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GENDER AND SOCIETY

Concepts, principles, and approaches in the understanding of genders in the Philippines toward an effective gender-responsive
society

MODULE 1. SEX & GENDER

After studying this module, you are expected to:

1. Define and differentiate sex and gender;

2. Understand the different gender concepts;
3. Discuss the different sexual orientations and gender identities and expressions; and
4. Apply your understanding of these concepts in real life.

WHAT IS SEX?

SEX refers to biologically defined and genetically acquired differences between males and females, according to their
physiology and reproductive capabilities or potentialities. It is universal and mostly unchanging, without surgery.

 Sex refers to the biological characteristics (including genetics, anatomy, and physiology) that generally define humans
as female or male. Note that these biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive; however, there are
individuals who possess both male and female characteristics.
 Born with- all persons/human beings are born with it (sex). Ex: All males are born with a penis, testicles, and semen
while females are born with a vagina, ovary, and fallopian tube, and can produce breast milk. But there are exceptions,
the hermaphrodites, are born with both sexes.
 Natural
 Universal, A Historical- sex has no variation from culture to culture.
 Cannot be changed, except with surgery or medical treatment like vaginoplasty, vulvoplasty, etc.

Only the physiological part is changed, however. Only women can give birth and breastfeed. Only men can produce semen.

Genetics factors largely determine the sex of an organism. The chromosomes are referred to as X and Y.

 All human female egg cells only carry X chromosomes.

 A human male’s sperm cell carries either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome.
 If a sperm carrying an X chromosome pairs up with the egg cell, the anatomical characteristics of the human baby
would typically be that of female
 If the sperm carrying a Y chromosome pairs up with the egg cell, the resulting baby from this pairing would typically
be a male. (Purves, et al., 2000)

WHAT IS GENDER?

Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being women and men.
The social definitions of what it means to be a woman or a man vary among cultures and change over time. Gender is a
sociocultural expression of particular characteristics and roles that are associated with certain groups of people with reference to
their sex and sexuality.

 Gender is a constructed “social fact.”

 The World Health Organization (WHO) defined gender as socially constructed characteristics of a male person and a
female person
 Etymologically, the word gender came from the Latin genus, meaning kind, type, or sort.

Gender may or may not depend upon biological traits. Gender is also determined by what an individual feels and does. More
specifically, it is a concept that describes how societies determine and manage sex categories; the cultural meanings attached to
men and women’s roles; and how individuals understand their identities including, but not limited to, being a man, woman,

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transgender, intersex, genderqueer and other gender positions. Gender involves social norms, attitudes, and activities that society
deems more appropriate for one sex over another.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER

Gender, like all social identities, is socially constructed. Social constructionism is one of the key theories sociologists use to put
gender into historical and cultural focus.
Social constructionism is a social theory about how meaning is created through social interaction – through the things we do and
say with other people. This theory shows that gender is not a fixed or innate fact, but instead, it varies across time and place.

1. Socially constructed set of roles and responsibilities associated with being girl and boy or women and men, and in some
cultures a third or another gender.

2. Not born with it.

3. Learned
4. Gender roles vary greatly in different societies, cultures, and historical periods, as well as they, also depend on socio-economic
factors, age, education, ethnicity, and religion.
5. Although deeply rooted, gender roles can be changed over time since social values and norms are not static.

Example: The expectation of men to be economic providers of the family and for women to be caregivers is a gender norm in
many cultural contexts. However, women prove able to do traditionally male jobs as well as men (e.g., men and women can do
housework; men and women can be leaders and managers)

PRACTICAL POINT: At birth, the difference between boys and girls is their sex; as they grow up society gives them different
roles, attributes, opportunities, privileges and rights that in the end create the social differences between men and women.

WHAT IS LGBTQIA?

LGBTQIA is an acronym for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, and asexual. These terms are
used to describe a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity.

Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite
sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. It is about who you’re attracted to and wants
to have relationships with.

LGBTQIA

Lesbian - A woman whose enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction is to other women. Some lesbians may
prefer to identify as gay or as gay women.
Gay- The adjective used to describe people whose enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attractions are to people of
the same sex. Sometimes lesbian is the preferred term for women.

Bisexual - A person who has the capacity to form enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attractions to those of the
same gender or to those of another gender. People may experience this attraction in differing ways and degrees over their
lifetime. Bisexual people need not have had specific sexual experiences to be bisexual; in fact, they need not have had any
sexual experience at all to identify as bisexual.

Transgender - An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from what is typically
associated with the sex they were assigned at birth. People under the transgender umbrella may describe themselves using one or
more of a wide variety of terms— including transgender. Many transgender people are prescribed hormones by their doctors to
bring their bodies into alignment with their gender identity. Some undergo surgery as well. But not all transgender people can or
will take those steps, and a transgender identity is not dependent upon physical appearance or medical procedures.

A Transgender is a person whose biological sex does not align with his/her gender identity. Transgender people will undergo a
gender transition that may involve changing their dress and self-presentation (such as a name change). Transgender people may

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undergo hormone therapy to facilitate this process, but not all transgender people will undertake surgery. Being transgender
does not imply any specific sexual orientation. Therefore, transgender people may identify as straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual,
etc.

Transexual- are transgender people who opted to have sex reassignment through surgery.

Queer - An adjective used by some people, particularly younger people, whose sexual orientation is not exclusively
heterosexual. Typically, for those who identify as queer, the terms lesbian, gay, and bisexual are perceived to be too limiting
and/or fraught with cultural connotations they feel don’t apply to them. Some people may use queer, or more commonly
genderqueer, to describe their gender identity and/or gender expression. Once considered a pejorative term, queer has been
reclaimed by some LGBT people to describe themselves; however, it is not a universally accepted term even within the LGBT
community. Queer means that you are one of those letters (LGBT), but you could be all of those letters and not knowing

Questioning- Sometimes, when the Q is seen at the end of LGBT, it can also mean questioning. This term describes someone
who is questioning their sexual orientation or gender identity. Those who use the Q to mean 'questioning' refer to people who are
in the process of exploring their identity.

Intersex is a general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that
doesn't seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male. For example, a person might be born appearing to be female on the
outside, but having mostly male-typical anatomy on the inside.

Asexuality is the lack of sexual attraction to others or low interest in sexual activity. Some people consider asexuality to be their
sexual orientation, and others describe it as an absence of sexual orientation.

Ally- a (typically straight and/or cisgender) person who supports and respects members of the LGBTQ community. We consider
people to be active allies who take action in support and respect.

LGBTIQAPD – Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and/or Questioning, Intersex, Asexual and/or Ally,
Pansexual, and Demi-sexual.

Pansexual – Often referred to as “Pan”, this is a term used to describe a person who is sexually, romantically, and/or emotionally
attracted to people regardless of their sex or gender identity.

Demisexual – Often referred to as “Demi”, this is a term used to describe someone who can only experience sexual attraction
after an emotional bond has been formed. This bond does not have to be romantic in nature.

MODULE 1 QUIZ

INSTRUCTIONS: Discuss your answers to the questions below. Limit your answers to 5-10 sentences per question.

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Please write your answers on a clean sheet of bond paper/yellow pad, and upload your work on our Google Classroom.

1. Differentiate sex and gender. (Do not copy the definitions in the module.) (25 points)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. If you were to give a message about how to treat people who belong to the LGBTQIA+ or those whose self-expression
does not conform to traditional views of being a man or a woman, what will you say? (25 points)

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Module 2

LESSON 1: BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF GENDER

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After studying this module, you are expected to:

1. Determine how chromosomes, hormones, and evolution are theorized to influence gender development.

Definition of Terms:

Chromosomes – These are structures found in the center (nucleus) of cells that carry long pieces of DNA. DNA is the material
that holds genes.

Hormones – These are your body's chemical messengers. They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs. They work slowly,
over time, and affect many different processes, including growth and development.

Gonads - The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female.

Androgen - These are hormones that contribute to growth and reproduction in both men and women. Androgens are usually
thought of as male hormones, but the female body naturally produces a small number of androgens too.

THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT

The human body has 46 chromosomes typically arranged in 23 pairs, wherein the 23 rd pair determines the biological sex as either
female (XX chromosomes) or male (XY chromosomes).

The biological approach to gender development holds that:

a. the XY chromosome contains genes responsible for masculine traits (aggressiveness, competitiveness, risk-takers among
others) (McLeod, 2014);
b. the XY chromosomes contain genes that are considered contributors to the high mortality rate (also cause health problems)
among men;
c. the XY chromosomes are not as stable as the XX;
d. the X is sturdy while the Y is fragile; and
e. the XX chromosomes in women are responsible for feminine traits (caring and nurturing).

ATYPICAL SEX CHROMOSOME

It is a condition when chromosomes deviate from the usual XX/XY pairing.

This means that a person’s body and behavior look like a typical male or female, but their chromosomes do not align with their
birth sex.

SWYER SYNDROME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvg5J2x5IBo

It is a condition when the Y chromosome does not carry the SRY gene or that the SRY gene does not activate. The SRY (Sex-
determining region) gene in the Y chromosome carries the gene that causes the embryo to develop testes. If the embryo does not
have a Y chromosome, it will not have the SRY gene and the embryo would develop an ovary.

People with Swyer syndrome have a typical female reproductive system but the gonads are underdeveloped.

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KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71ZyO437w4c

The person with this syndrome is biologically male and has the physical appearance of a male. However, this person carries an
extra X chromosome in his chromosomal pairing, hence, XXY.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT

The biological approach to gender development holds that:

a. hormones determine how girls and boys behave (males are more aggressive than females due to androgen);
b. a female child exposed to high levels of androgen while in her mother’s womb tend to be as physically active as boys (Hines &
Spencer, 2015);
c. a girl whose twin is a boy tends to be more physically active and adventurous than a girl whose twin is also a girl (Butikofer,
et.al., 2019); and
d. testosterone and estrogen are hormones believed to highly influence gender development.

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TESTOSTERONE

a. A major androgen hormone in males;

b. produced predominantly by males;
c. controls the development of male sex organs;
d. claimed to influence specific areas in brain development associated with masculine behavior such as competitiveness, spatial
skills, and aggressiveness;

ESTROGEN

a. primarily a female hormone;

b. determines female sexual characteristics;
c. linked in the development of feminine body shapes and facial features;
d. found to enhance feelings of intimacy, attachment, and the desire to have more children.

ASSESSMENT

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Instructions: Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false.

1. Androgen is a hormone only found in men.

2. Each cell in the human body has 46 pairs of chromosomes.
3. Estrogen is produced by males but at a much lower level than females.
4. Gynecomastia is an overdevelopment or enlargement of the breast tissue in males and boys.
5. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic disorder in which a female is born with an extra X chromosome.
6. The absence of menstruation, often known as amenorrhea, is described as missing one or more menstrual cycles.
7. The gene that allows the embryo to form testes is carried by the SDY (Sex-determining region) gene on the Y
chromosome.
8. It's a condition in which chromosomes don't match up in the regular XX/XY pattern.
9. The testes in the male and the ovaries in the female are the gonads or primary reproductive organs.
10. Chromosomes are the chemical messengers in your body. They have a long-term effect on a variety of processes,
including growth and development.

E N V I R O N M E N T A L
T B S G C T K B S N D S D
H E W E M O J B O R N Q P
O H S M M J N I D O E E N
R A S T M O T F I E R E S
M V E T O A S T L S A T P
O I J S X S U O O I N T O
N O L I T T T N M E C D H
E R F I I R A E R O I T L
S A F T F L O A R B R K Z
N L S L Y E P G I O X H T
X N M Z E Z L L E L N Q C
I J J R D S Y P J N N E K

1. Gender development is a result of biological processes namely in two ways,

(a), (b)

2. The hormones believed to highly influence gender development is called:

(c)

3. Energy that comes from drive or instincts that direct behavior is called:
(d)

4. The two kinds of drive according to Freud’s psychosexual development are:

(e) (f)

5. When some part of a person’s libido remained stuck at a particular stage in the early phases of development will result to: (g)

6. The three factors that play important roles in gender development according to Social-cognitive Theory are: (h)_, (i), (j)

MODULE 3: SYSTEMS, THEORIES, AND RIGHTS

LESSON 1: PATRIARCHY

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After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define patriarchy;
2. Determine what men control in a patriarchal system; and
3. Discuss the characteristics of a patriarchal system.

PATRIARCHY DEFINED

• It is used to describe the power of the father as head of the household or the systematic organization of male supremacy
and female subordination (Kramarae, 1992).
• It is a system of male authority that oppresses women through its social, political, and economic institutions.
• It is social structures and practices in which men dominate (Walby, 1989).
• It is a system of power relations that is hierarchal where men control women’s sexuality, production, and reproduction.
• A society is patriarchal to the degree that it promotes male privilege by being male-dominated, male-identified, and
male-centered (Johnson, 2005).

WHAT MEN CONTROL IN THE PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM

Patriarchy controls the achievements of women and reduces their value by picturing them as limited human beings, the opposite
of privileged men.

1. Women’s productive (labor) power

2. Women’s reproduction
3. Women’s sexuality
4. Women’s mobility
5. Property and other economic resources

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM

1. Male dominance – the men make all the decisions

2. Male identification – concerned with qualities like strength, forcefulness, rationality, strong work ethic, and
competitiveness
3. Male-centered – men are the center of activity to move society forward. Men are the focus of all events and the
developer of all events and inventions. Men are the heroes of all situations.
4. Men must be in control at all times – men control all family and social situations such as finances and education.

LESSON 2: SEXISM

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define sexism;
2. Determine how sexism works; and

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3. Discuss the different types of sexism.

SEXISM DEFINED

• It is prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender, but especially against women and girls
(Masequesmay, 2019).
• It is a belief that women are inferior to men, therefore, the men’s behavior towards women is justified.
• It functions to maintain the power status of men over women and girls through beliefs and practices.
• The term became widely known during the women’s liberation movement in the 1960s and was most likely modeled on
the term “racism” coined by the Civil Rights Movement (Masequesmay, 2019).
• The sexism concept was originally intended to raise consciousness on the oppression against women and girls in
particular.
• By the turn of the 21st century, the term sexism is sometimes used to include oppression of any gender, such as men
and boys, intersex, and transgender people (Masequesmay, 2019).

TYPES OF SEXISM

1. Old-fashioned sexism – it is the explicit and overt belief that men are superior.

2. Modern sexism – It argues that opportunities for men and women are now equal and those who complain about sexism
are just hostile towards men.
Beliefs of Modern sexism:
a. Sexism is no longer a problem today.
b. Programs designed to help women are unnecessary.
c. Women who complain about sexism just want to cause trouble.

3. Hostile sexism – It has components of contempt towards women.

Beliefs of Hostile sexism:
a. Women are whiny individuals who love to control men by being a sexual tease.
b. Women who fight for equality actually want to grab the power held by men.
c. Submissive women are preferred.

4. Benevolent sexism – It seems to favor women, but the truth is the benevolence of the male gender to the female is
condescending.
Beliefs of Benevolent sexism:
a. Women possess the qualities of purity and morality, but men do not have them.
b. Women should be treated just like a princess.

5. Ambivalent sexism – Ambivalent means having mixed feelings, and this description fits people who are ambivalent
sexists. It is a combination of benevolent and hostile sexism.
Beliefs of Ambivalent sexism:
a. Women are worthy of love and respect, while others deserve bad treatment.

Example: A man may be respectful to his mother and grandmother but he does not believe women who are not related to him are
worthy of the same respect.

LESSON 3: FEMINIST THEORY

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define feminism and feminist theory;

2. Discuss the basic feminist ideas; and
3. Discuss the characteristics of a patriarchal system.

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FEMINISM DEFINED
• It is a political, cultural, or economic movement that endeavors to establish equal rights and legal protection for
women.
• It is a collection of movements and ideologies for cultural, economic, political, and social equality.
• It aims to define, defend, and establish equal rights and opportunities for women and men.
• It provides women with information that enables them to make choices and free themselves from gender-based
discrimination within their communities.

BASIC FEMINIST IDEAS

Both males and females who identify as feminists may disagree on several issues regarding women’s issues. However, there are
basic principles that feminists agree on. These are:
a. Push for change towards equality among men and women, and not just talk about it.
b. Have the freedom to choose.
c. Oppose laws and traditions that limit education, job, and income opportunities for women.
d. Ending sexual violence and giving women control over their sexuality and reproduction.

FEMINIST THEORY
• It is grounded on three main principles (Ropers-Huilman, 2022) namely:
1. Women have something valuable to contribute to society.
2. Women have been unable to achieve their potential, receive rewards, or gain full participation in society.
3. Feminist research should go toward social transformation.

TYPES OF FEMINIST THEORY

1. Liberal Feminism
• The society has a false belief that women by nature are intellectually and physically incapable compared to men (Tong,
2009).
• It asserts equality among men and women through political and legal reforms, arguing that women are as capable and
rational as men.

2. Radical feminism
• It asserts that the defining feature of women’s oppression is the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy.
• It views that the oppression of women cuts across boundaries of race, culture, and economic class.
• It asks why women must adopt roles based on their biology.
• It focuses on the domination of women over men.

3. Marxist/Socialist feminism
• Marxist feminists claim that the only way to gender equality is to destroy the capitalist society.
• Socialist feminists believed that women could only achieve true freedom when working to end both economic and
cultural oppression.

4. Existential feminism
• It is derived from Simone de Beauvoir’s view that women are not powerless and do not need to depend on male-female
relationships.

5. Multicultural feminism
• It suggests that every woman has different intersecting identities and therefore, is not alike to any other woman.
• It emphasizes empowerment for women within the context of their particular societies and cultures, which are seen as
complex and multivalent, and therefore capable of evolution.

6. Cultural feminism
• It argues that there are fundamental personality differences between men and women and that women’s differences are
distinctive.

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• It supports the notion that there are biological differences between men and women.
• It wants to overcome sexism by celebrating women’s ways and women’s experiences.

7. Eco-feminism
• It argues that there is a connection between the destruction of the environment and the exploitation of women by
patriarchy.
• It encourages all women to create a healthy environment and end the destruction of the environmental resources that
women mostly depend on to provide for their families.
• It sees environmentalism, and the relationship between women and the earth, as foundational to its analysis and
practice.

LESSON 4: QUEER THEORY

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Discuss what queer theory is about; and
2. Identify significant persons who were able to include queer theory as among the important elements in discussing gender and
gender issues.

QUEER THEORY VERSUS QUEER

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Queer Queer Theory
A Derogatory term towards mostly men who are Origin of the term “Queer Theory”
having a sexual or romantic relationship with other Teresa de Lauretis in her book Queer Theory in
men. Differences 1991.
Reclaimed by members of the LGBTQ+ community in It is a product of the 1970s feminist movement.
the early 1990s.
It became an umbrella term for those who identify It is a framework of ideas asserting that identities are
themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual, intersex, not stable and determined particularly in relation to
and/or transgender. a person’s sex gender, and/or self-expression; that
there are several ways a person can express his or
her sexual self.
The contention of queer theorists is that there is no
set standard for what is normal.

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Core Theorist
1. Teresa de Lauretis.
o Queer theory as a term was coined by Italian author Teresa de
Lauretis (born 1983)
o Her feminist cultural studies entitled “Queer Theory: Lesbian and
Gay Sexuality” (1991).
 De Lauretis used the term to describe a manner of thinking that did
not use binary gender constructs as a starting point in discussing identity
concepts.

2. Michel Foucault. (1926-1984)

• He was a prominent figure in French thought and was considered
among the most prominent living intellectual in France when he was still
alive.
• His work was fundamental in the development of queer theory,
particularly in its capacity to explain its view without a defined object.
• He argued that sexuality is not an inherent personal attribute, but
rather a cultural category dictated upon by those in power as opposed to a
pre-existing object ( Gutting, 2015)

3. Eve Sedgwick. (1950-2009)

• American academic scholar and author of one of the most influential books
on queer theory
Epistemology of the Closet (2007)
• She talked about the social crisis created by defining sexuality as just
heterosexual and homosexual
• In 1990, she led the debating team on whether sexuality was inherent or
socially constructed.

4. Judith Butler. (born 1956)

• An American philosopher and gender theorist who challenged the
conventional notions of gender and developed her own theory called gender
performativity that became a major influence on feminist and queer studies.
• Gender performativity asserted that society and culture created gender roles
and imposed these as ideas or appropriate.

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LESSON 5 THE YOGYAKARTA PRINCIPLES

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Know what the Yogyakarta Principles is; and

2. Understand a person’s freedom and rights in terms of self-expression.

YOGYAKARTA PRINCIPLES DEFINED

• It is a set of principles on the application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation and gender
identity. The Principles affirm binding international legal standards with which all States must comply. They promise a different
future where all people are born free and equal in dignity and rights can fulfill that precious birthright.
• The principles have two versions:
 The original 2007 principles
 The 2017 Yogyakarta Principles plus 10
• Yogyakarta Principles was launched on March 26, 2007, at the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC).

WHY ARE THESE PRINCIPLES NEEDED?

• Human rights violations targeted toward persons because of their actual or perceived sexual orientation or gender
identity constitute an entrenched global pattern of serious concern (extra judicial killings, torture, ill-treatment, sexual assault,
etc.)
• The Principles are there to create a consistent understanding of the comprehensive regime of international human rights
law and its application to issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.

HOW DID THE PRINCIPLES COME ABOUT?

• Yogyakarta Principles is the outcome of an international meeting of human rights in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in
November 2006. They discussed human rights in areas of sexual orientation and gender identity.
• They were developed and unanimously adopted by judges, academics, a former UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights, UN Special Procedures, members of treaty bodies, NGOs and others.
• Professor Michael O’Flaherty made immense contributions to the drafting and revision of the Yogyakarta Principles.
There are 29 principles of the Yogyakarta and these are grouped into seven basic human rights, namely:

1. Rights to universal enjoyment of human rights, non-discrimination, and recognition before the law
- Principles 1 to 3 set out the principles of the universality of human rights and their application to a person without
discrimination, as well as the right of all people to recognition before the law.

2. Rights to human and personal security

- Principles 4 to 11 address the fundamental right to life, freedom from violence and torture, privacy, access to justice, and
freedom from arbitrary detention.

3. Economic, social and cultural rights

- Principles 12 to 18 set out the importance of non-discrimination in the enjoyment of economic, social, and cultural rights,
including employment, accommodation, social security, education, and health.

4. Rights to expression, opinion, and association

- Principles 19 to 21 emphasize the importance of the freedom to express oneself, one's identity, and one's sexuality, without
State interference based on sexual orientation or gender identity, including the right to participate peaceably in public assemblies
and events and otherwise associate in community with others.

5. Freedom of movement and asylum

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- Principles 22 and 23 highlight the rights of persons to seek asylum from
persecution based on sexual orientation or gender identity.

6. Rights of participation in cultural and family life

- Principles 24-26 address the rights of persons to participate in family life, public affairs, and the cultural life of their
community, without discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.

7. Rights of human rights defenders

- Principle 27 recognizes the right to defend and promote human rights without discrimination based on sexual orientation and
gender identity, and the obligation of States to ensure the protection of human rights defenders working in these areas.

8. Rights of redress and accountability

- Principles 28 to 29 affirm the importance of holding rights violators accountable and ensuring appropriate redress for those who
face rights violations.

Additional Recommendations: The Principles set out 16 additional recommendations to national human rights institutions,
professional bodies, funders, NGOs, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Un agencies, treaty bodies, Special Procedures,
and others.

MODULE 4: SYSTEMS, THEORIES, AND RIGHTS

LESSON 1: GENDER & HUMAN RIGHTS

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After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the different ways that women are harmed; and

2. Determine what act constitutes as violation of a woman’s human rights.

HUMAN RIGHTS DEFINED

 It is used to defend human freedom as well as destroy it.

 These are rights that are seriously violated, with women and indigenous peoples being the subject worldwide.
 They are fundamental because they provide fairness and equality in human society.
 After World War II in 1948, the United Nations General Assembly decided to implement a Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) as the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.

FORMS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN’S RIGHTS

 According to the United Nations Development Fund for Women (2009), violence against women is a widespread
violation of fundamental human rights and an enduring form of gender-based prejudice.
 It occurs in every society and affects most women, regardless of their age or social and economic status.

a. Domestic Violence – It occurs when one person tries to assert power over their partner. The major types of abuse
committed against women experiencing domestic violence are
a.1 Physical abuse – It is perceptible abuse. It may result in physical injury, or some cases can be life-threatening.
Examples: Women are beaten, punched, or slapped; arm twisting, burning, choking, kicking, stabbing, strangling,
murder, genital mutilation, and other.

b. Emotional or Psychological Abuse - It is the most common type of violence against women and children, and it is
deemed as the worst kind of abuse. It is a means of creating a power imbalance within a relationship. It involves threats
of physical force, being put down, always criticized, and controlled, intimidation, and forcing unwanted sexual acts.

c. Financial/Economic Abuse- The abuser uses money to control his partner. It is also constructed to isolate a woman
into a state of complete financial dependence.
Examples: denial of funds for food and basic needs, controlling family finances, access to health care, and employment.

Other forms:
d. Rape and Sexual Assault – It is one of the worst and most heinous forms of assault on a human. It occurs if a woman
is forced to participate in a sexual act without her consent. This may take the form of coercion or physical violence.
e. Prostitution – It is the act of engaging in promiscuous sexual relations, especially for money.
f. Human Trafficking – It is the recruitment, transport, and transfer of persons with or without their consent or
knowledge within or across national borders using different forms of coercion, including abduction, deception, and
fraud.
g. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)- It involves the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia of a girl for
cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons. It causes irreparable harm to female genitalia and reproductive organs.
h. Forced Marriage – It takes place when the bride does not want to marry the groom but is forced to by others, usually
by their families.
i. Sexual Harassment – It occurs when unwanted conduct has the purpose or effect of violating a person’s dignity and
creating an intimidating, degrading, hostile, humiliating, or offensive environment for the person.
LESSON 2: WOMEN AND EMPOWERMENT

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the different Filipino women that pioneered feminist activism in the Philippines; and
2. Identify some Philippine laws that empower Filipino women.

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Women Empowerment Defined
 It is the process of increasing the capacity of women to choose and to transform those choices into desired actions and
outcomes.

EMPOWERING WOMEN THROUGH MOVEMENT

The following are known Filipino women patriots:

1. Trinidad Tecson
- “Mother of Biak na Bato”
- At one time, when the Katipuneros lacked firearms, she went with three companions to
the courthouse in Caloocan and succeeded in defeating the civil guards and seizing
their guns.

2. Hilaria Aguinaldo
- She is the wife of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo.
- She founded the Women’s Red Cross Association or the Asociacion de Damas de Cruz
Roja in 1899.
- She complemented Emilio's military campaigns by caring for wounded soldiers and
their families.

3. Constancia Poblete
- She founded the Liga Femenina de la Paz (Philippine’s Women’s League for Peace) in
1902.
- This group was organized to help the Americans in their participation in the pacification
drive against the Filipino people.

4. Concepcion Felix de Calderon

- She founded the Associacion Femenista Filipina (Feminist Association of the
Philippines) in 1905, the first women’s club in the Philippines was established to
promote the social welfare of women and their participation into public matters.

OTHER FEMINIST ORGANIZATIONS AND LEADERS:

1. Asociacion Feminista Ilonga (Association of Ilonga Feminists) – It was founded by Pura Villanueva Lalaw who
called for women’s suffrage in 1906, going around the country to awaken the consciousness of women as equal
partners of men in nation-building.

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2. La Proteccion de la Infancia (Protection of Infants) – It was founded in 1907 and provided babies with pasteurized
milk among educated mothers on maternal and infant care.
3. Gabriela Silang (1763) – The first woman General and heroine of Ilocos. She is the first Filipina woman to lead a
revolt during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines.
4. Teresa Magbanua (1868) – She is known as the “Visayan Joan of Arc”, a Filipino school teacher and military leader
from Iloilo. She earned the award of being the only woman to lead combat troops in the Visayas against Spanish and
American forces.
5. Marcela Marcelo (1897) – She is the Woman General of the revolution who died in the Battle of Pasong Santol,
Cavite. She is also known as the Selang Bagsik (Ferocious Sela) and Heneral Sela (General Sela) from Pasay City.
6. Agueda Kahabagan (1899) – She is the only woman on the list of generals in the Philippine Army who fought on the
battlefield against the Spanish forces and became known as “Heneral Agueda”.
7. Delfina Natividad (1900) – She is a well-known Filipino together with Marcela Agoncillo and her daughter Lorenza,
who seamed together the Philippine flag, and for being the niece of the National Hero of the Philippines, Jose Rizal.
8. Gregoria de Jesus (1943) - She was known as “Aling Oriang” who founded and became the keeper of the documents
of the women’s chapter of the Katipunan of the Philippines. She is the wife of Gat Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the
Katipunan.

LESSON 3: LGBT RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Determine how the LGBT community suffers in the hands of an unaccepting community; and
2. Identify support groups that help empower the LGBT people amidst the various social challenges they face.

STRUGGLES FACED BY LGBT IN THE SOCIETY

1. Homophobia – It is referred to the fear or aggression toward gay people, but can also refer to stigma arising from
social ideologies about homosexuality. It is the culturally produced fear of or prejudices against homosexuals (gay-
bashing).
2. Marginalization and Social Exclusion – People under this status have relatively less control over their lives and the
resources available to them. They become stigmatized and are often at the receiving end of negative public attitudes.
Their exclusion and discrimination in mainstream society have resulted in the following:
a. Attempted suicide
b. Being ignored and isolated in the community
c. Dropping out of school
d. Lack of family and social support
e. Leaving home and family

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f. Transfer to other countries for seeking safer livelihood and acceptance
g. Unable to find regular jobs
h. Unable to access various social services
3. Psychological distress – LGBT people face considerable levels of discrimination, harassment, and stigmatization in
their day-to-day life. They face stress due to very high levels of homophobic bullying and verbal attacks.
4. Victims of Hate Crimes and Violence – LGBT people are sometimes targets of sexual and physical assault,
harassment, and hate crimes. These crimes (bias-motivated crimes) occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of
his or her perceived membership in a specific group (race, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, gender identity, or
political affiliation).

LGBT MOVEMENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. AKOD – It is a gay group at the Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology
2. Alpha Nu – It is the first fraternity in the Philippines for all who identify themselves as men, regardless of sexual
orientation. It began in 2014, recognized by the UP-Diliman for advocating non-violent initiations, gender sensitivity,
and psychological support.
3. BISDAK (Bisayang Dako) – It is a Cebu-based organization that recruits gender equality sponsors and organizes
educational forums in various communities to help Filipinos understand gender issues especially in promoting human
rights in the context of HIV/AIDS prevention.
4. Equality Philippines – It is a non-profit organization that promotes and safeguards the rights of LGBT members and
allies in the Philippines.
5. GAHUM – It is a support and advocacy group for gays in Cebu city.
6. IWAG – It is a social and support group in Davao City.
7. Lundayan ng Sining (Sanctuary of Art) – It is a registered lesbian art studio, providing a venue for lesbian art in
Quezon City.
8. PinoyFTM – It is the first organization for transexual and transgender men in the Philippines founded in July 2011 in
Metro Manila.
9. USep Maharlika – It is the first LGBT student organization at the University of Southeastern Philippines established
in 2013.
10. ProGay Philippines or the Progressive Organization of Gays in the Philippines – It is an organization of gay rights
in Manila that led the first Pride March in the Philippines in 1994.
11. PUP Kabaro – It is a gender-equality activist organization at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines.
12. Rainbow Rights (R-Rights) – It is a non-governmental organization that supports human rights and equal
opportunities regardless of gender identity and sexual orientation.
13. True Colors Coalition (TCC) – It is a political LGBT organization that promotes the struggle for equality, acceptance,
and freedom.
14. UP Babaylan – It is the first LGBT student organization in the Philippines established in UP Diliman in 1992.
15. UPLB Babaylan – It is an LGBT organization and support group of UP Los Baños, which promotes gender equality
among the student body.

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MODULE 5 INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL POLICY RESPONSES ON GENDER ISSUES

Lesson 1 – INTERNATIONAL POLICY RESPONSE

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the international policy response on gender issues;

2. Expound the policies promoting and protecting women’s rights as a local policy response;
3. Express a profound understanding of the Magna Carta for Women; and
4. Communicate the purpose of gender analysis.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEFINED

• Sustainable development is the development that meets present needs without compromising future generations’
abilities to meet their own unique needs (un.org, 2019)
• According to the UN, sustainable development can be achieved by harmonizing three interconnected core elements that
are crucial for the well-being of individuals and societies.
Three core elements:
o Economic growth
o Social inclusion
o Environmental protection

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According to United Nations, the 17 SDGs are:

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THE CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN
(CEDAW)

 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979
by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a preamble
and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to
end such discrimination. (un.org)
 It is the only human rights treaty that affirms the reproductive rights of women and targets culture and tradition as
influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations.

BEIJING PLATFORM FORM ACTION (BPFA)

 The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action or BPfA is a landmark document for advancing the rights of women
and gender equality worldwide agreed upon during the 4th World Conference on women in 1995.
 The international community came to a consensus and agreed to a comprehensive blueprint of commitments supporting
the full development of women and their equality with men in 12 areas of concern:
(1) women and poverty; - persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women
(2) education and training of women; - Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to education and training
(3) women and health; - inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to health care and related services
(4) violence against women; - Take integrated measures to prevent and eliminate violence against women
(5) women and armed conflict; - The effects of armed and other types of conflict on women, including those living in
foreign occupation
(6) women and the economy; - inequality in economic structures and policies, in all forms of productive activities, and
in access to resources
(7) women in power and decision-making; - Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-
making at all levels
(8) institutional mechanisms; - Create or strengthen national machinery and other governmental bodies
(9) human rights of women; - Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights of
women
(10) women and media; - Stereotyping of women and inequality in women’s access to and participation in all
communication systems, especially in the media
(11) women and the environment; - Gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the
safeguarding of the environment
(12) the girl child. – Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the child

THEORETICAL APPROACHES AIMED AT UNDERSTANDING AND ADDRESSING WOMEN’S ISSUES

Three major theories

 WID – WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

 WAD – WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT
 GAD- GENDER, AND DEVELOPMENT

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WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT

 The Women in Development (WID) approach started in the 1960s when advocates called for women’s inclusion and
integration in development projects.
 Women’s rights and freedom advocates of those times criticized the policies and programs of government because women
did not benefit, and were apparently excluded, from these developments.

WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT

 The Women and Development (WAD) approach emerged and focused on the interaction between women and
development rather than o strategies meant to integrate women into development.
 WAD approach asserted that women are an integral part of the development and that development can only be obtained if
women are active participants in projects;
 And that these projects should specifically target the women’s sector
 WAD perspective asserted that women can independently achieve development through women-only projects and
participation.

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

 GAD approach appeared around the 1980s as lessons learned from the WID and WAD frameworks came together.
 It focused on social relations between men and women but with emphasis on the productive and reproductive roles of
women in relation to development; as well as the unique relationship between development between men and women.
 GAD approach saw development not just as economic well-being but also as social and mental well-being of a person.

LESSON 2: LOCAL POLICY RESPONSES

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

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1. Discuss the significant local policy responses that the Philippines undertook in addressing gender equality concerns.

REPUBLIC ACT 7192

On July 22, 1991, The Philippine Congress enacted Republic Act 7192, an Act Promoting the Integration of Women as
Full and Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation Building and Other Purposes. Republic Act 7192 is known as the
“Women in Development and Nation Building Act”.

EXECUTIVE ORDER 348

Executive Order 348 was the Approval and Adoption of the Philippine Development Plan for Women (PDPW) for 1989 to 1992
signed by President Corazon Aquino.
 The order institutionalized the integration of women’s concerns in the development process as part of the country’s
compliance with the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the
forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women (FLS) to which the Philippines was a signatory.
 One of the highlights of PDPW was recognizing the “Structural and Historical Determinants of the Status of Filipino
Women”.

THE PHILIPPINE PLAN FOR GENDER-RESPONSIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR 1995-2025

 On September 8, 1995, then-President Fidel V. Ramos approved Executive Order 273 or the Philippine Plan for Gender-
Responsive Development from 1995-2025.
 The PPGD lays out development goals and strategies that will make gender equity innate in public programs and policies.
This 30-year perspective plan ensures that women-friendly policies can take root and flourish despite the barriers posed by
traditional attitudes and stereotyping.

THE MAGNA CARTA OF WOMEN

 On August 14, 2009, the Magna Carta of Women was signed into law providing better protection for women.
 The Magna Carta of Women is comprehensive human rights law that seeks to eliminate discrimination against women by
recognizing, protecting, fulfilling, and promoting the rights of Filipino women, especially those in the marginalized sector of
the society (published by the Philippine Statistics Authority, March 2010).
 The MCW establishes the Philippine government’s pledge of commitment to the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women’s (CEDAW) Committee in its 36th Session in 2006 and to the UN Human Rights
Council on its first Universal Periodic Review in 2009.
 It is the local translation of the provisions of the CEDAW, particularly in defining gender discrimination, state obligations,
substantive equality, and temporary special measures. It also recognizes human rights guaranteed by the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).

LESSON 3: GENDER ANALYSIS IN COOPERATIVES

After studying this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the importance of gender analysis in the development;

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2. Raise awareness of gender equality as an important tool for policy and decision-making in cooperatives; and
3. Increase awareness of gender differences and how it contributes to the success of a venture.

GENDER ANALYSIS

 is the foundation for gender mainstreaming. Before any decisions are made and plans are outlined, and cooperation is
achieved, the gender equality situation in a given context must primarily be analyzed and expected results should be
identified.
 It focuses on the differences between and among women, men, girls, and boys in terms of their relative contribution to
society
 Performing a gender analysis allows us to develop policies and projects that suit and adapt to the needs of the target
population groups.

GENDER EQUALITY

 It is attained when women and men, girls and boys, have equal rights, opportunities, and the power to shape their own
lives and contribute to society.
 Equality between sexes is an issue of an unbiased and impartial distribution of power, influence, and resources in
everyday life and in society as a whole.
 A gender-balanced society safeguards, recognizes and makes use of every individual’s experiences, skills, and
competence.

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