posted on various social
media sites. Their pictures drew hateful comments that attacked the women. However, the political views of
the women were not targeted, their gender was. These comments involved catcalls to comments that
suggested rape and other forms of sexual violence. These attacks were not made on male protesters.
This happens because there is a lack of laws that protect women from online harassment. Last November 22,
2016, Senator Risa Hontiveros filed three bills to combat sexual harassment and violence against women.
These are called the Tres Marias bills.
These include strengthening the following laws:
• the Anti-Rape Act (Senate Bill No. 1252).
• the Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill (Senate Bill No. 1250) and the Gender-based Electronic Violence
The following proposals were made as there are many gaps in the current laws protecting women. Peer-to-
peer sexual harassment is not covered by the Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill. The Anti-Rape Law cannot
address arising forms of gender-based violence. Gender-based electronic violence must be criminalized.
These bills will help address the culture of violence against women, such as the legitimized abuse of women
who choose to make a stand.

47
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 9
A. Explanation
Guide Questions
1. What is the advantage of a human rights approach to women's development?
2. How do international treaties provide a context for initiatives on gender mainstreaming in the
Philippines?
3. What are some Philippine laws or proposed bills addressing women issues?
4. How would women, and the general public, benefit from policies or laws that protect and empower
women?
5. What are the stated aims of some Philippine women-specific policies and guidelines mentioned in
this chapter? Why are they necessary?
B. TASKS:
Activity

48
Look back on your research regarding women's issues in your chosen women's sector in Chapter 5.
Reflect on the data you have gathered and list the laws that may be relevant to addressing these
problems. Evaluate the potential effectiveness of these policies.
CHAPTER 10
Theories on the Origin of Women's Oppression
Learning Outcomes
1. state his or her own understanding of the roots of sexual discrimination; and
2. explain why discrimination is not necessary for the development of human civilization and how it
evolved based on historical circumstances.

Read some famous myths about women in the beginning of time. Well-known examples are the stories
of Eve and Pandora. Try to articulate how the sources of these stories view women and their role in
society. Reflect on how this view makes you think about women
Women's Oppression
The low status of women is something worth wondering about. How did it happen that half of the world's
population is systematically discriminated? Why do women have lower status than men? Every person
deserves the same rights, regardless of his or her gender. Aside from the basic rights one merits due to
humanity, one must also give value to the traditional role of women. Women are crucial in food production and
preparation. For most of humanity's collective history, women ensured the survival of the species through
foraging and gathering activities. Foraging provided 90% of an individual's dietary requirements while hunting
provided only 10%. Women bear children and, for the most part, raise their children from infancy up to their
carly years. Women are also a source of the cultural and emotional education of children, teaching them how
to navigate the social order. Their primary task in many cultures is taking care of the family. They were also
the first healers given their extensive knowledge of herbs. It is not only the women's roles that make them
important, it is also their biology. Women bear part of the essential DNA that makes us human. At some point
in all ancient cultures, perhaps even at present, women were hailed mediators to the gods.
Many theories explain why women are oppressed, but so far. none are conclusive. Discussed in this
chapter are some of these theories as compiled in the work of Rosalind Miles, a feminist writer, journalist, and
historian who has researched the hidden role of women throughout history. These theories will be

49
supplemented by the findings of other researchers. All these researchers and theory demonstrate that
discrimination against women is not a natural phenomenon but a situation that evolved through time.
Goddess Worship to God Worship
One prominent theory on the oppression of women concerns the shift of paradigms: from ancient
civilizations that worshipped the earth goddess to the male suppression of this goddess. Indeed, mysterious
women-centric cults existed prior to the phallocentric cults. The progression from female-centric to male-
centric worship was a slow and violent process. It is one theory on the root of women's oppression. According
to Miles, women were less valued and their status were threatened with the expansion of phallus worship
around 1500 BC. She explains that early civilizations first great gods were women. There is evidence of the
worship of a mother goddess figure 5,000 years ago in the major civilizations of the world. This mother figure
was celebrated and venerated for her fertility. Because of this ancient observance, it is believed that in the
past, women were respected more than men, as supported by the mother goddess. In some cultures, men
who wanted to be persons of power emulated women. In the Philippines, they had to take on the character
and aspect of a woman and, in some more ancient civilizations, men's penises were carved out into vaginas to
seize the powers of the goddess. These social orders were matriarchies that were characterized as egalitarian
and that allowed for the cooperation between men and women in most areas of life.
This theory of early goddess-based social organization stipulates that the worship of the mother
goddess lasted for as long as people experienced the development of life as a mystery and a gift. At some
point, human beings changed the way they saw and experienced life. A major paradigm shift was thought to
have occurred the moment people started to focus on the empirical, rather than the mythical. This new
understanding of cause and effect was another way of seeing reality. As people became more interested in
controlling food production through agriculture, the kind of knowledge the focused on cause and effect
became necessary. When this knowledge was harnessed, men realized that they too played a part in fertility
their seed was essential in creating offspring’s. Thus, the phallus cults began to prosper and the pre-eminence
of the male and his organ began to assert itself. Somehow, ancient societies concluded that the source of life
was the penis and not the womb. Because life was not seen as something that emerged mysteriously from the
womb but was planted there by the male organ, men appropriated for themselves the position of power in the
universe. Thus, a noticeable spread and consequential increase in the cult of the male organ were observed
by 1500 BC. With this development, male power in societies grew because people believed that the male bore
the creative power while the female was merely the receptive vessel of life in which the seed of man
developed. Women were no longer seen as active partners but as passive incubators. As male power grew,
inequality also rose. Men valued only themselves as powerful, creative persons. On top of this, they did not
want the power of the woman to regain its prominence and overthrow that of the man. It may explain why men
became particularly oppressive to women. Men had convinced themselves that they provide the active
principle of life and that women were the passive incubators of life whom men had to rule. They needed to
reinforce this belief by continuously treating women lowly.
The theory of the mother goddess cult seems highly speculative. However, Miles shows historical
evidence of this cult through the appearance of female deities, their prevalence, as well as their destruction.
The mother goddess cult is not taught in mainstream history classes. It is assumed that the erasure of this
belief from history was due to the fact that history has been written mostly by victors, or in this case, men. The
elimination of women's power came with the unlearning of the fact that women not only had power and equal
rights in ancient civilizations but had extraordinary authority.
Eve and the Other
Western religion also influenced the negative perception of women as evidenced in the Judeo-
Christian story of Eve being the first woman, and its many mythic variations. In the basic story, Yahweh was
compelled to create the first human being, a male. He was called Adam and was given dominion over the
earth. Adam needed a companion, so Yahweh created Eve. This companion was taken from Adam's rib-thus,
she was flesh of his flesh. Although Eve was an afterthought and a mere companion, she was of Adam's flesh
and to some extent, an equal.
Together, Adam and Even were given a good life in the Garden of Paradise. They were warned not to
cat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. A wily animal, usually taken to be the devil cloaked in the
form of a snake, seduced Eve to take a fruit from the tree and share it with Adam. Perhaps the snake seduced
Eve because it perceived that she was the weaker one or because she was more open to listening. Whatever
the reason, Adam and Eve were banished by Yahweh to live outside the Garden, and it was their lot to toil for
their food. Eve had caused the downfall of humanity because she had listened to the snake. It must be noted
that this story shows how a woman had deprived all humankind the abundance that the Garden of Paradise
had to offer. A woman's folly had brought suffering to man.
The same story template is presented in the story of Pandora. In the Greek myth, Pandora was the
first woman created by Zeus as a form of petty revenge on mankind because they had received the gift of fire
from Prometheus. Pandora was made to be the most beautiful and desirable woman ever created and was
given to Epimetheus as a gift. Epimetheus was warned by Prometheus not to accept any gift from Zeus, but
he was eventually persuaded to receive Pandora because his refusal would anger Zeus. Zeus made Pandora
foolish and idle. One day, she opened the jar where Prometheus locked away all the Sprites that can cause

50
mankind grief such as old age, sickness, and vice. Prometheus warned Epimetheus to keep the jar closed, but
the foolishness of a woman let the Sprites loose, stinging Epimetheus and Pandora and plaguing all of
humanity. In both stories, women were perceived as the cause of the downfall of mankind because of their
weakness.
Miles links the fall of the goddess cult to the rise in discriminatory treatment against women; the
progression from goddess worship to phallus worship may be connected to their diminished status. The fall of
the mother goddess, the rise of phallocentric worship, and the negative implications of a woman's role in the
Christian Bible story fuel the negative perception of women. Women were viewed of lesser value than men, or
were deemed the root of all sufferings. They were perceived to be feeble minded, manipulative, or with no
moral fortitude. In the most extreme sense, women had the potential to cause the downfall of great men. As
shown by the stories of Eve and Pandora, woman was casted as the bearer of suffering because she was
weak-willed and could not be trusted, she could not be allowed to be left alone lest she cause some trouble.
Women were the catalyst for men to lose their reason and responsibility. Therefore, men convinced
themselves that women were unfit or incapable to run governments, set standards for literature and
commerce, be priests, or be left to their own devices. This sentiment can be seen echoed time and again in
written texts from various cultures. Most cultures have paranoia against women since the emergence of
phallocentric societies. One may even suspect that there appears a concerted but unconscious desire to
suppress the possibility of women rediscovering their own preeminent position in society.
The misogynistic treatment of women by Christianity, for instance, is puzzling. Jesus Christ was
clearly a person who believed in the capabilities of women and promoted their place as leaders among his
disciples. His close relationship with women, his respect for their authority, and the fact that some of them
even became his closest friends and followers empowered many women to become leaders of the early
Church. They even served as deacons. However, St. Paul in Timothy 2:12, said that he would not "suffer a
woman to teach in 1 Church" or have authority over man. In fact, in 1 Corinthians 11, St. Paul stated that
women should be silent in Church and should be subject to man. Many of the great religions, especially when
they were already established, seemed to have the inclination to marginalize women. Despite the founder's
respect for women, the subsequent leaders of these religions seemed to have the need to denigrate women
and assert their feebleness and inadequacy. A recognized great thinker like St. Thomas shared this notion
about women:
"It was necessary for woman to be made, as the Scripture says, as a "helper" to man: not, indeed, as a
helpmate in other works, as some say, since man can be more efficiently helped by another man in other
works: but as a helper in the work of generation Among perfect animals, the active power of generation
belongs to the male sex, and the passive power to the female. And as among animals, there is a vital
operation nobler than generation, to which their life is principally directed: therefore, the male sex is not found
in continual union with the female in perfect animals, but only at the time of coition; so that we may consider
that by this means the
male and female are one, as in plants they are always United: although in some cases one of them
preponderates, and in some the other. But man is yet further ordered to a still nobler vital action, and that is
intellectual operation. Therefore, there was greater reason for the distinction of these two forces in man: so
that the female should be produced separately from the male; although they are united for general. Therefore,
directly after the formation of woman, it was said: 'And they shall be two in one flesh' (Gn. 2:24)."
The passage is an expression of the low perception of the men of the Church on women. Others see
women as the consorts of the devil, the beguiler of men, and the potential cause of every human misery by
offending the holy with their impurities.
It is unknown if Eve and Pandora were the first expressions of the distrust of women, but they certainly
embody this disdain for the deceitful, dangerous, and flighty character of women. In these stories, there
appears to be a pervasive belief about women rooted in the foundational civilizations. People are inclined to
believe that women are dangerous and must be controlled if not suppressed. This belief is especially true of
their sexuality, In numerous and significant instances, women have been referred to as the sex that seduces
man and makes him lose his orientation toward the true good-which is the eternal life beyond the flesh.
Although it is puzzling why some of the world's religions are so biased against women, the fear theory
offers some explanation for it. Miles speculates that:
"male supremacy does more than imply female inferiority: it demands it. How then was that demand brought
home to each and every woman? The first step had to be the eradication of all traces of women's previous
superiority. This meant the onslaught on the worship of the Mother Goddess, on her devotees. and by
extension to women's right to rule or command."
Activity
Reflect on the myths of Eve and Pandora. Are there equivalent myths in your own locality? Recall
these myths about women in your local culture and analyze what they say about women
• Does it present a positive or negative view about women?
• If you were a female child growing up with such myths, what would have been your sense of worth?

51
If you were a boy, what you think of women and how would that affect your relationship with them?
Discuss the results of your research in groups and explore the effects of myths about women in our
societies.
Thus, the vicious suppression of women in many of the world's cultures can be explained. Religion is one
major aspect that contributed to this suppression as evident in the negative traits attributed to women in many
religious texts. A number of influential works of world literature also contain references to the beguiling beauty
of women that distracts men from their good reason and their work.
A Shift of Production
The shift to agriculture is likewise a plausible theory for the suppression of women. Although more
stable than hunting and gathering, agriculture is still a difficult and risky source of food. It requires the
investment of manpower and longer periods of work in one area for an extended amount of time. This
manpower must be committed to the work and to the community that it is feeding. Thus, human reproduction
for the purpose of creating more workers became a crucial task in society. It was important to keep women at
home to produce and raise children. Reproduction had to be protected and controlled, so women had to be
watched. Women's activities had to be monitored so that it could be focused on reproduction---so sexuality
had to be overseen so that the community could be assured that the children they produced would become
loyal members of the community. In this theory, suppression of the value of women and their awareness of
their own value are evident so that they would continue to accept their role as receptive grounds for the seed
of men on which the next generation of workers is to be grown.
When productivity increased with the advent of new farming processes like animal husbandry and plough-
based farming, more laborers were needed to take advantage of the wealth creation from the greater
productivity. Men focused on the agricultural labor because ploughing is difficult for children. At this point,
women were no longer involved in food production but in laborer production. Historically, those who are
involved in food production were more empowered. Hence, women lost significance in their communities and
were withdrawn from public life when the participation in the main economic life was reduced. Their withdrawal
from public life became even more pronounced when people-mostly men--were employed as laborers in the
commercial, cash economy. Women raising children were further constrained from participating in
employment when paid work began to take place in locations away from the home. Because employment that
would bring home cash was becoming necessary for survival, men's roles as paid workers were viewed more
essential while women's functions as housewives were perceived unproductive.
In earlier timelines of history, society had a higher regard for women than today. Women were
venerated for their fertility and were worshipped for their power to bear life. Historians generally agree that at
some point in history, the society shifted to becoming male-dominated. And with male domination arose
inequality and oppression,
Oppression is often justified by essentialist reasons. Essentialist arguments assert that the oppression
of women is due to the nature of their gender or their socially-constructed roles. Some people think of women
as the lesser sex because of their biological make up. Women are smaller and less bulky, hence, cannot
become good warriors, laborers, or athletes. They are fundamentally built for child-bearing and child-rearing
because of these bodies. Not only are their bodies week, their minds are perceived weak as well. The
woman's mind is assumed incapable of abstract, logical thinking such that they are believed less capable of
scientific and other highly academic endeavors. Women also come with natural impurities because they bleed
on a monthly basis. Their moral weakness makes them unsuitable for leadership and meaningful participation
in religious rituals. They are also the primary source of the human's fall from Paradise, thus, cannot be trusted
in building a better world for mankind. Essentially, their moral and psychological makeup is blamed for their
unworthiness of great acts.
Whichever way it is justified and whatever its historical roots are, women are considered the lesser
sex today. Before male domination and gender inequality, there seemed to be a state where women had a
central role in society and much of the shared communal life was dependent on her labor. It seems that
women's status in present societies needed little justification, if at all."7 The subjugation of women is not an
essential or necessary state. The liberation of women from this inequality should be discussed because
change can and must happen. But change will only happen if people are made aware on how the status of
women was constructed. Oppression of women is made possible because of existing systems that orient
people toward oppressing women, not because women are fundamentally weaker or flawed.
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________


52
Activity 10
A. Explanation

1. Why were women highly regarded in ancient times?
2. What are the theories tracing the possible root causes of women subjugation and
oppression in history? Explain one.
3. Massive food production and industrialization reinforced the socialized role of women as
home keepers. What are the positive and negative consequences of these developments on
women perception in the society?
4. What is gender essentialism? How does essentialist reasoning contribute to the oppression
of women? reshape the prevalent thinking that women
5. What can you do to are of the lesser sex?
Activity
Recall previously discussed theories and find a historical explanation for why the exploitation
or discrimination exists in your chosen sector. If there is a lack of material that explains it.
propose a theory and try to back it up with evidence.
CHAPTER 11
The Western Women's Movement
Learning Outcomes
1. outline the development of Western feminism; and
2. explain the factors that shaped its development.

Research online the phrase "influential feminists." From the results of your search, select a feminist you
are not familiar with. Why is she considered influential
Where does Liberation Begin?
The origin of women's oppression seems far-removed from our lived realities. When speaking of
women's history, the Western women's movement may come to mind. Why? This movement exposed the
structural inequality faced by women in particular. More importantly, this movement identified women as an
oppressed group. While this movement is distinct from the Philippine women's movement, it is, nonetheless,
part of a larger story that shaped the global women's agenda today.
When asked about the society's general reception to feminism and women's movement, some
university students do not see the point behind the feminist movement. The prevalent perception among male
and female students that gender equality has been achieved, and that fighting for gender rights is
unnecessary. Some professors even feel that women no longer need gender-specific rights because women
can already do what they want. Given the many won freedoms of women, many say that some feminists have
become unnecessarily aggressive or too sensitive on their claims.

53
As shown in the previous chapters, there is a societal imbalance in the power structures that dictate
what men and women have access to, based on both their biology and gender roles. This imbalance can be
both limiting or liberating. The sectoral situationer on women shows that the power imbalance of gender roles
is mostly limiting,
Much of these students understanding of gender justice is influenced by social media posts and
popular culture. Most of these social media websites, however, may have misconceptions about the true
meaning of feminism and gender equality. While there are "social justice warriors" who write various issues—
including women's issues-on social media platforms, their lack of knowledge on the history of women's
movement and women's struggle makes for a weak call to social change. Without knowing the historicity of an
issue, one will not understand its root and cannot address it in a holistic manner.
People have been pushing for gender justice and equality, but where do these ideas emerge? Has this
struggle for equality always existed? Was there a time when both sexes were equal? Have the concerns of
women today changed or remained the same compared to what other women faced in history?
The women's movement made many advances in recent history, yet its scope and description must
be discussed for one to truly grasp the current issues of women and gender studies. This chapter serves as
an introduction to the history of the women's movement, both in the Philippines and abroad.
What is Feminism?
Feminism is a way of looking at the world through a

woman's perspective. The previous chapter explained that a
woman's perspective is socially constructed and based on how
the society views femininity or womanhood as a whole. The
patriarchal nature of society has driven feminism to concern
itself with issues in relation to women oppression, with an end
goal of liberating women through gender equality, Feminism is
a concept popularized by Western societies, with many
feminist issues articulated by Western educated women and
even men. It is deeply rooted in the Western concept of liberal
democracy and philosophy of equal rights for all as defined by
thinkers such as Kant and Mill. The evolution of Western women's movement in recent history can be
summarized into three waves, each wave characterized by particular aspects of the struggle toward
emancipation. The next section will look at women's movement and its brief history in the Western world.
Because this movement has been around for more than a century, the chapter will focus on issues that
steered women's movement instead of the situation of women at a particular time period. It will then be
juxtaposed with the Philippines' own women's movement and the development of women's rights in the local
context in the next chapter
Western Women's Movement: A Brief History
Discussing Western women's movement involves looking at what many feminist historians and theorists call
as "waves of feminism Like any wave, there is a distinct rise in the movement, its apex being the height of the
issues surrounding the movement at a given time. Like a wave, there is also a decline in the involvement after
the issue was resolved or if another more urgent issue arose. There are three distinct waves of feminism in
the Western world, each associated to a different school of thought. The first wave of feminism involves the
call for women's equal rights, focusing on the woman's right to vote, it is largely rooted in the liberal political
thought which prioritized the power of reason and the mind. The next wave is known as radical feminism, a
post-World War II era of feminism when women were already recognized as having distinct biological needs
from men, such as for reproductive health, and needs that arose from their being socialized as women he last
wave of feminism is rooted in the recognition of various theories and various modes of being.
To be truly free from patriarchy, the recognition of intersectionality considers women's struggle from different
parts of the globe-such as that of the Black or Latin women to be distinct struggles that are different from
women's struggles in the Western world. This feminist thought helped shape our own local feminist thinking,
the Philippine Women's Movement. While the discussion of the waves of feminism ends in the 1990s, it does
not mean that newer waves do not exist. This chapter will conclude with a discussion on the direction of the
women's movement.
Activity
Interview your mother or aunt, as well as your grandmother or an elderly woman and ask them what
they consider the most pressing problems of women in their generation. Also think about the pressing
issues faced by women today.
In the classroom, form groups of five members and share your observations among each other. Try to
explain the roots of women's problems in the three generations. Present a gist of your discussions in

54
front of the class

.
The First Wave of Feminism: Women and Civil Rights
Theoretical Roots of the First Wave of Feminism Liberal Feminism
The first wave of women's movement is characterized by the women's struggle for equality. This
phase, which occurred from the latter part of the 18th century until the first half of the 20th century, was the
period when women articulated their equality with men. The development of liberal political thought by
philosophers like Kant, Mill, and Rousseau underscoring the equal rights of all men (but not women) inspired
women to craft their own philosophy of equality with men. After all, if all men were created equal with equal
inherent rights, then all women are created equal to men with inherent rights as well.
One can pinpoint the start of the documented

feminist movement during the French Revolution in
the late 1700s. The French Revolution was a
movement that overthrew the Bourbon monarchy, a
powerful family that ruled France for over a century
and controlled most of French resources. Under the
Bourbon dynasty, most of France was poor and
starving. The right to bread was the starting point of
the French Revolution. Thousands of women in
Paris, housewives, mothers, and workers, marched
to the Paris City Hall in 1789 to demand the right to cheaper bread, right they were deprived of under the
Bourbon monarchy. There are French Revolution was a triumph for the poor and oppressed, with both women
and men fighting for their rights in this movement, showing the power of the people over the elite. While there
was no woman-specific issue addressed during this movement, inspired the seminal text for the Western
women's movement: the Citoyennes Républicaines, Révolutionnaires (Revolutionary Republican Women
Citizens)
The Citoyennes Republicaines, Révolutionnaires demanded that women be granted the right to vote and hold
civilian and military positions like men. However, the (male) revolutionaries ignored these calls. It is evident in
the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789 which only focused on men and men's rights,
considered an important text in the history of human rights, this declaration supposedly proclaiming the scope
of one's freedom in the French society had excluded women. Hence, women still did not have the same rights
as men during the French Revolution.
Olympia de Gouges was a French feminist, writer, and political activist who believed strongly in justice
and equality for all. She responded to the National Assembly's Declaration by publishing in 1791 her own
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen. She included women's rights in her manifesto,
defending the right of women as sentient human beings. Her progressive thinking also led her to write against
slavery, the discrimination against children borne out of wedlock, and the ill treatment of orphaned children. 10
The manifesto of de Gouges inspired what can be considered the keystone text of liberal feminist
thought. A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792 by Mary Wollstonecraft. Considered the mother of
Western and Anglo-Saxon feminism, Wollstonecraft advocated for the uplifting of women's rights through the
valuation of their work within the family. Her work highlights the need for women's education, and that women
are not merely objects to be married off but are also educators and caregivers of their children. This work
declares that women deserve the same fundamental rights as men. Wollstonecraft's text is the origin of the
Anglo-Saxon feminism that inspired modern feminist writings. Wollstonecraft was concerned on the elimination
of domestic tyranny and women's denial of political rights, education, and equal work-issues that still permeate
present society, Wollstonecraft connected these concerns to critical issues of her time, reinforcing her own call
for equality. Her ideas influenced other women to press policymakers in creating woman-inclusive policies for
their needs, specifically their education. h Wollstonecraft and de Gouges' works articulate the rights of
Western woman as a person endowed naturally and equally with human rights. The texts were written by
women, and demanded women's rights in a male dominated world where women seldom had voice or an
identity separate from their husbands. Unfortunately, both women would not live to see the advances their
works inspired.
While these documents show an insight as to why the rights of women were denied under existing
laws, Friedrich Engels, a collaborator of Karl Marx in writing the communist manifesto, provided a plausible
reason why women were oppressed. Given the Marxist focus on material conditions and the accumulation and
production of resources as key movers of societies, Engels saw the relation between women and goods as
the root to women's subjugation. Engels' text, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,
published in 1884, describes marriage as a process of gaining control of women. Monogamy was a creation
necessary to pass on wealth to one's offspring. In non-communal societies, marriage was a way for groups
with more material resources, such as the bourgeoisie, to keep their money within the family through
intermarriage and inheritance. After all, a woman can be sure of her offspring because she bore them through
her pains of labor. This idea of property and inheritance-and of marriage as a social contract-prevented
woman from being free to decide on whom to marry. A man needed his wife to be monogamous to know his
kin. Perhaps, this practice reinforced the already dominant patriarchal system that allowed men to be
polygamous and forced women to be monogamous. Thus, a woman's chastity was heavily guarded. This type

55
of oppression guaranteed that women had no choice on matters concerning their bodies, hence, marriage
became a sort of lifetime slavery. This oppression has repercussion up to the present day,
Women and the Anti-Slavery Movement
The idea that a woman is a property of her husband may explain the strong connection between women's
liberation movement and the anti-slavery movement in the Western world. The beginning of the women's
movement drew its spark from the emancipation movement Various women, often white with a high social
status, attended forums and seminars on slavery to advocate for the liberate of the slaves. However, women
were not taken seriously during discussions about the rights of slaves. Women had no political voice in this
matter, During the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention is London, women delegates were even made to listen
to proceeding behind curtains. Two prominent figures of the American women's movement who attended the
convention-Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton-were moved by this insulting experience. Being behind
the curtain highlighted the similarity of women's situation with that of slaves. Mott and Stanton's involvement in
the advocacy against slavery paved the way for them to realize that women too were oppressed by certain
social structures and laws. The active participation of women in the social issue of anti-slavery incited them to
liberate themselves as well from their perceived limited social status. One such limited status involved the right
to participate in the public sphere."
Women and the Right to Vote
Women's role in the domestic sphere meant that everyday women were invisible to the public eye. Those
coming from prominent mercantile or royal families, while visible, were not often given the chance to influence
big decisions. These realities pushed women from Western Europe and Northern America to expand their
struggle toward their own emancipation. Participants in the first wave of the women's emancipation movement
fought for the right to vote, equal opportunity for employment and commerce, and the right to education. The
struggle for quality was most apparent in the campaign for the right to vote, but it was accompanied by
struggles for women's education in which schools for basic education up to medical schools were set up for
women), equality at work (the establishing of women's unions), and freedom of expression in various literary
and artistic genres. Women fought for equal access to various opportunities as formalized in the Declaration of
Sentiments that emerged from the Seneca Falls Convention--the first women's rights convention in New York
City in 1848. Stanton enumerated in this Declaration various women's issues that eventually led to what would
be known as the suffrage movement
A woman's right to vote may not seem like a large issue, yet it was controversial insofar as it was
believed that women were too emotional and did not possess the proper faculties to make rational decisions.
Not only that, the numerous movements at that time seemed to work against and not for each other. Would a
movement for women's rights hinder the emancipation movement? Or the movement of men of color? Would
all be able to vote, including uneducated women? Again, this was controversial because not all women were
allowed to study; hence, allowing women to vote meant allowing even illiterate women and women of color to
claim this right. Despite this assumed division, black women abolitionists still supported the movement. These
include Sojourner Truth, Maria Stewart, and Frances E. W. Harper.
The suffrage movement was the major struggle of women, uniting the Northern American and
Western European women's movements during the 19th and 20th centuries. When upper class women, i.e.,
householder and college educated, won the right to vote in the 1920s, the movement splintered into various
groups like the labor movement and the right to education movement.
Fundamentally, the first wave of women's struggle was focused on establishing equality with men. It
borrowed its ideology from political liberalism that assumes equality of all people regardless of race or gender.
Filipino feminist Leslie de la Cruz has this assessment of the first wave feminism:
Since liberalism assumes all individuals to be fundamentally the same, it does not consider gender as
significant, in fact, the discourse of equal rights posits a universal subject who is supposed to stand for all
human beings regardless of differences. One implication of this is that 'equality' tends to be defined from the
point of view of the privilege: in the case of sexual equality It is male defined. First-wavers demanded full
female participation in a predominantly masculine social life believing that once women gained the same
status as men, the problems would be solved. A common critique of the equality paradigm is that it treated
emancipated women as honorary men, inadvertently leaving intact the fundamental hierarchy between
masculinity and femininity."
The first-wavers not only called for the right to vote but also the right to smoke, the right to wear pants,
and the right to promiscuity like men.
Biological differences between sexes, and therefore genders, were perceived as something that could
be transcended. If women could prove that they were enlightened, or had the potential to be enlightened, then
there would be no reason to discriminate against them. However, this view discounted women-specific needs
brought about by both gender socialization and biology. It also discounted the value of physical labor, and the
reproductive work necessary for one's survival-cooking, cleaning, and child care.
The Second Wave of Feminism and Women's Liberation
Women in the Western world eventually earned the right to vote. While more and more gains were
identified for women, there was still a large gap between women's and men's freedoms. Despite women

56
attaining the right to vote, they were still viewed as second class citizens. What more of the black, lesbian, and
Latina women? A new struggle arose, one that involved marginalized sectors such as black women, lesbians
and homosexuals, women in developing countries, and other marginalized women. The second wave of
feminism is more concerned with the idea of womanhood and the issues that came with the social
construction of a woman's role, and therefore her identity. Thus, a deeper understanding of womanhood, irs
implications and the issues surrounding women emerged.
The second wave of feminism was rooted in the movements of liberation in the 1960s and 1970s and
the heightened feminist consciousness. It was influenced by Marxist and postmodernist critiques of society
and social structures. One work that awoke numerous women across America was Betty Friedan's book, The
Feminine Mystique, published in 1963. The second wave of feminism also founded on such works as Simone
de Beauvoir's The Second Sex, Kate Millett's Sexual Politics, and Shulamith Firestone's the Dialectic of Sex.
These books, published between 1949 and the 1970s, marked the spirit and ideology of the second wave of
feminism because they articulated the heart of a new struggle. Feminists in this wave did not only seek
equality but also examined the very ground of inequality. According to these feminists, inequality is deeply
rooted in the existing patriarchal system, or the system of belief that placed the male as the dominant gender.
The second wave sought to transform the structural and political roots of inequality and aimed for the
liberation of women from oppressive institutions.
World Wars I and II also greatly influenced the second wave of the feminist movement. Women
stepped in to help with the war effort. For example, the American propaganda "Rosie the Riveter" became an
icon of women. It shows a poster image of a woman doing mechanical work, a traditional male job, in a bid to
invite women to work in factories as most men were assembled for war. However, when the war ended, men
returned to their roles and women were sent back to the domestic sphere. The 1950s promoted an image of
women as loving housewives and doting mothers.
Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique describes the growing discontent of white and middle-class
housewives during the post-World War II period. Her idea of the "problem with no name" united housemakers
across America regarding the growing helplessness that women felt due to their lack of power as they
remained trapped in the domestic sphere and lacked representation in the public sphere.
Simone de Beauvoir, a French feminist best known for her work, The Second Sex, explored how
women were not seen as equal by men and that the very realization of women's existence as persons was
structured to be inferior. They were reduced to an object at every turn, as a wife, a daughter, a lover, a
mistress, and a whore. Their very existence was defined, or more precisely reduced, by the male subjectivity.
Women were constructed by society to be servants of men and to be the producers of children. Their very
image, how they act and beautify themselves, are all oriented to serving male systems that do not benefit the
flourishing of women as persons. A woman was always and only defined in relation to man. There is a marked
critique on the definition of woman in the essay by de Beauvoir. It articulates how the essential meaning of
woman is a construct that limits the realization of her existence, but as a construct, this meaning can be re-
articulated. Her work also claims that patriarchy and patriarchal structures further reinforce the wrong notion
that women are secondary to men despite women and men being treated equally in the eyes of existing laws.
Until a woman is seen as a woman in her own right, de Beauvoir asserts that a woman will not attain true
freedom.
Although focused on the personal enslavement of women, this wave of feminism also tackled that the
construction of womanhood was fundamentally political. Shulamith Firestone and Kate Millett showed how this
construction was an outcome of the economy, the culture, and society at large. The fact that this notion of
womanhood was created to be as such means that the expectations surrounding women could change as
well. Firestone, in her text The Dialectic of Sex, called for a feminist revolution that could help liberate women
from the inequality brought about by their biology, specifically concerning conception, childbirth, and child-
rearing those Firestone believed that society must change to help address women's concerns the limitation of
their biology, specifically child care: the right to economic independence and self-determination; their
integration into all aspects of society and their freedom in relation to their sexuality-before women can be
liberated. Kate Millet's text focuses on politics as power structures and the relation of sex-coitus and biological
sex-thus, creating the fundamental link between gender socialization, the patriarchal system, and the
formation of women as oppressed. 185 The struggle is defined by power and can be hanged if women are
able to gain power.
Theoretical Roots in the Second Wave of Feminism-Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminism was developed after Marxist feminism to address gaps found in Marxist theories.
Unlike Marxist feminists, socialist feminists believe that women are oppressed in all aspects of their lives, not
only in the economic aspect. Socialist feminism draws different meaning from the Marxist idea of human
productivity: a one's productive activity is based on the sexual division of labor which is determined by society
and human nature.
Socialist feminists believe that women's subjugation is rooted in the concept of having a monogamous
family in which women are confined in their homes and are discouraged to participate in productive labor.
Engels argued that women could be liberated from their oppression if they entered the productive zone, with
their reproductive needs taken over by the state. Socialism asserts that both productive and reproductive labor
must involve the greater society, as both are responsible for sustaining and maintaining the society at large.
Hence, the state must also prioritize social welfare and structures that support the reproductive needs of a

57
woman. The second wave of women's movement was built on these Marxist and radical feminist principles,
which focused on sexuality and alienation arising from one's womanhood and motherhood.
Theoretical Roots in the Second Wave of Feminism
Radical Feminism
The civil rights movement in the U.S. inspired another form of feminism that is grounded on structural change.
This feminist perspective-known as radical feminism-sought to ensure that women's differences from men
were recognized and celebrated. At this point, equality no longer meant sameness but being different and
equally capable and valuable. Radical feminism came about a reaction to the lack of attention given to sex
and sexuality in the women's struggle. Socialist. Marxist, and Liberal feminism focused less on the body and
more on what the mind or body could do Radical feminism identifies one's biology as the root cause of the
oppression of women, which lies in the idea that one's ability and role could be reduced to his or her sex. The
second wave is significant as it examined not only the need for equality but also the very root of inequality. It
explained that women were oppressed because they were defined as the lesser sex by systems that shape
the society; the most pervasive of which is patriarchy, in which man assumes the dominant gender or role.
Patriarchy as the Root of Inequality?
Many second-wave feminists focused on analyzing the structural roots of inequality in society. This
generation of feminists believed that women were forced into roles not because of their natural inclination, but
because patriarchal systems condition them to adopt certain roles, Patriarchy, as the radical feminists
described. was maintained through the control of the public sphere by men. Perhaps this belief came about as
a result of industrialization and the separation of productive and reproductive work, or the association of
women with child care. Nonetheless, the subjugation of women worked in favor of society inasmuch as it
ensured that the working force (men) and future laborers (children) were cared for at home While this
relationship could be symbiotic, a woman, however, did not have any choice in the matter. It would not be in
the best interest of a society in need of mass labor for a woman to rebel just to assume public work. The
subjugation and domestic enslavement of women may have been reinforced by their perception as essentially
lower and weaker beings. In many instances, theorists of the second wave articulated the roots and exposed
the structures of subjugation hat the activists could lobby for changes that would lead to the redefinition of
women's functions and capabilities in the society. Radical feminists also saw the abolition of male supremacy
as a necessary step toward elimination of oppression. This line of thinking was promoted through
establishment of women-centered beliefs and systems. A call to acknowledge women's ways of knowing as
different and valuable began to surface. De la Cruz notes that, "Generations of second-wave feminist
scholarship have made gender oppression impossible to ignore."
Key issues for radical feminists include the reproductive rights of a woman or a woman's freedom to
choose for her own body. Specifically, women fought for the right to use birth control methods, get sterilized,
or even get abortions. After all, the female body was viewed as medium for oppressing women, and the lack of
choice regarding something as basic as their body was a representation of the patriarchy's control on women.
Other issues include sex-gender roles and relationships in public policies and private relationships, the
pornography industry and prostitution, and critiques of the traditional roles of women such as motherhood and
a woman's place in marriage.
Consciousness-raising groups were made popular during this time. Here, women were safe to speak
about their experiences with sexism. These consciousness-raising groups opened women's minds to the idea
that they were not alone in their oppression, thus building solidarity with other women. The idea that all women
faced discrimination, ranging from subtle to extreme, showed that an individual woman's situation was part of
a larger societal problem This realization bore the slogan "the personal is political."
The myth of the man-hating and bra-burning feminist was created during the women's liberation
movement, specifically in 1968. Some feminists decided to protest the 1968 Miss America pageant in New
Jersey. Driven by their disgust at the objectification of women, and the idea that the contest promoted women
being paraded around like meat, various women took peaceful protests. During the protest, women were
encouraged to bring items that symbolized their oppression by the patriarchy, and place these items in what
was called the Freedom Trash Can. One of these items was a bra. While there was no fire, it was one of the
myths that pervaded the movement due to the lack of information about women's rich history.
The Call for Affirmative Action
The second wave of the women's movement focused on redefining the meaning of woman in society
by restoring the struggle for genuine gender equality. Inequality was addressed during this time through
various efforts, one of which was affirmative action Affirmative action meant a deliberate preferential option for
women in order to have equal opportunity in a certain field. This move was based on the need to counter
years of what many consider the preferential option for the male gender in productive work. Before this time,
women were mostly accepted in work that related to the care of others. The usual reason was essentialist:
women are naturally oriented toward caring for others. Thus, women were preferred for jobs such as teachers,
stewardesses, domestic helpers, and nurses although their superiors were mostly men. Are women good in
this field due to their nature or because the patriarchal society has already confined them to this kind of jobs?
The previous chapters noted that women were once judged unfit for intellectual work because they were
supposedly intuitive and not capable of abstract, systematic thought. Affirmative action aimed to correct this

58
disparity by prioritizing female applicants to jobs or fields that have less women involvement. Today, there are
women in all fields, from science and mathematics to law and academics.
Other Feminisms during the Second Wave
The second-wave of feminism began to spread its influence worldwide although it was criticized for
focusing too much on the interests of Western women. Second-wave feminism was also marked by the
division between women from the First World and women from developing countries. Women from the
developing world felt their specific concerns ignored, such as their exploitation by the West which benefitted
even women from the developed countries, Working class women and Third World women believed that their
issues were also determined by the upper classes, as shown by the lack of services that support health care
and child care, as well as the lack of awareness on the basic rights of marginalized women. Thus, the focus of
Western women on the right to contraceptives, abortion, and equality with men was deemed not as urgent as
their concerns. Their own struggles and movements focused more on educating women, lobbying for maternal
health, educating their children, and improving basic services like water delivery. Second-wave feminists were
predisposed to generalize the experience of womanhood but their advocacy concealed their bourgeois
privileged position. Sadly, Third World women found many First World women to be condescending and
aggressive with their agenda in important international conferences. 19 Thus, the latter part of the second
wave focused less on the universal sisterhood and worked more for the specific issues and problems of
women in their concrete situation
A feminism that recognizes women as defined by existing structures was demanded. This kind of feminism
must also acknowledge that otherness was multifaceted and there is no essential otherness of woman to
develop, liberate, or realize. In fact, within the women's movement and other liberation movements, particular
forms of oppression must also be recognized and addressed. Women from colonized countries face the
particular oppression of being a woman and being oppressed by both men and women in the Fire World.
Marginalized women have to face the oppression of the dominant economic classes as well. An analysis of
the oppression of women now becomes more complicated because of the many different sectors and
agencies of power that need to be considered. Take for example a peasant woman who produces goods
bought by a middleman Her oppression may come from the middleman and his family whose needs are
supported by exploiting the peasant woman as a laborer. Foreign importers further push down the price of the
peasant's labor, from the producers of fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides who will dictate the prices of these
inputs depending on their need for profit. These exploiters are both men and women including those from
other nations. Therefore, it is no longer a question of how one gender oppresses the other but how everyone
has the potential to exploit one another and be exploited in turn. Some feminists explored the many facets of
power and proposed ways to counter this exploitation. Hence, the latter part of the second wave introduced
the need to broaden frames of analysis in investigating struggles for women liberation so that every aspect is
fully understood from a more specific, concrete situation. In this way, the quest for liberation would be more
inclusive, just, and genuine.
The Third Wave of Feminism
The 1990s brought about the recognition of the different oppression’s women face around the globe.
The rise of communism and the new global order along with biomedical and technological advances shaped
the issues of this era. The feminist movement shifted focus to include the needs of women from developing
countries in light of the effect of globalization and neoliberal economic policies.
The idea of the universal woman's experience was challenged, and there was a call for a feminism
that embraced the plurality of women's experience. This new wave of feminism was deemed more inclusive,
as voices from post-colony and post-socialist countries were involved in the movement. With these
developments, third-wave feminism was born
Third-wave feminists were "motivated by the need to develop a feminist theory and politics that honor
contradictory experiences and deconstruct categorical thinking."19 What characterizes this feminism is its
"local, national, and transnational activism in areas such as violence against women, trafficking, body surgery,
self-mutilation, and the overall 'pornofication' of the media, "% issues that affect different women from various
countries.
Third-wave feminists were raised by second-wave feminists. They lived by the principles of gender
equality and women's empowerment. They had access to the resources that previous movements had won for
them. The feminists of this time had numerous publications on women and gender issues, gained academic
niches in universities that include women's studies in their curriculum, and had greater opportunities in terms
of economic capabilities and work. This exploration of womanhood and gender came at the expense of the
previous endeavors of women activists. Because of this, the feminist movement of yesteryears was critiqued
and questioned.
The idea of post feminism manifested during the third wave of feminism, in which the second wave
was assessed for purporting a universal feminism that created one truth for all women, with one answer for all
issues and directing the movement's concerns to target one dominant group—the white and Western
feminists. According to the book by Leslie Heywood and Jennifer Drake, Third Wave Agenda, post feminism
sought to critique previous feminisms with regard to what work had yet to be done. Despite the difference in
the experiences of women, the call for sisterhood was present as ever embracing the differences of women
from around the world.

59
Feminists of the third wave not only critiqued previous feminisms, they also questioned the ideas that
were present during the previous women's movement. Womanhood as an identity was one major movement
that was scrutinized. This movement that questioned, renamed, and reclaimed the concept of womanhood
was called postmodern feminism. Gender, beauty, sexuality, and the concepts of feminine and masculine
were also questioned. The notion that gender is an absolute marker of identity was suddenly challenged. The
theme of "gender as a social construct" was prevalent during this time due to the pivotal text Gender Trouble:
Feminism and the Subversion of Identity by Judith Butler published in 1990. The challenge for feminists in this
period was to be conscious of how one could express his or her gender identity in a manner that truly
represented him or her. Identity politics was a driving force for discussion
The transformation of notions of the self was also supplemented by the transformation of structures
and processes that could be deemed oppressive to women. There were moves to reclaim other social
structures that seemed oppressive, such as the media that sexualized women, or language that was used to
oppress women. The words "girl," "bitch," and other condescending terms used against women were
reclaimed by the feminists of this movement. Different ideas were challenged. Instead of a head-on attack
against these structures, a societal transformation that aimed to reconstruct the idea of womanhood in a
woman's own light took place.
A notable woman during the third wave of feminism is Judith Butler. She is an American philosopher
and academic whose book Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, brought o light the fluid
nature of gender. Here, she challenges notions of the rigidity and pre-determined nature of gender. She
assumed that gender is not an essence whose origin is drawn from one's characteristics and behavior.
Instead, the repetition of certain characteristics created the idea of gendered behavior. Humans are socialized
to repeat these gendered characteristics.
One of the many key words that explain Judith Butler's philosophy is performance. Gender is performed, and
one's identity is shaped through the performance of traits that are gendered. The performance of gender
further proved that it was a social construct that should not limit a person's identity.
Summing up the Western Feminist Movement
A brief history of the Western feminist movement is presented to show the various strides that women
have made in recent history. Various kinds of feminism with different viewpoints and priorities emerged,
depending on the needs of women at that time. These movements were created as reactions to historical
events or struggles, such as the civil rights movement. Despite this rich diversity, all the " lists" and "isms” of
feminism show that one thing has been the priority of the movement: uplifting women such that they can fully
participate in society as equals with others, and removing structural barriers that prevent them from doing so.
While much work has yet to be done, it is important recognize the heroes of the past for what they have
achieved to privilege this generation of a better future.
Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________
Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 11
1. What is feminism?
2. State the three "waves" of Western feminism and identify the distinct features of each
wave.
3. What are the political or philosophical factors that shaped each of the waves of feminism?
4. What is intersectionality and how is it relevant to the Philippine feminist movement?

60
5. What is postmodern feminism?
Activity
Go back to the discussion on the evolution of the women's movement. Using the particular
women sector assigned to you, identify the point in the history of women's movement where
the concerns of your chosen sector are relevant. Try to think when your chosen sector might
have come to the awareness of its problem and when its movement emerged in relation to
this history,
Point for Reflection
How might one's membership in a particular generational cohort affect his or her outlook on
issues related to gender? How might your own identity (class, gender, religion, etc.) affect
issues related to gender?
CHAPTER 12
Women in the Philippines
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to
1. describe how the role of Filipino women in society evolved:
2. state at least three kinds of responses of Filipino women to oppression, and
3. explain how oppression emerged in the Philippine society.

Watch a film featuring the Philippine Revolution or the Reform Movement. It could be Rizal in Dapitan,
Heneral Luna, the series Katipunan, Sakay, or any similar film. Notice the roles women play and reflect
on the accuracy of the portrayals. How empowered were the women in these films?

61
Women in Pre-colonial Philippines
The history of women in our society should be examined in order to understand the unique situation of
women in the Philippines. The Philippine situation is unique as it is rooted in the colonial history of the country.
The actual condition of pre-Spanish women in the Philippines can be reflected from the practices of the
indigenous peoples and the testimonies of Spanish chroniclers. These sources indicate that there was a
genuine measure of equality among men and women during the pre-Spanish period.
Prior to Hispanic colonization, it can be said that there was no discrimination between sons and
daughters. Parents took pride of their children equally, even to the point of deriving nicknames from their
children. Male and female children did not experience any form of inequality regarding division of inheritance.
Male and female children were also educated equally (according to their indigenous systems) and
cach took an active role in society when they grew up. At the point of first Spanish contact, a majority of the
natives could write using their own orthography. Sexual inhibitions regarding virginity in marriage was not
universally valued, and sex education was prescribed as a duty of a mother to her daughter as stated at least
in the code of Kalantiaw.
Marriages were arranged and a dowry was paid by the groom to the wife's family. The women kept
her name and, if she was particularly meritorious, the husband took her name. Because of spouse kept his or
her relationship with the other spouse's family, each family member was also viewed an equal partner in
marriage. Even then, women ran the household and were mainly or equally responsible for all major decisions
regarding the running of the household. They also took part in the negotiation of contracts with their spouses.
Women were free to exercise their decisions concerning reproduction, with abortion as an option. Divorce was
available to both husband and wife, and both had equal rights to property and children under ancient laws.
Women played an important role in the economic life of the people. They were involved in actual
planting and harvesting, weaving, making pottery, and trading. Women held a substantial amount of the
family's capital and even managed the family's land holdings. They were even in charge of billings, contracts,
and correspondences. Women were not alien to the public realm and some were able to rise and lead their
clans. Historian Luis Dery noted that women also fought alongside men in battle, and many communities were
led by them either as direct rulers, caretakers for the young datu, or just as influential people who could build
alliances or negotiate the outcomes of battles.
The reason for this level of equality was given by Aida Santos Maranan in Do Women Really Hold Up Half the
Sky? Notes on the Women's Movement in the Philippines.
"The local pre-Hispanic economics were geared for social use and to fulfil certain kinship obligations.
Production was not predicated on exchange. There was no centralized system of the means of production,
and the family as a unit had to take charge of its own needs, fulfilling only those that its members actually
consumed. Thus, there was no need to create relations of dependence or of exploitation. In this context of
social and productive relations, women had as much role and rights as men. Since the concept of private
property still had to come along with the Spanish conquistadores, the concept of women as property of man
had no social basis for existing. However, the early forms of feudalism had started to take roots some
communities, and class structure had germinated and were well on their way to a full development. In these
communities, the women had naturally become part of social and productive relations which had need for
dependence and exploitation."
Maranan highlights an important point for the equality of women: women were independent because they had
equal access and control of production resources. It was not until the conquest of the Spanish colonizers that
women had been subsumed into another class.
Historian Estelle Freedman notes that whenever women are involved in the production of food, there
is some measure of equality in a society. Sociologist Fe Mangahas expresses the ground of pre-colonial
equality as
"Endowed with fertile soil and diverse terrain, the archipelago could provide a variety of food throughout the
year. Here, people fished and gathered food from the rivers and the sea during the dry season: hunted,
gathered and planted on the land during the wet season. Within these varied economic activities, children and
women (even when pregnant) could participate: production neither required extractive nor slave labor
Even in today's Filipino community, there is some measure of equality among men and women, especially
when women are involved in, or are even mainly responsible for, the family's income.
It is only when a society is structured on the production of surplus and accumulation of wealth that class and
hierarchy emerge as necessary, and that women's oppression and inequality become an issue. Women
thinkers in the Philippines generally agree that inequality between men and women developed in colonial
times. Before colonialism, women were leaders in the community.
Alongside the datu (or chieftain) and panday (or smith), a babaylan held a central place in society. Babaylan
commonly refers to individuals who have special knowledge or can converse with spirits. During precolonial
times, the babaylan was a woman, or a man who took on the persona of a woman, said to be chosen by the
spirits. and given special powers to engage the unseen beings of nature. A babaylan was recognized for
possessing special knowledge about nature, religious rituals, and cultural practices. These individuals were

62
healers who could speak to spirits and negotiate for blessings, avert misfortunes, predict future events, heal
broken bodies and spirit, assist the dying, and help usher one's soul to the next life."
Essential to the functioning of pre-Hispanic society, the babaylan helped people understand their
cosmic order to navigate reality meaningfully. If someone suffered a misfortune, the babaylan would help him
or her overcome or even prevent future misfortunes. This way, the babaylan served and led a community. A
babaylan was a culture-bearer, priest, and myth-keeper, healing not only one's body and soul but also one's
relationship with the spirits and nature. The babaylan was depended on to maintain the community's well-
being.
Babaylans are presently discussed not only as

mystics and spirit intermediaries, but also as community
leaders and propagators of the worldview that defined most
people in ancient Philippines. This early worldview valued
nature and respected the spirits. It is certainly in conflict with
the misogynistic monotheism that the moralistic Castilian
Catholicism brought to the islands. The following is an excerpt
of the chant by the babaylan Cariapa which foretold the
coming of the Spaniards.
This prophecy would later come true. The Spaniard

invasion wreaked havoc among pre-Hispanic Filipinos and
tore down their communities. The colonizers uprooted the
people from their native societies and compelled them to work
under Spanish supervision to supply the colonizers with their
needs. The Spaniards also forced their religion upon the
natives and thus imposed an alien way of being in the world.
The babaylans led the resistance against the colonization of their world. They fought against the
relocation and reorganization of communities around the reducción parish system. They convinced locals to
refuse conversion to the new religion as they fought to preserve their old beliefs. A series of babaylan-led
rebellions even occurred between 1596 and 1780. These babaylan women were legends like Dapungay of the
Visayas in the 1599 rebellion, Cauenga of Cagayan Valley in 1607. Yga of Nueva Ecija in 1649, and
Santissima of Iloilo in 1664.7 Their revolts were acts of defiance against the Spanish systems and for keeping
the old culture alive. However, the force of the Spanish arms and their desire to acquire the archipelago were
overwhelming. The violence of the Hispanic totalitarian culture was too much for a people who had not come
together as a nation to protect itself against a kind of oppression it had never encountered before.
The babaylan could organize resistance by persuading their communities to destroy their crops, kill
their livestock, and evacuate to the mountains to deprive the Spaniards of these supplies. However,
eventually, the babaylans were attacked in their mountain hideouts through native informants (some were
young boys raised in the convent by the friars). After these unfortunate events, the babaylans power waned
and the Spanish brand of Catholicism colonized the people.
Today, the babaylan still exists in Philippine society. Mangahas

notes that the babaylan culture itself integrated into the
Christian culture in order to survive. The babaylans "could have
created an interspace between Christianity and animism so the
babaylan could creatively resist and survive.
A landmark study by ethnomusicologist Grace Nono

illustrates that the babaylan tradition is alive in the Philippines.
The rationality that supported the cosmology of the babaylan
still shapes the present worldviews of many traditional
communities from the urban centers to the worlds of the
indigenous peoples. Many babaylans are women who still
function as healers and culture bearers, philosophers and negotiators, storytellers, and ritual leaders.
Incorporating Christian and Islamic worldviews, they perform ancient practices that confer a sense of an
ordered world that is not alien but nurturing to those who understand it. In other words, these traditional
women leaders still serve their communities as they did in ancient times. They have taken on different aspects
of various communities and have learned to adapt the Westernized Philippine culture
In sum, women were important in the Philippine society and were genuinely equal with men in their
old worldview-one that did not curtail freedom or construct women as unequal. It was with the coming of
Spanish colonialism that the Filipina was constructed differently
Women in the Hispanic Period
In claiming the Philippine islands, the Spaniards also

colonized the settlers of the land. These settlers, now called
Filipinos, had to follow a foreign moral and cultural code to
be morally acceptable in their own communities. Women
were no exception to these incidents. The Spanish clergy
saw early Filipinas as too sensuous and free with their

63
behavior, but were appreciated for being intelligent strong-willed, and practical. Spanish friars admonished
women to remain pure and obedient, and exploited the latter's influential position in traditional communities to
spread the new religion This echoes what was discussed in previous chapters regarding the need to suppress
women in order to ascertain phallocentric religions.
It was important for the Spaniards that the Filipina woman be completely subjugated to her husband
or her father and to the Catholic Church. To remold women into the alien notion of an ideal woman, they were
taught to avoid sin by keeping chaste, not being vain, dressing modestly, keeping busy at home, and being
self-sacrificing The colonizers created a woman who was only active at home and withdrawn from the public
sphere. If they were allowed to seek education, women were placed in schools that forced in them the values
and character of the new Filipina. Filipino women were reduced to instruments for propagating the colonial
system and producing the next generation that would ensure its survival Chastity, purity and forbearance were
thus promoted simply to subdue the early Filipina to her new role and constrict her creative participation in the
society. This kind of woman was ironically portrayed by Rizal through the character of Maria Clara who was
sweet, docile, obedient, self-sacrificing and who never had the courage to share the fate of her beloved." She
was forced into an engagement with a Spaniard, chose to enter the convent to flee from a loveless marriage,
and made a more permanent escape from the vicissitudes of life into insanity.
Filipinas were victims of the Spanish patriarchal system and its version of Catholicism. Because
wealth accumulation defined the whole existence of the state and power relations were established by this
accumulation women no longer gained active roles in the public sphere, and lost power in the wider spectrum
of the society. Their diminished roles in the communal sphere and in the systems of production confined
women to supporting roles such as status display and maintenance (organizing parties and keeping
appearances) reproduction, and child-rearing. Outside the home, they devoted their creative action to the
Church:
“Religion then became the women's overwhelming concern and sole refuge, inspiring their lives with
the martyrdom of male and female saints cultivating in women an infinite capacity for forbearance, suffering,
and forgiveness of all venial, mortal, and male sins, obscuring in the process their capacity for greater
involvement in things than the hearth, home, arid heaven . (Maranan, “Do Women Really Hold Up Half the Sky?,” p. 39
Thus, when the Propaganda Movement gained prominence, one of their causes dismays was the role
women played in society. St. Mary John Mananzan quotes Isabelo de los Reyes lament:
“The mission of the woman in the Philippines, thanks to her superiority and the actual circumstances
of the country, is highly cultural, she is the one to give light and progress. She is cooled to banish from the
house quack doctors and sobadoras she is called to regenerate the indifferent Filipino she is the one who
should diffuse knowledge of agriculture, elements of law and of pharmacy let us now take away the decorative
knowledge or at least let us not make them obligatory, and in exchange let us demand from those who aspire
to be teacher, elements of medicine, domestic pharmacy, and agricultural knowledge.” ( Maranan pp. 35-36)
The Propaganda Movement, however, began to recognize the crucial roles women could assume
especially in campaigns against Spain, although still limited. While the Propaganda Movement itself was a
very male enterprise, it sought to raise the status of women. Women participation in uprisings by the
Katipunan and the millenarians suggest that Filipinas played major roles in times of conflicts as leaders,
soldiers, healers, and heads of logistics operations. Women in the 1890s organized a masonic lodge called
Logia de Adopcion which gathered many intellectual women with anti-Spanish sentiments. Many outstanding
Filipino women such as - Gabriela Silang and Gregoria de Jesus were active participants in the war against
Spain.
Despite three hundred years of misogynistic reorientation, women could still find their place among
men in the fight for Philippine liberation. Women enlisted in Emilio Aguinaldo's army to fight against the
American regime. Agueda Iniquinto Cahabagan even rose to the rank of Heneral Brigada in 1899 and led a
military unit under Aguinaldo's army. Other women have also taken on similar positions within the Katipunan.
These historical facts indicate that women during the Spanish era were key factors in the Philippine revolution,
yet their exploits during this time have yet to be widely recognized.
Women in the American Era
After the struggles for independence from Spain, women

continued their dynamic role in the Philippine society.
From the 1900s to 1920s, most women's groups
furthered the presence of women in the public sphere by
focusing on charity work and social services. These
groups were formed to keep the elite women busy
working with orphans and assisting prisoners, among
others. Aida Maranan documented the development of
various women associations and leagues during the
American period in the Philippines.
Her findings are outlined in Table 4.
Maranan observed that women groups at this time were

"bearers and implementers of social reforms within

64
institutions initially established by men. Decision-making at top levels of all these movements had largely been
done by men. While certain women's associations or groups campaigned for their voice to be heard and roles
given new definitions, the attempts had not made a substantial impact on the exploitation of women through
class and gender.
Table 4. Development of Women Groups in the Philippines
Date Notable Event
1899
The Association de Damas de la Cruz Roja (or the Women's Red Cross Association) was
formed to help in the Philippine war effort.
1902 The Liga Feminine de la Paz or Philippine Women's League of Peace was set up to assist
in the US, pacification of the Philippine Islands
1905 The Association Feminist Filipina-an organization that gathered volunteers to reform the
Philippine society-was created. It promoted social change through prison reforms,
education reforms which included further education of women), the improvement of
women's conditions in factories. and the inclusion wome certain local governing bodies
1906 The Associacion Femenista donga was created. It lought women's suffrage
1907 La Gota de Leche was formed to assist women in maternal and infant care.
1909 A magazine devoted to women's issues came out to foster the struggle for women's rights
and improvement.
1912 The first women's club, called the Society for the Advancement of Women, was founded.
1921- The Philippines saw its own suffragette movement.
1937
1922 The Liga Nacional de Damas Filipinas (National League of Filipina Women) was organized
with the aim of Philippine independence and better working conditions for factory women,
1928 The suffragette movement was enhanced by the creation the Women's Citizen League.
1929 The first women's convention was organized by the Philippine Women's Suffragette
Movement, wherein the suffrage of women was agreed on. The fight for maternity leave
with rights pay was also brought to the table.
1935 Act No. 2711 granted women the right to vote, thus the creation of the General Council of
Women to make sure that this right would be exercised by 1937,
1937 Filipina women realized their right to vote.
1939 The League of Women's Voters was organized for voter's education.
1950 Women organized the Civic Assembly of the Philippines to engage in policymaking, but
"reinforced the belief that the primary concern of women was the home.
1951 The first National Political Party of Women was set up but did not last because of the
dominance of established parties
Three insights about women's movements from the American period until Martial Law activism are
relevant. Firstly, "these movements were begun and dominated by men. Even the suffrage movement was
said to have been encouraged by the Americans to distract people from the independence movement.
Secondly, that women's involvement in these movements gave them liberties and roles that were traditionally
denied them." At the very least, it gave them the institutional framework for participating in the outside world.
From women concerned with domestic issues, they became women engaged in social issues and
policymaking. Thirdly, "that goals and objectives of these movements were valid for and important to a smaller
or greater section of Filipino women."226 Not everyone cared about the same issues and thus, support for
women's movements was not strong enough to transform the patriarchal systems. Therefore, even if these
movements allowed women to participate in the public sphere and contribute to nation-building, women were
still confined to play supporting roles to the projects of men-to the realm of care which is akin to domestic
work-and ended up supporting and perpetuating patriarchy. Another insight is that most of the movements
involved welfare work led by a group of upper-class women that only addressed the latter's issues. It was not
until the late 1960s and 1970s that they discovered a more radical action questioning patriarchy and the social
order that defined the world of women. The quote below gives a perspective on this new movement of elite-led
women's organizations:
Since that period and progressively as U.S.-style democracy and a semi-colonial status were
legitimized, the women's organizations have taken the pattern clearly designed to enhance the status quo:
posing as guardians of society, promoting useless reforms, glorifying charity work. drumming up support for
political and other causes of the ruling elite, and reinforcing the role of women as wife, homemaker, and
auxiliary to men.
The observation, though clearly a judgement biased toward a socialist reading of society, is accurate.
Most women's groups were led by the elite, and only represented one side of the Filipina women. This
situation is similar to the U.S. 's white, upper class woman taking the lead on the suffragette movement.

65
Most women groups in the Philippines

were keen on establishing and furthering the
development agenda of the West and the social
classes that benefitted from Western
development. They supported the expansion of
Western education and softened the adverse
effects of the imposed market economy by
providing social safety nets for marginalized and
displaced people. They likewise supported the
work of men by enhancing their roles as
housewives through women's clubs that
discussed the issues and needs of women.
Women's clubs certainly brought women to the
public sphere, but they dealt with issues like the
training of house help, child-rearing, and charity
work. All of these activities were extensions of
their domestic roles. On the other hand, charity
work like distributing Christmas gifts to the poor, helping prisoners, and caring for orphans, women's clubs did
some service to society, especially in areas where social services failed.
Women groups during the American period furthered the interests of the ruling classes and Western
countries. These groups needed the Philippines for its strategic military location in Asia, cheap labor, and
natural resources. However, there exists a counteractive opinion that if marginalized people were treated well,
then there would be less social unrest resulting from this defective social and economic system. Immersing
with marginalized people kept women groups so busy that they felt involved in the society and had no time to
question their subordinate role to men. Meanwhile, the furthering of national development in the export sector
at that time caused great poverty. Workers' wages were kept low by an oppressive government. preventing
workers from earning a decent income that would have allowed them to be housed, their children to be
educated, and their nutritional needs to be met. Displacement in the countryside was triggered by land
takeovers or social and military unrests brought about by the exploitation of natural resources by the elite and
foreign nationals. Women victims of displacement suffered the double burden of surviving their conditions
while providing for their family.
Women were also victims of violence and harassment. Despite all these exploitations, the Philippine industry
did not actually advance and extractive economic activities degraded the environment. The feminist groups
that emerged from the communist and socialist movements of the late 1960s and early 1970s would react
against this reality.
The Birth of Militant Groups with a Feminist Agenda
Revolutionary groups that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the communist and
socialist movements. These groups argued that the nation was suffering from underdevelopment because its
economy served the interests of the U.S. by providing cheap labor and free access to resources, as well as by
serving as a dumping ground for U.S. goods. The new economic model under the American and postwar
period brought about various levels of poverty.
Women who worked with the underground and aboveground components of the Communist Party,
and the other socialist groups that rivalled it, realized that the agenda for liberation could also serve women's
quest for equality. Many of the problems women faced were a result of abusive structures that kept them poor
and exposed to various kinds of exploitation. The nationalist and militant women's movement, as they called
themselves, believed that the only way to achieve equality in the society was to liberate the nation from the
exploitation of the elite and the U.S. However, women issues on equality were considered secondary within
the communist and socialist movements, and that militant women had to gather themselves together under the
socialist party to push for women's agenda while struggling for national liberation.
The iconic Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong Kababaihan (MAKIBAKA), a radical women's group led by student
activists showed that the root of women's problems lay in "feudalism. capitalism, and colonialism. They also
asserted that the role of women in the liberation movement should not be confined to "making sandwiches,
raising funds, jotting down minutes of the meeting, and playing adjuncts to the male leaders who generally
made the decisions.
Eventually, they took part in organizing and educating women

peasants and laborers, as well as in establishing day care
centers for the latter (which was important for freeing women
to engage the public sphere). MAKIBAKA became inactive
because its leaders were imprisoned or driven into hiding
during the Martial Law. This organization is an important part
of history as it was the first group to emphasize the issues of
women as integral and yet distinct from the general national
liberation objectives of the party,
The Kilusan ng Kababaihang Pilipina (PILIPINA) and the

Katipunan ng Kababaihan Para sa Kalayaan (KALAYAAN)

66
were groups formed in the 1980s that challenged the potentially anti women's ways of the Communist Party's
leadership. PILIPINA focused on mainstreaming women's concerns in the transformation of society. It
promoted the welfare of women through social development work, particularly establishing cooperatives and
providing training in women's concerns. KALAYAAN, on the other hand, worked within the national liberation
agenda to ensure that the women's liberation issues were not made secondary in the movement.
The assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr., the main opponent of former president-turned-dictator Ferdinand
Marcos, brought women's groups into the limelight as they pushed
for their own political agenda. These organizations were led by
middle and upper class "politically-inclined matrons who sought for
justice, freedom, and democracy through peaceful means. A
prominent group was the National Organization of Women (NOW)
which was the adjunct of the United Democratic Opposition party
coalition. It was oriented toward the socio-political formation of
women and the campaign for clean elections. During this time, the
intensifying call for conscientization and honest governance resulted
in the foundation of other women groups like the Alliance of Women for Action towards Reconciliation
(AWARE) and Women for the Ouster of Marcos and Boycott (WOMB). Women's sections also sprang from
existing groups like the Concerned Artists of the Philippines, Religious women came together in alliances as
well, like the Association of Women in Theology (AWIT) which brought together pastors, Catholic nuns, and
deacons; the Kapisanan ng mga Madre sa Maynila which was composed of religious women; and the Church
Women United which was affiliated with the National Council of Churches in the Philippines. The students
from the universities likewise established groups like the University of the Philippines Samahang Makabayan
ng Kabataang Kababaihan (SAMAKA Kababaihan). Exclusive schools formed their own groups as well like
Ateneo de Manila's Atenista Women and the then Maryknoll College's Katipuneros
On October 28, 1983, about 9,000 women took part in

the largest women's march that protested human rights abuses
and the abuses of the military. This movement was dubbed as
the Women's Protest Day. The following year, the women who
took part in this protest formed the General Assembly Binding
Women for Reforms, Integrity, Equality, Leadership, and
Action (GABRIELA). GABRIELA consistently protested
against the policies and projects of the Marcos regime that
were inimical to the people's interests. Eventually, however,
the coalition disbanded because some members desired to
participate in the 1986 snap elections. The more militant
groups saw the snap elections as a ploy of the Marcos
government to legitimize itself, or for the elite to regain their power. Since the 1986 turmoil, women's
movements in the Philippines shifted "from a broad coalition to small tactical and issue- or project-based
alliances. "This observation remains true until today as present concerns of women's movements are more
issue-based, focusing on particular causes such as trafficking, domestic violence, maternal and reproductive
health, and protection of domestic workers. They are abo concerned with services that support women like the
day-care or women's health centers, training for the protection of women's rights, livelihood projects, and
cooperative formation. One area of coalition formation that did work in the turn of this century is the party-list
system. When this system was implemented in 1996, women's groups coalesced into three main groups.
GABRIELA transformed itself into a political party and brought together people's organizations, NGOs, and
other women affiliated with the National Democratic Left groups. The more centrist and middle-center groups
formed the Abanse! Pinay. Another broad coalition formed by left and center-left groups known as Akbayan
adopted a women's agenda alongside its other issues. These parties brought to public eye the discourse on
women's issues and made policymakers respond to these needs. In its two terms as a party list
representative. Abanse! Pinay was able to push for the passage of the Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2000, the
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003, and the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004.
Meanwhile, Akbayan supported the Reproductive Health Law, the Magna Carta of Women, and the Gender
Balance Bill, among other bills and laws. GABRIELA also pushed for these laws and continued to bring to the
public discourse particular problems of women. These three groups also used their government positions to
increase public awareness on issues affecting women, push for the implementation of government projects in
ways that benefit women, help channel funds to women's projects and organizations, provide trainings and
education, and network grassroots organizations.
Women's party-list groups made valuable contributions to women's liberation, including the agenda of
the poor and marginalized women as a national interest. They served as platforms for organizing women into
multi-sectoral, collective action. This opportunity not only allowed for the mainstreaming of women's projects in
the consciousness of the general public but also showed that effective government projects could be
implemented with proper consultation and participatory processes. Women's party-list groups mostly sprang
from civil society organizations or ideological movements that valued participatory processes. Thus, they were
able to imbibe participatory and consultative processes in the implementation of government programs,
especially those funded by foreign governments or multilateral funding agencies. Because the 1986
Constitution and the Local Government Code of 1992 mandate consultation and people's participation in local
governance and development, party-list groups and the civil society organizations that were part of their
coalition trained women's groups to become effective partners in the planning and implementing of
development projects,
A reflection of women's engagements in Philippine history shows that women have been active in all
aspects of society. Women were leaders and influential individuals in the building of the nation. Perhaps,
because their status was considerably equal to men in the pre-Hispanic Philippines, women were not

67
completely suppressed by the Spanish. While many women displayed the desired meekness and weakness
that the friars demanded of them, others did not as the revolts of traditional or the so-called millenarian groups
have shown. Women played leadership roles either as co-rulers of these alternative fields as leaders, warriors,
healers, or spies. During the Revolutions of 1896 and 1898, and the war against the U.S., they showed how
they could take up multiple roles in the armed forces.
Women in the Philippines have a history of serving their society not only as home keepers or as
producers of children. They have been active partners in establishing the well-being of the family, creating
enterprise, preserving and enriching culture, creating arts, producing food, and ruling and war. Thus, the
suppression of the Spanish and the creation of a new world order were not enough to erase the woman's
understanding and fulfillment of her capacity. Women have found their place in nation-building. They have
always created a space to become creative, albeit not always equal, partners in this work. And so, women
have contributed much in the struggle for national liberation, in policymaking, and in governance.
Women have somehow played an auxiliary role in development work. They have always provided
support for men in a man's world defined by the interests of men. The fact that women have had to struggle to
have a rudimentary reproductive health law and to have a special law to protect them from domestic violence
shows that their voice is still not a dominant one in shaping the world they live in. The question now is how to
create a social order that is not only accommodating to women but is shaped by them as equal partners of
men. The third part of this book will discuss how this can possible. Before that, the problem that Filipinas face
in their daily lives need to be examined.
10 Filipinas Who Advanced Modern Feminism in the Country
1. Leticia Ramos Shahani
She was a former senator, chair of the National

Commission on the Role of Filipina Women
and UN assistant secretary general for Social
Development and Humanitarian Affairs. She is
the one of the women who spearheaded and
solely drafted Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) during the height of the international
recognition of Women's Human Rights in 1967.
Shahani passed the Foreign Service Exam and
worked for the Department of Foreign Affairs.
She later became the representative of the
country to the first International Conference on
the Status of Women in Mexico in 1975. She
did this while establishing a local mechanism in the Philippines to advance the cause of women.
After the Mexican conference, Shahani and other Filipina women leaders-Helena Benitez,
Cecilia Munoz Palma, and Irene Cortes-formed the National Commission on the Role of Filipino
Women in 1975. In 1987, she started her term as a Philippine senator under the first Aquino
administration and served for two terms. She pioneered laws intended to alleviate the plight of
women.
2. Patricia Benitez-Licuanan
She served as the chairperson of the

Commission on Education, chairwoman of the
National Commission on d Role of Filipino
Women, chairperson of the Commission on
the Status of Women, chairperson of the Main
Committee Fourd, World Conference on
Women, co-founder of the Asia Pacific
Women's Watch, and convenor of the Asia-
Pacific NGO Forum High in Beijing
As graduate student of psychology, she

focused her on the problems of women, initially on the problems caused by migration. She was
struck by the gender dimensions on how different issues affect women more than men. After for
the United Nations Licuanan returned working to the academe and served as the academic vice
president of Ateneo de Manila University and then moved on to become president of Miriam
College. One of her radical decisions during her term as president of Miriam College was the
restoration of the college into an all. women's institution after experimenting with co-education
for 15 years. As CHED chair, she continued to advocate gender equality in various educational
institutions. Work
3. Teresita Quintos-Deles
She is a peace advocate; former chair and

co-founder d Coalition for Peace, National

68
Peace Conference; presidential adviser on the Peace Process during the time of former Preside
Benigno Aquino III; and appointed lead convenor of the National Anti-Poverty Commission from
2001 to 2003. She maintained an active involvement in the women’s movement particularly in
the institution of PILIPINA, which is recognized as the first women's organization in the
Philippines to espouse an explicitly "homegrown feminist" line. She also represented a civil
society in key governance partnerships, including the Social Reform Council of the Ramos
Administration that led the groundwork for landmark reform policies such as the Social Reform
and Poverty Alleviation Act, Indigenous Peoples Right Act, and Anti-Rape Law, among others.
4. Sister Mary John Mananzan, OSB
She is a feminist activist, former GABRIELA

chairperson former president of St. Scholastica's
College, and prioress of the Missionary of
Benedictine Sisters of the Manila Priory. Named as
one of the top 100 Inspiring People in the World
during her time as director of the Institute of
Women's Studies of St. Scholastica in 2011, she
was cited for being instrumental in developing a
and feminist Third World theology within the
Catholic Church introducing feminist activism. As a
feminist activist, Sr. Mary John led many women-
centered programs and organizations such as the
Women Crisis Center and the Women's Ecology
and Wholeness Farm. She was also active in the street parliament against the dictatorship
during the Marcos regime. She was the first Filipina to head the Philippine Province of
5. Sister Christine Tan
She the Religious of the Good Shepherd, a

former chairperson of the Executive Board of the
Association of Major Religious Superiors of
Women in the Philippines, and founder of Alay
Kapwa Christian Community. During the Marcos
regime, she boldly issued a memorandum to all
major superiors of religious men and women that
they would continue publishing "Signs of the
Times" despite telegrams from Chairman Hans
Menzi of the Philippine Council for Print Media
asking them to stop publishing various reports.
She was a member of the 1986 Constitutional Convention by an invitation from then President
Corazon Aquino to give the urban poor a voice in the revision of the Constitution of the
Philippines. She chose to live among the urban poor despite coming from a very wealthy family,
6. Joi Barrios
Born as Maria Josephine Barrios in 1962, she is a

popular poet, actress, scriptwriter, and activist. She
earned her PhD in Filipino and Philippine Literature
from the University of the Philippines and served as
associate professor and associate dean of the UP
College of Arts and Letters. Her works included a
collection of poetry entitled To Be A Woman is to
Live at A Time of War published by the Institute of
Women's Studies in St. Scholastica's College in
1990,
She was among the one hundred women chosen as

Weavers of History for the Philippines Centennial Celebration. An awardee of the Ten
Outstanding Women in the Nation's Service (TOWNS) in 2004, Barrios teaches Filipino and
Philippine Literature at the Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies and the Asian
American Program of the University of California.
7. Lorena Barros
Maria Lorena Barros was a woman leader,
gifted writer, and one of the icons of
modern Philippine feminism. She was one

69
of the well-known heroes during the anti-dictatorship struggle who founded the Malayang Kilusan
ng Bagong Kababaihan ot MAKIBAKA
In 1970, she graduated from the University of the Philippines with a degree in Anthropology and
taught while taking up graduate courses. In 1971, Barros was one of the 63 student leaders
charged with subversion. She went underground but was arrested in 1973, jailed at Camp
Vicente Lim in Laguna, and then transferred to Fort Bonifacio's Ipil Rehabilitation Center where
she escaped a year later. She re-joined the underground movement and continued writing
poems, songs, and essays there. In 1974, the Marcos government offered PHP35,000 for her
capture. In 1976, Barros was seriously wounded and captured in an armed encounter in
Mauban, Quezon.
8. Raissa Jajurie
Atty. Jajurie is the Moro

program coordinator of the
Alternative Legal Assistance
Center. An advocate of Muslim
women's rights, she believes in
justice for Muslim women in
accordance with Islamic
teachings and human rights
standards. In her ten years of
work with Muslim women, she
founded Nisa Ul-Haqq fi Bangsamoro (Women for Justice in the Bangsamoro), an
organization for Muslim women, that conducts trainings community dialogues, researches,
and policy advocacy. Recently, Atty. Jajurie was appointed to join the MILF Peace Panel in
2014,
9. R oselle Ambubuyog
She is the first visually-impaired Filipina to

be awarded summa cum laude. Blind at
the age of six, Ambubuyog did not let her
disability hinder her to finish her studies.
She graduated valedictorian in her
elementary school and high school. She
was awarded a full scholarship at the
Arenco de Manila University where she
later graduated with a bachelor's degree
in mathematics with all the possible
awards for student excellence and
service. Outside school, she received
special awards and recognition from the
Ten Outstanding Students of the
Philippines, Order of the Knights of Rizal, and the Bank of the Philippine Islands Foundation
Science Award. Ambubuyog also started a project in partnership with the Rotary Club of
Makati-Ayala, which donated computers, scanners, and Braille technologies to different
schools, giving opportunities to blind students
10. Rosa Henson
L
o l
a
Rosa was a comfort woman. In 1992, she broke the silence

about Filipina comfort women through her autobiography,
Comfort Women: Slave of Destiny. During World War 11,
she joined the Hukbalahap and served as a messenger. She
was forcibly taken by the Japanese forces and brought to a
hospital in Angeles, Pampanga, where her ordeal as a
comfort woman began at 14 years of age. She was raped by scores of Japanese soldiers.
After coming out with her story, she fought for justice for comfort women by joining
demonstrations and even filing a suit in Tokyo. She died in 1997 at the age of 69.

70
Current Forms of Oppression against Filipino Women and Their Responses
What are the current issues of oppression against

Philippine women? Author Cynthia Nolasco summarizes the
three major issues women face. The first aspect of women's
oppression is due to their gender. Women are oppressed
simply because they are women. The second is their
membership in a social class or sector of society. Thus, for
instance, women suffer hardships not only because they are
women but because they are marginalized farmers,
domestic servants, or factory workers. Finally, women are
oppressed as citizens of a former colony due to the
continuing effects of exploitative globalization. The
combination of these three are called intersectional oppression, or the multiple oppression that women face
due to the marginalization of other parts of their identity.
Women in the Third World
Numerous forms of oppression occur because of a woman's socialized gender role. Some forms of violence
such as rape, domestic violence, gender discrimination, and harassment at work and in homes affect women
more than men. Often, this discrepancy is justified by religious or ideological beliefs, particularly the prevalent
religious dogma which states that women should be subservient to men, or the culture which dictates woman's
place in the home.
Thus, it goes to show that the root of women's oppression is the lower status given to them and the pervading
gender inequality in society,
Women workers are exploited because of their gender and their economic and social positions. As Third
World laborers, women are used as part of the cheap labor force. They are also paid less than their male
counterparts simply because they are women. They stand as irregular workers or substitute workers to men."
Peasant women in agriculture do not only have to work for subsistence wages but also have to contend with
the fact that they belong to the class of the Landless farmers
Women in the Philippines are made to suffer particularly difficult conditions because of their position as
citizens of the Third World. They bear the hardships imposed by the economic and political exigencies of a
Third World country, one that is ruled by the concerns of the elite and of foreign interests that control the
economy, As citizens, they are thus deprived of substantial control of their course for development. As
women, they are even more disempowered because of the lack of representatives with a significant voice to
air their concerns and prioritize their welfare. This situation is clearly evident in the Philippine government's
difficulties in enforcing pro women laws or changing structures that repress women.
With this multifaceted discrimination against women, Philippine feminists have centered their engagement on
certain issues. Some groups are organized around the care for women victims of domestic violence. They
offer legal assistance, counseling, and a safe haven for the abused women and children. Other organizations
offer assistance to trafficked women and prostitutes. They run halfway houses with mental health and
reproductive health services, as well is rehabilitation centers, Meanwhile, some groups focus on sectoral
concerns such as organizations for peasants, laborers, midwives, and nurses. They work to change policies at
the national or local levels in response to their sectors' needs. Other groups also organize themselves as self-
help groups for marginalized women, for instance, as cooperatives or livelihood organizations. Other women
are affiliated with a political party with a political agenda, such as the need for representation in the Lower and
Upper House
Practical Feminism in the Philippines
It has been observed time and again that the Philippine women's
movement has been dominated by more practical concerns than
ideological ones, unlike those in the Western movements. This is
due to the multiple oppression faced by Filipino women, and
Filipinos in general. Thus, debates within the women's sectors
revolve around questions of strategies and policies for women's
liberation, rather than issues regarding women's definitions and
conceptual positions, it is important to note because it marks the
character of Philippine feminism. Rather than a feminism that has
evolved to take radical positions rooted in theoretical debates about
the foundation and meaning of the oppression of women, Philippine feminism has worked strategically with the
state or with political and civil society movements to further the welfare of women. Thus, if one desires to
understand the concerns of Philippine women, one needs to examine the concrete issues that baser these
women. The major concerns in this case involve violence against women, including harassment and domestic
violence, trafficking. reproductive health rights, equality especially in the workplace, representation in
government, and economic security, Feminist issues are also important in academic and artistic circles. In
these fields, the questions concern women's voice and its representation. Much of academic feminist thought
is centered on reflection about the position of women in the Philippine society, articulating the roots and
ground of their oppression, probing the real lives of women and their real needs, and finally exploring women's
contribution to development. Thus, one can say that Philippine feminism in general is more grounded in the
concrete concerns of women as defined by the exploitation and marginalization in the developing world. These
feminist movements have a strong grassroots base usually organized by non-governmental organizations that
promote women-oriented development.

71
Name: ____________________________________ Course/Year: __________

Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________
Activity 12
A. Guide Questions (Explanation)
1. How did the notions of class and hierarchy emerge in the Philippines? How
are they connected to women's oppression and gender inequality?
2. The Spanish version of Christianity introduced misogynistic attitudes against
women. Why is this so?
3. What distinguishes the focus of the feminist movement in the Philippines
during the colonial period, the American era, and in recent history
4. How did Filipino women respond to oppression and inequality in various
stages of women's struggle throughout Philippine history?
5. What makes present-day Philippine feminism distinct from Western
feminism
B. Activity
1. What social, political, economic events, and/or trends shaped the various
generations of the women's liberation struggle Create a map of the
significant events of the local and international women's liberation
movements. Show the parallelisms and differences of women's movement
in the Philippines and in the West.
2. Make a list of women you consider the ten most significant in history.
These women can be local or foreign. Explain why they are in your list.
Then, consider if these women advanced the cause of women's liberation
and how they did this.
3. Locate your particular women's sector and identify the major issues it
faces. When in the Philippine women's movement did your sector's
problem(s) become relevant? Did these issues rise to become part of the
national discourse? What factors initiated them to be considered at the
national level? Write down the developments made to counter these issues
or problems

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1

ST. VINCENT’S COLLEGE INCORPORATED

Faith Mikee J. Embol

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

Leveling off: Gender and Sexuality

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Differentiate gender from sexuality;

Pre-work for the chapter

Complete the following statements;

I think girls are________________________________________________________________________

I think boys are _______________________________________________________________________

I think girls should ____________________________________________________________________

I think boys should_____________________________________________________________________

Society thinks that girls should ___________________________________________________________

Society thinks that boys should___________________________________________________________

GENDER AND SEXUALITY

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________

Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________

ACTIVITY 1. WHAT ABOUT YOUR GENDER?

A. Complete the following sentences:

1. When I was a child, my favorite toy was______________________________________________.

2. I first found out I was girl/boy when__________________________________________________.

3. Because I am girl/boy, ___________________________________________________________.

4. Because he/she is a boy/girl, ______________________________________________________.

5. Because X are LGBTQ+, _________________________________________________________.

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

Gender is a socially learned behavior

Gender is a social construct that

Table 1. main differences between Sex and Gender

Does Sex Correspond to Gender?

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

Gender stereotypes are of four types:

1. Sexual orientation covers the three dimensions of sexuality, namely:

a. sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies;

The abbreviation LGBTQIA is short for lesbian, gay, transgender,

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

In addition, lesbian pertains to

The issue of discrimination based on gender is very prevalent

Why Equate Gender Issues with Women's Issues

By definition, gender issues are equated with women's Issues

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

Name: __________________________________________ Course/Year: __________

Date: ____________________ Gender: _______________

Point for Reflection

Discuss what is expected of girls and boys in the following institutions:

C. Choose 3 Questions to answer. Write/encode in a separate paper

1. How do gender, sex, and sexuality differ from one another?

SUBJECT: Gender & Development

5. What is SOGIE and how is it relevant to the Philippine society?

Cultures and Rationalities

Objectives/ Learning Outcomes:

1. discuss how culture or rationality shapes people's perception of reality:

Pre-work for the Chapter

1. What for you defines maleness and femaleness

Instinct and Culture

Name: ________________________________ Course/Year:

Date: ______ Gender: _

Name: ________________________________ Course/Year:

Date: ______ Gender: _

Name: ______________________________ Course/Year:

Date: ______ Gender: _

Name: ______________________________ Course/Year:

Date: ______ Gender: _

Name: ________________________________ Course/Year:

Date: ______ Gender: _