Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 168, Issue 4, April 2014, pp.

61-75

Sensors & Transducers

© 2014 by IFSA Publishing, S. L.
http://www.sensorsportal.com

Gas Sensors: A Review

1, 2
Zainab Yunusa, 1 Mohd. Nizar Hamidon, 3 Ahsanul Kaiser,
4
Zaiki Awang
1
Institute of Advanced Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Bayero University Kano
3011 Kano, Nigeria
3
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA
40150 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
1
Tel.: + 60182324583
1
E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 2 November 2013 /Accepted: 7 March 2014 /Published: 30 April 2014

Abstract: In this paper a review of different technologies for gas sensors is presented. The different types of gas
sensors technologies including catalytic gas sensor, electrochemical gas sensors, thermal conductivity gas
sensor, optical gas sensor and acoustic gas sensor are discussed together with their principle of operation. The
Surface Acoustic Wave Gas Sensor technology is discussed in greater detail. The advantages and disadvantages
of each sensor technology are also highlighted. All these technologies have been used for several decades for the
development of highly sensitive and responsive gas sensors for the detection of flammable and hazardous gases.
However, for improved sensitivity and selectivity for these sensors, future trends and outlook for researchers are
suggested in the conclusion of this article. Copyright © 2014 IFSA Publishing, S. L.

Keywords: Gas Sensor, Sensitivity, Selectivity, Surface Acoustic Wave.

1. Introduction since the environment we dwell in consists of

humans, plants and animals as its main inhabitants,
Gas sensors are chemical sensors that are of so the safety of their lives is of topmost priority.
tối quan trọng paramount importance. A chemical sensor comprises Basically, traditional detection methods which
of a transducer and an active layer for converting the produce systems that sounds an audio alarm to notify
chemical information into another form of electronic people when there is a gas leakage that is harmful or
signal like frequency change, current change or poisonous is not very reliable because it is required to
voltage change. obtain accurate real-time measurements of the
As the air surrounding us contains different concentration of a target gas. However, for many
amount of gases which could be hazardous to human centuries, different gas sensor technologies have been
health, atmospheric pollutants or of significance to an used for different gases detection including
industrial or medical process, It becomes therefore semiconductor gas sensors, catalytic gas sensors,
very imperative to detect the presence of these gases electrochemical gas sensors, optical gas sensors and

Article number P_1957

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acoustic gas sensors. The performance characteristic in Fig. 1(a), this was used to produce an efficient
of every sensor is based on some properties including heating and a strong signal for a gas sensor, but
sensitivity, selectivity, detection limit, response time despite the excellent properties of platinum, it is a
and recovery time. poor catalyst for combustion of hydrocarbon gases.
The sensitivity (S) of a sensor is determined as The temperature needed for the detection of
Δf/Δc, where Δc is the change in analyte hydrocarbons is between 900 °C to 1000 °C, but at
concentration. S is expressed in terms of Hz/ppm or this temperature the platinum starts to evaporate and
Hz/vol %. Selectivity refers to the characteristics that as such resistance of the platinum wire increases.
determine whether a sensor can respond selectively to Another problem with the platinum wire is that at the
an analyte or a group of analytes. Detection limit is temperature of 1000 °C the platinum becomes soft.
the lowest concentration of the analyte that can be The solution to this problem is to coat the platinum
detected by the sensor under given conditions. with other metal oxides and finally treat the sensor
Response time is the time it takes for the sensor to with a catalyst like platinum, palladium or thoria
respond to a step concentration change. Recovery compounds. Fig. 1(b) shows a catalytic bead sensor
time is the time it takes for the signal to return to its with the metal oxide coating, the coating makes the
initial value after a step concentration value. sensor more rugged, more stable and resistant to
Other factors that makes a sensor more attractive shock and vibrations.
to consumers include small size, low power Recently, microhotplates have been widely used
consumption and capability of being wireless. In in gas sensors instead of using platinum coil due to
order to have knowledge on development of gas the high power consumption. This type of sensors
sensors, Some reviews have been made on different usually contains a catalytic surface coated on a hot
gas sensors, L. M. Dorozhkin [1] and I. A. Rozanov plate with Pt resistor that heats up the catalyst to a
made a review paper on acoustic wave chemical very high temperature at which any flammable gas
sensors for gases. A review was made by molecules can ignite. The concentrations of gases can
T. Hubert [2] on Hydrogen gas sensors. In this paper, be detected by monitoring resistance change of the
a review of different gas sensor technologies is platinum resistance arising from increase in
presented for the detection of different target gases temperature. This design was recently developed by
without emphasis on a particular gas. Lei Xu et al [5] in which they design and fabricate a
two-beam microplate for catalytic gas sensors. The
two-beam microplate was designed using MEMS
2. Different Gas Sensor Technologies technology as shown in Fig. 1(c). Their design
manifested a low power consumption with a 30 %
In this section a review on the different types of power per active area as compared with other
sensors and their principle of operation will microhotplates and a sensitivity of the sensor to 50 %
be discussed. LEL methane was 2.4 mV/ % methane.

2.1. Catalytic Sensors cảm biến xúc tác

Catalytic sensors have been in use for almost a

century for the detection of combustible gases. The
first catalytic combustion type sensor was discovered
Fig. 1(a). Hot Wire Sensor [6].
by Jonson in 1923 [3, 4] and was used for the
detection of methane in mines.

2.1.1. Principle of Operation

Most metal oxides and their compounds possess

catalytic property. Combustible gas mixtures do not
burn until they attain a certain ignition temperature,
but in the presence of a particular chemical process
the gas will begin to ignite even at lower
temperatures. This process is known as catalytic
combustion. A gas sensor made on the basis of
catalytic principle is called catalytic gas sensor. A
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the output of
catalytic gas sensor. The catalytic gas sensor is
divided into two namely, pellistor type and
thermoelectric type The earliest catalytic gas sensor
was simply a coiled shaped platinum wire as shown Fig. 1(b). Catalytic bead Sensor [6].

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constant voltage of 1.3 V. The same author [6]

recently published a paper on a suspended-
membrane-type hotplate with high efficiency for
catalytic gas sensors. Test results also showed high
sensitivity towards methane detection.

Fig. 1(c). Microhotplate sensor [5].

2.1.2. Pellistor-Type Catalytic Gas Sensor

Fig. 2(b). Wheatstone bridge setup for methane
A Pellistor-type catalytic gas sensor depicted in gas detection.
Fig. 2(a) consists of two platinum coils which has
2 functions viz; they serve as heater as well as
resistance thermometer. It also consists of active and The pellistor technology has witnessed significant
inactive beads. The active bead is activated with development by using micro-electrochemical systems
catalyst made from a metal like platinum or (MEMS) technology for their fabrication due to the
palladium. The inactive bead has no catalyst but advantage of integration, miniaturization and reduced
usually acts as compensating elements. A voltage power consumption. Catalytic gas combustion gas
supply use for powering the circuit heats up the coils sensors have been manufactured using thin film or
so that the beads are raised to a high temperature micromachining techniques. Eui-Bok et al [7]
from a range of 300°C to 500°C depending on the recently developed an integrated catalytic combustion
target gas. This causes the gas to ignite and raises the H2 sensor using MEMS technology.
temperature of the detector coil. The novelty of their design was that the gas
sensors were manufactured with two sensing
elements and 2 reference elements using
MEMS technology.

2.1.3. Thermoelectric Gas Sensor

The earliest thermoelectric gas sensor was

developed by McAleer in 1985 for the detection of
combustible gas like hydrogen gas as reported
by [8, 9]. Hydrogen detection using thermoelectric
sensor is possible by producing an electrical signal
Fig. 2(a). Pellistor-type gas sensor [2]. based on the catalyzed exothermic oxidation reaction
of hydrogen. Thermoelectric gas sensors work on the
principle of the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck effect
This rise in temperature increases the coil occurs as a result of a temperature difference between
resistance and causes an imbalance in the voltage of two points of a conductor or semiconductor material
the Wheatstone bridge which constitutes the sensor which gives rise to a voltage difference between
signal. The output of the sensor is taken across the these points.
Wheatstone bridge circuit shown in Fig. 2(b). Recent Thermoelectric sensors have been manufactured
researches as reported by Lei Xu et al [6] developed a using micromachining techniques, A microelectric
catalytic combustion type methane detection sensor gas sensor for the detection of hydrogen and atomic
with a Pd-Pt catalyst working on pulse voltage mode. oxygen was reported by Se-Chuk Park et al [10]
The sensor was fabricated by micromachining and using surface micromachining technique for the
sol-gel process on a silicon substrate. The output of sensor fabrication. The sensor senses the gases by
the gas sensor is measured by a bridge circuit shown measuring the reaction heat of the catalytic reaction
in figure which consists of a resistive sensing between a novel metal catalyst using Cu-Bi
element, microhotplate with a Pd-Pt/γ-Al2O3 layer, a thermopiles. Hydrogen recently reported
variable resistor R and two fixed resistors R1 and R2. thermoelectric sensors were used for the detection of
Test results showed increased sensitivity under pulse volatile organic compounds by the use of tin oxide
voltage mode as compared with 2 mV/%CH4 under thin films. The principle of gas sensing using

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thermoelectric gas sensors is usually based on gas as an imbalance in the Wheatstone bridge. The
absorption. However this technique usually slows second type of sensor does not require the use of
down the response and recovery times. Seung-Il reference cell. It is made up of a hot and cold element
Yoon et al [11] designed and fabricated a which has a known and a constant temperature
thermoelectric gas sensor based on the principle of difference. The heat is transferred from the hot
gas adsorption instead of gas absorption as shown in element to the cold element by means of thermal
figure. The sensor uses an embedded tin oxide conductivity of the investigated gas.
catalyst for the detection of hydrogen and NOx gases. Pascal Tardy et al [13] developed a dynamic
MEMS technology was employed for the sensor thermal conductivity sensor based on the transient
fabrication on a pyrex substrate. To realize the response of a SiC microplate for the determination of
principle of gas adsorption, a sensing and a reference carbon monoxide content in hydrogen and methane.
thermopiles with bismuth and chrome pairs were Isolde Simon and Micheal Arndt [14] designed a
used. A thermopile was used so as to create an simple micromachined thermal conductivity sensor.
electric potential that is proportional to the Experiments carried out showed good sensor
temperature difference between the hot and cold performance predicted by the model. The sensor
junctions without the need of power consumption chips were used to build a hydrogen detector for
while a catalyst film is placed underneath the hot automotive applications.
junctions of the thermopile. Recently, micromachining have been employed
A thermoelectric gas sensor for the detection of for hydrogen gas detection due to miniaturization and
volatile organic compounds was designed and reduced power consumption. G. de Graaf et al [15]
developed by S. Anuradha et al [12] in which recently developed a thermal conductivity gas
chromium metal films were deposited on the glass sensing which uses MEMS technology for the
substrate so as to increase the Seebeck coefficient of fabrication of high sensitivity thermal sensors for
the sensor and tin oxide films were later deposited. hydrogen detection. Analysis showed that the
The sensor was tested for response towards Volatile performance of surface-micromachined devices could
Organic Compounds namely ethanol, isopropyl be better than that of bulk-micromachined devices.
alcohol and hexane in the temperature range of about The sensitivity for hydrogen in air was found to be
80°C to 160°C. The sensors developed with and 60 µV per % H2 at 1 mW heater dissipation. Fig. 3
without the metal films were tested for their response shows a cross section of the fabricated microTCD
to acetone gas. Sensors with chromium metal showed which is fabricated on a silicon wafer. It is made up
good sensitivity to acetone as low as 28 ppm and was of thermopile temperature sensors which depends
found to be selective towards acetone gas. upon the decrease in effective thermal resistance
between the sensitive area of the sensor and the
substrate by the thermal conductance of the gas in the
2.2. Thermal Conductivity Gas Sensor thin membrane. The heating element is a resistor
which is located in the middle of the membrane. A
Thermal conductivity measurements for gas gas chamber is located for the hydrogen sensing.
analysis have been used for many decades [2]. It is
usually used for the detection of gases with high
thermal conductivities greater than air like hydrogen 2.3. Electrochemical Gas Sensors
and methane while gases with conductivities close to
air cannot be detected like ammonia and carbon These types of sensors allow gases to diffuse
monoxide. Gases with thermal conductivities less through a porous membrane to an electrode where it
than air are difficult to detect using this method due is either reduced or oxidized at the electrode.
to interference example carbondioxide and butane.
Their principle of operation is based on the
measured heat loss from a hotter body to the cold
element through thermal conductivity. The first type
of thermal conductivity gas sensor is called pellistor-
like sensor .and consists of two inert resistor beads
with an implanted thermoresistor. The sensing
resistor is usually located within a gas chamber
which contains a reference gas. Similar to a catalytic
gas sensor a Wheatstone bridge circuit is also
employed whereby the two beads are connected. The Fig. 3. Micro-thermal conductivity gas sensor [15].
principle behind the detection mechanism is such that
when the resistor is exposed to the target gas mixture,
heat is lost which is either higher or lower depending Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting with
on the thermal conductivity of the target gas with a target gas and producing an electrical signal that is
respect to the reference gas. This however leads to an proportional to the gas concentration. A typical
increase or decrease in the temperature of the bead electrochemical gas sensor consists of a sensing
and also a change in it’s resistance which is measured electrode or working electrode and a counter

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electrode which are separated by a thin layer of diffuses in the air and the positively charged
electrolyte. Before the gas comes in contact with the hydrogen ions travel down to the electrolyte.
sensor, it goes through a thin capillary-type opening Similarly, for hydrogen the electrochemical
and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier reaction is as shown in equation 3, Hydrogen gas
before finally reaching the electrode surface. The diffuses and becomes oxidized at the sensing
function of this membrane is to prevent liquid electrode. This reaction causes a change in the
electrolyte from leaking out and generate enough potential of the sensing electrode and thus reduction
electrical signal at the sensing electrode. It also of oxygen takes place as shown in equation 4.
consists of a reference electrode whose function is to
maintain a stable and constant potential at the sensing H 2 → 2 H + + 2e − , (3)
electrode due to the continuous electrochemical
reactions occurring on the electrode surface. The
electrochemical reaction with the target gas generates 1
O2 + 2 H + + 2e − → H 2O , (4)
a flow of current flow between the sensing and 2
counter electrodes. The electrolyte is responsible for
carrying the ionic charges across the electrode. The result of the flow of electrons from anode to
The earliest electrochemical cells were reported the cathode constitutes an electric current that is
by Kohlraush [2] in 1885 and Haber [2] in the early proportional to the hydrogen gas concentration which
1900s. Since after that a lot of researchers have obeys Faraday’s law.
worked on electrochemical gas sensors for detection
of different gases. J. F Currie et al [16] developed i = Z .F .Q , (5)
micromachined thin solid state electrochemical
sensor for simultaneous detection of CO2, NO2 and where Z is no of exchanged electrons/molecules, Q
SO2 gases. Similarly, R. Sathiyamoorthi et al [17]
is the conversion rate of hydrogen in moles/second,
developed an electrochemical sensor for the detection
F is Faraday constant = 96486.7 As/mol.
of fluorine and chlorine. In order to improve the
Electrochemical sensors are usually of three types
sensitivity of the electrochemical gas sensor, Tian
namely: amperometric, potentiometric and
Gan and Shengshui Hu [18] published a review paper
conductometric which are discussed below:
on Electrochemical sensors based on graphene
materials, due to the fact that nanoscaled materials
are good candidates for gas sensing elements due to
high surface-to volume ratio, they have reduced size
2.3.1. Amperometric Gas Sensor
and reduced power consumption and have been used
for the detection of various gases as shown by Lu et The amperometric sensors work at a constant
al [19] However, microelectronic systems (MEMS) applied voltage and the sensor signal is a diffusion
have been employed for the design of limited current. It usually consists of two electrodes,
electrochemical microsensors and efforts have been the working electrode and the counter electrode and
made to improve their sensitivity as shown by [20]. also a reference electrode which are immersed in the
They explained that improved sensitivity could be electrolyte solution and a potentiostat for maintaining
attained by coating nanosensors developed from constant voltage as shown in Fig. 4.
carbon nanotubes with polymers.
An electrochemical sensor can be used for
measuring carbon monoxide by undergoing a
chemical reaction as follows:

CO + H 2O → CO2 + 2 H + + 2e − , (1)

As shown in equation (1), Oxidation reaction

takes place at the sensing electrode, CO2 diffuses into
the air and the positively charged ions migrate into
the electrolyte.

O2 + 4 H + + 4e − → 2 H 2O , (2) Fig. 4. A typical electrochemical gas sensor [21].

The oxidation reaction is balanced by a Amperometric sensors are usually built using
corresponding reduction reaction at the counter two-electrode configuration but due to the limits of
electrode as shown in equation (2). At one electrode, the concentrations of reactant gas they are built using
water is consumed while electrons are generated and a three electrode scheme. In the three electrode
at the other electrode water is created while electrons configuration, the current at the sensing electrode can
are consumed. The carbon monoxide generated be measured at a constant potential which gives a

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genuine thermodynamic potential for all reactions, in made up of an oxygen ion conducting solid
this case the reference electrode is not involved in the electrolyte and two electrodes which are deposited on
reaction. However, the current generated as a result the two sides of the electrolyte. One of these is a
of the target gas at the sensing or working electrode reference electrode which is in contact with a known
is measured as the sensor signal which can then be oxygen partial pressure while the other is a working
measured at either a fixed or variable electrode which is in contact with an unknown
electrode potential. oxygen partial pressure that needs to be measured.
Amperometric sensors have been used for When the electrodes are in contact with two different
detecting various gases by changing the type of oxygen partial pressures and isolated from each
electrolyte. Alex Moreta et al [22] developed a novel other, an EMF is developed by the sensor. The EMF
design for an amperometric gas sensor with the use of is described by Nernst equation:
an yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) porous layer which a E = RT In( Pt ) , (5)
acts as an oxygen conductor and a gas diffusion 4F
P
Pw E = RT In( t ) , (5)
barrier. The planar stack configuration was developed 4F Pw
and allowed a deposition of YSZ layers. The device
developed showed a linear output in the range of where Pt is the partial pressure of oxygen at the
oxygen partial pressures. Kuo-Chuan Ho and Wen- reference electrode and Pw is the partial pressure at
Tung Hung [23] also developed an amperometric
NO2 gas sensor based on Pt/Nafion electrode, NO2 the working electrode, R is the gas constant, T is the
concentrations in the range of 0 to 485 ppm were temperature in Kelvin and F is the Faraday’s
detected. Similarly an amperometric hydrogen sensor constant. These sensors usually operate between
was developed based on polymer electrolyte 600 °C and 1000 °C.
membrane with Nafion membrane as the conducting The electrodes are usually made from Palladium,
polymer. The response to hydrogen concentration Platinum, gold or silver. Different electrolytes have
was in the range of 260 to 11,500 ppm Yente Chao et been also used or a combination of two materials for
al [24] developed an amperometric sensor using the detection of different gases. C. Lee et al [28]
3 different sensor designs for hydrogen and carbon developed a potentiometric CO2 gas sensor using
monoxide sensing. The three different designs were lithium phosphorus oxynitride electrolyte while
tested under hydrogen and CO concentration and recently Jiun-Chan Yang et al [29] developed a high
devices II and III were found to have slower response temperature NO2 sensor fabricated with asymmetric
times as compared to device I. Selectivity of the reference and sensing electrode made with Pt and
sensor under hydrogen concentrations was greatly YSZ electrolyte. The combination of these two
improved by replacing Pt-air RE with modified materials have simplified the design and make it
Ag/AgCl RE and incorporation of a semi-permeable more compact. Similarly, Yongtie Yan et al [30]
membrane. Amperometric gas sensors for the developed a potentiometric sensor using stabilized
detection of hydrocarbon was reported by [25] for zirconia for chlorine gas by combining
monitoring in exhaust pipes. MgO-stabilized zirconia tube with an auxiliary phase
With the advent of Microelectronics containing metal chloride with a sensitivity of
System (MEMS), microelectrodes with very small 1-100 ppm of chlorine at 550-600 °C. With the
electrode surface area have been employed in the advent of microfabrication technology, miniaturized
fabrication of electrochemical sensors due to their sensors are produced so as to amplify the output of
numerous advantages of having small size and the potentiometric sensors. R. Radhakrishnan et al
weight, low cost, faster response time without [31] fabricated a miniaturized series connected
affecting the signal-to-noise ratio. potentiometric sensor on a silicon fabricated
Microamperometric sensors dated back in the 1980’s electrodes on after using microfabrication techniques
consisted only of microfabricated electrodes on a for oxygen detection.
suitable substrate, the earliest microamperometric
sensor was developed by Sleszynski and Osteryoung 2.4. Optical Gas Sensors
in 1984. Recently, techniques on how to improve the
sensitivity of the sensors were reported by [26, 27]. This type of sensors use optical
absorption/emission scattering of a gas species at
defined optical wavelengths An optical gas sensor
2.3.2. Potentiometric Gas Sensors consists of a light emitting element, a photodetecting
element, a gas sensing element, the gas sensing
Potentiometric gas sensors are used to determine element responding to light and a filter for picking up
the analytical concentration of some components of fluorescence or phosphorescence Most optical
the analyte gas. They can measure the electrical sensors are usually based on thin films of palladium
potential of an electrode without current flow. The or chemochromic oxides coated along the length of
signal is measured as the potential difference between an optical fiber. This type of fiber optic sensors are
the working electrode and the reference electrode. known as optodes. One of the most common optical
Potentiometric sensors have been used for oxygen gas sensors is infrared gas sensors which will be
detection. A typical potentiometric oxygen sensor is discussed later in more detail.

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As shown by many authors, optical sensors have measurement of hydrogen sulfide gas. In order to
been used for many years in the detection of produce a sensor that is miniaturized, Guangjun
flammable gases like hydrogen [2]. The first optical Zhang et al [40] developed a miniaturized CO2 sensor
hydrogen gas sensor was reported by Butler [2] in based on infrared absorption.
1984 which consists of an optical fibre with There are two types of optical structure which is
Palladium and Titanium coatings. Detection of used for the construction of infrared CO2 gas sensors
hydrogen was made using interferometry. Crawford namely: time-double beam and space-double beams.
Massie et al [32] also designed a low-cost portable The time-double beam optical structure has only one
optical sensor for methane detection with very good infrared beam emitted from the infrared source and
sensitivity, the sensor can operate even in harsh the detector receives 2 infrared beams with different
environments. L. N Acquaroli et al [33] designed an wavelengths and at different times while the space
optical porous silicon gas sensor. The system was double beam structure has one infrared beam emitted
tested over a detection area of the porous silicon from the infrared source and simultaneously enters
microcavity with isopropyl alcohol vapor and even two parallel plate detectors In this design, the space
small changes in concentrations were detected. double beam is used so as to enhance the construction
H. Manap et al [34] developed an optical fibre sensor and a cone-shaped air chamber is designed As shown
for the monitoring of ammonia gas using an open in Fig. 5 the optical probe consists of an infrared
optical path techniques. Cross sensitivity of CO2 and source, an air chamber, an infrared receiving device
O2 was also tested to see their effect on ammonia gas. and two sapphire windows. The sensor showed an
S. Okazaki et al [35] also developed a fiber optic accuracy of 0.026 % with CO2 gas concentration in
hydrogen gas sensor using catalyst-supported- the range of 0-3 %. Naoya Kasai et al [41]
tungsten trioxide ( wo3 ) . The sensor used platinic investigated the ability of a system using a carbon
infrared emitter and an Infrared camera to detect a
acid at 500°C and showed good response towards combustible gas propane.
hydrogen gas detection and can detect gas even at
room temperature. M. Girschikofsky et al [36]
recently reported an optical planar Bragg grating
sensor which is capable of detecting substances like
benzene, toluene and xylene. Results obtained
showed good sensitivity towards these gases.

2.5. Infrared Gas Sensor

Infrared sensors consists of a detector which
converts electromagnetic radiation energy into Fig. 5. Showing a structural optical probe [37].
electrical signals. The Detectors are of different types
namely: Thermoelectric, Thermistor Bolometer,
Pyroelectric detector and Photon detector. It also 2.6. Semiconductor Sensors
consists of an infrared source which could be a
regular incandescent light or a heated wire filament Semiconductor gas sensors are devices that are
which can be used for the detection of CO2, CO and made up of heated metal oxides which are used for
other hydrocarbons. Another component is an optical measurement of gas concentration of a target gas by
fibre which could be of two types: dispersive and measuring the electrical resistance of the device.
non-dispersive. They work on the principle of reversible gas
Non-dispersive types use discrete optical adsorption process at the surface of the heated oxide
bandpass filters and are mostly used for gas sensor usually oxides of tin deposited on a silicon slice by
applications while the dispersive types use an optical chemical vapor deposition method. Absorption of the
device like a grating or prism. The last but not the sample gas on the oxide surface followed by catalytic
least is the gas cell which allows the light path so as oxidation results in a change of electrical resistance
to interact with the target gas. Infrared gas sensors of the oxide material which is then related to the
are use for detecting different gases like methane, sample gas concentration which is monitored by the
ethane, propane, butane, benzene toluene, xylene and meter as shown in Fig. 6. The heater at the base is
other alcohols like methanol, ethanol etc. H. Okajima used for heating up the sensor to a constant
et al [37] developed an Infrared gas sensor using temperature of about 200-250 °C so as to speed up
LED for the measurement of methane, absorption of the reaction rate.
gas samples between 0-97 % were successfully An intrinsic n-type semiconductor is suitable for
measured, D. Garcia Romeo et al [38] developed a detecting reducing gases due to the high conductance
Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) gas sensor for the change as a result of the injected electrons. Similarly,
measurement of CO2 gas concentration for wireless a p-type semiconductor is suitable for the detection
sensor networks with low power consumption of oxidizing gases. The oxides usually used for the
Similarly Dong Chen et al [39] designed a tunable n-type are mainly oxides: SnO2.ZnO In2O3, or WO3.
diode laser absorption spectroscopy for the They are commonly used to detect hydrogen, oxygen,

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alcohol and harmful gases like carbon monoxide. Gas in a Wheatstone bridge circuit and they work under a
sensors using metal oxide semiconductor were first stabilized constant current. The shunting
proposed by Seiyama and Taguchi. When semiconductor resistance should be ensured to have a
inflammable gases come into contact with metal resistance value of the same order of magnitude as
oxides, they excite a new electron level within the that of the Pt resistor at the operation temperature.
solid and thus cause a change in electrical resistance Due to the low heater resistance, only metal oxides
of the gas sensing elements. Jin Huang and Qing with high conductivity are capable of changing the
Wan published a review paper on the progress in gas total resistance of sensors in the presence of gases
sensors based on semiconducting metal oxide one detected. For one-electrode semiconductor sensor
dimensional (1D) nanostructures. design SnO2 and In2O3 have been used. However, the
It was reported that due to the advent of two-electrode configuration will not be discussed
microelectronics, new device structures such as the because it is not very common.
electronic nose and the low power consumption self- The gas sensing materials for one-electrode
heated gas sensor have been designed and their sensors are deposited using Chemical Vapour
response been evaluated [42]. Sensitivity and Deposition, Physical vapor deposition and Sol-gel
selectivity could be improved by the addition of Process. Recently, Kengo Shimanoe et al [46]
small amounts of noble metals like Pd-added developed a semiconductor nano-sized oxide for the
elements A. Khodadadi et al [43] reported on detection of inflammable gases, odor gases and other
improving the sensitivities of methane and environmental related gases using MEMS technology
carbonmonoxide gases by adding 5 % of K2O into with low power consumption. T. Takada [47]
SnO2 samples, the sensitivity was improved by 40 %. developed a new method for gas identification of
Similarly, 5 % of Na2O in SnO2 layers showed different gases including hydrogen, carbon
reduction of sensor sensitivity to CO. Addition of monoxide, methane and Volatile organic compounds.
platinum into the prepared samples improves the Recently, artificial intelligence techniques are
response to methane. While addition of small amount integrated into gas sensors as shown by Byeongdeok
of cerium oxide showed suppression of the sensor Yea et al [48]. A method of estimation of
response to methane while maintaining sensitivity semiconductor gas sensor that utilizes neural
to CO. networks and fuzzy inference systems.
However, improved sensitivity could also be In order to improve sensitivity of the sensor
obtained by the addition of doping agent in thick film different methods had been used including
semiconductor gas sensor developed for the sensing temperature modulation, synthesis of new sensor
of methane and butane. materials, designing new sensor constructions,
The semiconductor gas sensors have adoption of new filter layers and using of sensor
different configurations, one-electrode and two- array. Therefore, Grzegorz Halek et al [49] made a
electrode configuration. comparison on methods of selectivity improvements
of semiconductor gas sensors and concluded that the
kind of sensing material and filter layer have a strong
influence on the sensor parameter.

Fig. 7. Showing one electrode configuration

Fig. 6. A typical semiconductor sensor [44]. of semiconductor gas sensor [40].

2.6.1. Operation Principle of One-electrode 2.7. Acoustic Wave Gas Sensors

Semiconductor Gas Sensors
Acoustic wave sensors are so named because their
The one-elecrode sensor configuration is depicted detection mechanism is a mechanical, or acoustic,
in Fig. 7 as reported by [45] the metal resistor acts as wave. As the acoustic wave propagates through or on
both the heater and measuring electrode at the same the surface of the material, any changes to the
time. One electrode sensors are similar to pellistors or characteristics of the propagation path affect the
hot wire sensors. The operation principle of one- velocity and/or amplitude of the wave. Changes in
electrode sensor is based on the shunting of the Pt velocity can be monitored by measuring the
wire by semiconductor oxide coating the metal spiral. frequency or phase characteristics of the sensor and
The one-electrode sensors are typically incorporated can then be correlated to the corresponding physical

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quantity being measured. An acoustic wave sensor components in the saggital plane i.e. the plane
contains a receptor which is an element that is containing the direction of propagation and the
sensitive to an analyte and a transducer i.e. surface normal. For gas sensing applications the
an element that converts the response into choice of piezoelectric substrate determines the type
an electrical signal. of SAW wave. Rayleigh waves propagate in a thin
The first acoustic gas sensor was discovered by surface layer, and can penetrate into the substrate at a
King in 1964 [50] and was based on the measurement distance of the order of a wavelength. The velocity of
of bulk acoustic waves (BAW) in a piezoelectric propagation of the wave depends on the substrate
quartz crystal resonator which is sensitive to mass material, the crystal cut of the substrate and the
changes. After intensive research studies in mid working frequency.
1960’s, chemical sensors for industrial atmospheric Since after the discovery a lot of potential
pollutants were developed. Since piezoelectric quartz applications have been exploited which amongst
resonators were used, these type of sensors were them is the sensor applications including chemical,
called quartz microbalances (QMB). optical, thermal, pressure, acceleration, torque and
There are different types of acoustic wave sensors biological. The main advantages of using SAW
which are based on the type of wave propagation. technology is high sensitivity, low power
Acoustic wave sensors have a variety of applications consumption, wireless, can be placed on moving or
as in temperature, pressure, mass, chemical etc. In rotating parts and in hazardous environment. The
this paper the application will be for gas sensing. The SAW device is also technologically compatible
principle of operation of acoustic chemical sensor is because its fabrication process is similar to that of
described as follows. When a receptor film is other microelectronic devices.
introduced unto the vibrating surface of a transducer
that is activated by an electronic device, the
characteristics of the receptor film such as its mass 2.7.2. Principle of Operation
and thickness are changed when exposed to an
Surface acoustic wave sensors works based on the
analyte. This change directly affects the vibration
principle of transduction whereby the sensor converts
frequency, amplitude and phase. The shift is directly
an input electrical signal into a mechanical wave and
proportional to the analyte concentration.
reconverts back into electrical signal. This is made
As mentioned in the introduction, the
possible by means of the interdigitated transducer
performance characteristic of any sensor is
known as the IDTs which uses the piezoelectric
determined by some factors including sensitivity,
effect. The IDTs are made of electrodes made from
response time, selectivity, small size and low power
either aluminium, gold or platinum. A typical SAW
consumption. As reviewed by several works on
therefore consists of an input and output transducer
different gas sensors, the current trend has taken the
with spacings between them called a delay-line. The
direction of developing the gas sensors using
principle of gas sensing in SAW is realized by the
microelectronics technology due to its advantage of
application of a sensing material like a thin polymer
miniaturization and low power consumption.
across the delay line which selectively absorbs the
However, acoustic wave sensors already possess this
gas or gases of interest as depicted in Fig. 8.
inherent characteristic and were used in gas sensors
since 1964 so this makes it to be an attractive
candidate over its gas sensing counterparts. A review
on acoustic waves will be made in this section of the
paper with emphasis on surface acoustic wave
sensors. Another advantage of surface acoustic wave
technology is that the gas sensing can be made
wirelessly as shown by [51], which makes real online
monitoring of the gas sensor possible and eliminates
the use of wired cables. This property makes it an
attractive candidate for gas detection and makes it
superior to other gas sensing techniques. Also High
selectivity and sensitivity have also been reported in Fig. 8. A SAW device to depict the principle
many saw gas sensing applications [25, 29, 31]. of gas sensing [2].

2.7.1. Surface Acoustic Wave Gas Sensors Rayleigh SAW sensors are based on two types of
acoustoelectronic devices namely: delay-line or
Surface acoustic wave technology refers to the resonator. The frequency of operation of Rayleigh
use of the SAW device in several technological waves sensors is usually lies between 40-600 MHz.
applications Surface acoustic waves were first These devices differ in from each other in their
discovered by Lord Rayleigh in 1885. SAW sensors design, a delay line has two receiving and
are developed based on Rayleigh waves. A Rayleigh transmitting interdigital transducer whereas a
SAW is made up of two mechanical displacement resonator has one interdigital transducer placed at the

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resonator cavity. However, their mechanism of time delay for a two-port delay line is given by 2
response is the same and they also have similar equations due to the different lengths of l1 and l2 as
output characteristics. A delay line is simpler to follows:
design compared with the resonator that is why it is
mainly use for practical applications. However, a 2l1
delay line requires matching due to the insertion τ 1d = , (8)
attenuation and is subjected to having oscillation v
frequency, but the resonators have smaller
attenuations and do not require matching [52]. A 2l2
resonator and a delay line could be either single or
τ 2d = , (9)
v
two-port. A single-port delay line consists of a
propagation path between one IDT and one or more where l1 is the mean spacing between IDT and
interdigital reflectors. A two-port SAW delay line reflector 1 and l2 is the mean spacing between IDT
consists of a propagation path between two separate and reflector 2. A single-port resonator makes use of
IDTs, the first serves as a transmitting transducer and one IDT structure in the centre between two
the second serves as a receiving transducer so as to reflectors while the two-port resonator consists of
convert the SAW back to electrical form. The time two IDT structures in between two reflectors [53].
delay for a two-port delay line is given by The function of the reflector is to reflect an incident
wave completely over a narrow band of frequency
l and also to reduce energy loss in the system so that it
τd = , (7)
can produce a narrow and stable signal.
v
Fig. 9(a) ~ Fig. 9(d) shows the different types of
where l is the mean spacing between the IDTs and f is configuration of the SAW device for both the delay
the frequency as referred to Fig. 8 (a). Similarly, the line and resonator.

Fig. 9(a). Single-port delay line Fig. 9(b). Two-port delay line.

Fig. 9(c). Single port resonator. Fig. 9(d). Two-port resonator.

3. SAW Based Gas Sensors by some researchers in the 1950s. In the late 1970s,
Wohltjen and Dessy [55] realized that chemical vapor
Surface acoustic waves were the next generation sensing could be accomplished with a device that was
of acoustic wave sensors after the advent of the originally used for processing of electrical signals
quartz crystal microbalance quartz crystal which is the SAW delay-line.
microbalance (QCM) which was used to stabilize the Since then a lot of researchers have been working
frequencies of radio transmitters and later modified on SAW sensors for detection of different gases
by the addition of sorptive film on the crystal so that which are either toxic, harmful or pollutants, while
it could be used for chemical sensing [54]. others can be used as fuel gases in industries and
Subsequently the device was analyzed and improved automobiles. Researchers tend to employ SAW

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resonator if their prime interest is to control the paper was published recently by Wieslaw P. Jakubik
centre frequency whereas if the time response is of on dual delay line oscillator. However, Hea-Min Lee
interest they decide to use the delay line. SAW delay et al [60] designed SAW resonator gas sensor using
line is commonly used due to its simplicity in the lithium niobate for the detection of methane and
design and fabrication [65]. M. S. Nieuwenhuizen et hydrogen gas. Similarly, G. Fischerauer et al [52]
al [56] developed a SAW gas sensor for detection of also employed a SAW resonator for the detection of
CO2 and H2O using dual delay-line oscillators on a hydrocarbons. Due to the good results displayed by
quartz substrate at a frequency of 40 MHz. Adrian the use of saw devices for gas sensing in terms of
Venema et al [57] also designed a SAW delay-line high sensitivity, selectivity and good response times,
gas sensor using quartz substrate for the detection of A lot of researchers are working extensively so as to
NO2 gas. Subsequently, V. I. Anisimkin et al [58] detect different gases using different configurations
also developed a SAW delay-line gas sensor for the of SAWs and at different frequencies as presented in
detection of CO, NO, hydrogen and oxygen gases Table 1. Results obtained have produced excellent
respectively. K. Beck et al [59] also developed a results in terms of high selectivity, high sensitivity
SAW delay-line using lithium niobate substrate for and good response times.
the detection of NO2 and methane gases. A review

Table 1. Review of SAW gas sensor.

Type Of Substrate
Author/Year Gases Detected Frequency Sensitivity
Saw Material
6 - 8 kHz in
J. A. Theile Two-port concentrations
Hydrogen Langasite 167 MHz
2004 [61] resonator between 250 - 1000
ppm of H2/N2
A. Z Sadek Two-port 7 kHz towards 1 % of
Lithium niobate 106.9 MHz
2005 [62] resonator Hydrogen hydrogen in air
A. Z Sadek Two-port 185 kHz towards 150
Lithium niobate 108.2 MHz
2006 [63] resonator CO ppm of CO
Chunbae Lim 2.12 /ppm for CO2 and
Delay-lines CO2 and NO2 Lithium niobate 440 MHz
2009 [65] 55.4 /ppm for NO2
1.19, 0.79, 0.51
Cristian Viespe Volatile Organic Hz/ppm for MWCNT-
Delay-lines Quartz 69.4 MHz
2010 [66] Componds PEI, SiO2/Si-PEI &
PEI respectively
Methanol, ethanol,
Da-Jeng Yao Two-port
isopropyl, alcohol, Lithium niobate 99.8 MHz NIL
2010 [67] resonator
acetone, amine
Hsu-Chao Hao Two-port Lithium
Ammonia 100 MHz NIL
2010 [68] resonator tantalite
Chi-Yen Shen Two-port
Ammonia ST-Cut Quartz 98.47 MHz 5.9 Hz/ppm
et al 2010 [69] resonator
T. H. Lin Dual delay-
Ammonia Lithium niobate 114.7 MHz 6.91 Hz/ppm
2011 [70] line
129.28 MHz
Duy-Thach uncoated, 55 kHz in 1 %
Two-port Aluminium
2012 [71] Hydrogen 128.85 MHz & Hydrogen
Delay line nitride/silicon
126.93 MHz concentration
coated Pt/ZnO

4. Comparison of Gas Sensors 5. Conclusion

All the technologies listed above for gas sensing A review of different gas sensors was presented.
requires optimum performance. Therefore it is The different sensing techniques discussed in this
necessary for one to have a clear picture of the pros article includes catalytic gas sensors, electrochemical
and cons of each type of sensor. gas sensors, optical gas sensors, thermal conductivity
This is dependent on certain operating and gas sensors and acoustic gas sensors. Since the
environmental conditions as well as the cost of properties of an ideal sensor are defined by some
production for each sensor which varies amongst the variables which are; sensitivity, selectivity, high
various classes of technology. A comparison response time and fast recovery time. Each of the
(advantages and disadvantages) of all the gas sensor technologies are working towards getting the
detection sensors are presented in Table 2. optimal properties of an ideal sensor, therefore the
trend is to fabricate the sensors to become as

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miniaturized as possible. In view of this, all the solutions are offered including small size, low cost,
sensors recently utilize the microfabrication and low power consumption and as well possessing all
microfabrication techniques for the sensor the characteristics that classify them as an ideal
fabrication. By adopting this technique, many sensor.

Table 2. Comparison of gas detection sensor technologies.

No. Sensor Type Advantages Disadvantages

Requires air or oxygen to work.
Simple, measures flammability of gases and
1. Catalytic Can be poisoned by lead, chlorine and
low cost technology
silicones
Robust but simple construction.
2. Thermal Easy to operate in absence of oxygen. Reaction due to heating wire.
Measuring range is very wide.
Measures toxic gases in relatively low
Failures modes are unrevealed unless
3. Electrochemical concentrations.
advanced monitoring technique used.
Wide range of gases can be detected
Easy to operate in absence of oxygen.
4. Optical Not affected by electromagnetic interference. Affected by ambient light interference.
Monitoring area is very wide.
Not all gases have IR absorption.
Uses only physical technique.
Sequential monitoring is slower on multi
5. Infrared No unseen failure modes.
point analyzers and also more user
Can be used in inert atmospheres.
expertise required.
Susceptible to contaminants and changes
Mechanically robust, works well at constant
6. Semiconductors due to environmental conditions.
high humidity condition.
Non- linear response effects complexity.
Detect nerve and blister agents
Surface Battery-less and could be used for wireless Due to its small size there is difficulty in
7. Acoustic Wave applications. handling during fabrication process.
Could be placed in harsh and rotating parts

The surface acoustic wave technology possesses all As the sensitivity of a sensor is a very important
these properties of an ideal sensor and thus it offers characteristic for a good sensor. The goal of the
one-step solution when adopted. It is the technology researcher is on how to improve the sensitivity of a
that produces a small, low cost and low power sensor, the type of sensing layer is a main
consumption devices for gas sensing applications. determining factor to attain this goal. Therefore new
With the advent of modern technology, there is also sensing materials need to be used for the sensing
need to monitor the gas sensor remotely from a layer. Future researches should develop new sensing
certain location technology especially for pipelines materials for their active layer like graphene and
leakages which if not monitored carefully may cause graphite based sensors and also their nanocomposites.
explosion. The surface acoustic wave technology Another promising materials for exploration is
offers this property of the ability to be used as silicon and its metal oxide. This was shown by [72]
wireless sensors which saves time and energy and where Nanocystalline SnO2-Pt thick film gas sensor
also saves real time monitoring of the gas sensor. was used for multi-gas sensing of methanol, ethyl
This wireless capability could be achieved by alcohol, acetone, isopropanol, and isobutane. Their
utilizing the Industrial, Scientific and Medical bands results showed improved sensitivity and selectivity
which is free in most countries. To accomplish this, towards these gases. Therefore, more promising
the SAW device that should be used for the gas sensitivity could be achieved when SnO2 is used with
sensor should have the frequency of 433.92 MHz carbon composite materials. Alloys of (MnCoNi)
which is the frequency for the wireless band. oxide could also be promising sensing materials.
However, the scope of the gases detected by the Carbon nanotubes have been quite promising
different sensors should be expanded. Most of the materials for gas sensors due to their high-surface
technologies concentrate on the same types of area which gives it a good property to be used as gas
flammable and toxic gases. As safety of humans is of sensors. However, many researchers use it for
priority, many of these flammable and toxic gases are sensing layer without knowing which structural
neglected and therefore future researches needs to morphology gives the best sensor response.
explore all the existing hazardous gases so as to make Therefore, it is worth investigating the effects of the
the environment clean and safe. Flammable liquids structural morphology on the sensitivity as well as
like butane, benzene, gasoline etc need to be explored selectivity of the sensors.
as well.

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