INTRODUCTION OF CELL

Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology

that studies the structure, function and behavior of cells. All living
organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is
responsible for the living and functioning of organisms.
The cell (from the Latin word 'cellula' meaning "small room") is the
basic structural and functional unit of life forms. Every cell consists
of a cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains
many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks
within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and
motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the
cell. Most cells are measured in micrometers due to their small size.
Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope,
with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron
microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed
cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting
of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and
animals). Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms.
The number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to
species; it has been approximated that the human body contains an
estimated 37 trillion (3.72×1013) cells. The brain accounts for around
80 billion of these cells.
The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in
the field. Including but not limited to; the discovery of DNA, cancer
study development, as well as aging and development.
Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago. Cell biology is the
study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who
named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian
monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias
Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are
composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of
structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come
from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years
ago.
Cell types
Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic
cells, which do not have a nucleus, but a nucleoid region is still present.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while Prokaryotic cells.

Structure of a typical prokaryotic cell

Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of
life. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized
by having vital biological processes including cell signaling. They are
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a nucleus, and
other membrane-bound organelles. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell
consists of a single circular chromosome that is in direct contact with
the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called
the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms
ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter.
A prokaryotic cell has three regions:
1-Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of
a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria,
may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule. The envelope
gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its
environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists
of peptidoglycan in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against
exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting
(cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment.
Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell
wall.
Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains
the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusion. The
genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm. Linear bacterial
plasmids have been identified in several species
of spirochete bacteria, including members of the
genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme
disease.Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in
a nucleoid. Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic
resistance genes.
On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These
are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that
facilitate movement and communication between cells.

EUKARYOTIC CELL

Structure of a typical animal cell

Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are
all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical
prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in
volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared
to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-
bound organelles (compartments) in which specific activities take
place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus , an organelle
that houses the cell's DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its
name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)". Some of the other
differences are:
The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with
minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules,
called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All
chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the
cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such
as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play
important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation,
and thermosensation. Each cilium may thus be "viewed as a sensory
cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling
pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or
alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells
are absent in conifers and flowering plants. Eukaryotic flagella are
more complex than those of prokaryotes.

Cell Shapes
Cell shape also called Cell Morphology has been hypothesized to
form from the arrangement and movement of the cytoskeleton. Many
advancements in the study of cell morphology come from studying
simple bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, and B.
subtilis. Different cell shapes have been found and described but how
any why cells form different shapes is still widely unknown. Cell
shapes that have been identified include: rods, cocci, spirochaetes.
Cocci have a circular shape, bacilli have an elongated rod-like shape,
and spirochaetes have a spiral shape. Although many other shapes
have been determined.
Subcellular components
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that
envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively
permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the
membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume. All cells
(except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles
to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin) possess DNA, the
hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information
necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's
primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in
cells. This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly
describes their function.
Cell membrane.

Detailed diagram of lipid bilayer of cell membrane

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a selectively
permeable biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a
cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the
cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell
wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its
surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of
phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and
partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer,
or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this
membrane is a macromolecular structure called the porosome the
universal secretory portal in cells and a variety of protein molecules
that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into
and out of the cell. The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively
permeable, in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass
through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at
all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow
cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.
Cytoskeleton

A fluorescent image of an endothelial cell. Nuclei are stained

blue, mitochondria are stained red, and microfilaments are stained
green.
The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape;
anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of
external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of
daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in
processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is
composed of microtubules, intermediate
filaments and microfilaments. In the cytoskeleton of a neuron the
intermediate filaments are known as neurofilaments. There are a great
number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's
structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.The
prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the
maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis. The subunit
protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin.
The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin.
Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary
among the cell types in different tissues. But some of the subunit
proteins of intermediate filaments
include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple
acidic and basic keratins), neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).
Genetic material
DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-
term information storage. The biological information contained in an
organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for
information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions
(e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to
add amino acids during protein translation.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial
chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic
genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules
called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional
genetic material in some organelles
like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).
A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell
nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria
(the mitochondrial genome). In humans, the nuclear genome is
divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including
22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes.
The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from
nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared
to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in
mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.
Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially
introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be
transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if
it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.
Organelles
Organelles are parts of the cell that are adapted and/or specialized for
carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of
the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ
performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and
are not membrane-bound.
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as
the nucleus and Golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others
(such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes)
can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the
gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.
Eukaryotic

Human cancer cells, specifically HeLa cells, with DNA stained blue.
The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so their DNA is
diffuse and the entire nuclei are labelled. The cell on the left is going
through mitosis and its chromosomes have condensed.
Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most
conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the
cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost
all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The
nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope, space between these two
membrane is called perinuclear space. The nuclear envelope isolates
and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could
accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing.
During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA,
called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then transported out of
the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule.
The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where
ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing
takes place in the cytoplasm.[16]
Mitochondria and chloroplasts: generate energy for the
cell. Mitochondria are self-replicating double membrane-bound
organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Respiration occurs in the cell
mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by oxidative
phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular
nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP(aerobic
respiration). Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes.
Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture
the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

Diagram of the endomembrane system

Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications
and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely
in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has
ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the
smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.The smooth ER plays a role in
calcium sequestration and release and also helps in synthesis
of lipid.
Golgi apparatus: The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to
process and package the macromolecules such
as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain digestive
enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-
out organelles, food particles, and
engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the
cell of toxic peroxides, Lysosomes are optimally active at acidic pH.
The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system.
Centrosome: the cytoskeleton organiser: The centrosome produces
the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It
directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.
Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles which lie perpendicular
to each other in which each has an organisation like a cartwheel,
which separate during cell division and help in the formation of
the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells.
They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
Vacuoles: Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store
water. They are often described as liquid filled spaces and are
surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have
contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is
too much water. The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are
usually larger than those of animal cells. Vacuoles of plant cells is
surrounded by tonoplast which helps in transport of ions and other
substances against concentration gradients.
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex
[16]
of RNA and protein molecules. They each consist of two subunits,
and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to
synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either
floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic
reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).
Plastids: Plastid are membrane-bound organelle generally found in
plant cells and euglenoids and contain specific pigments, thus
affecting the colour of the plant and organism. And these pigments
also helps in food storage and tapping of light energy. There are three
types of plastids based upon the specific
pigments. Chloroplasts(contains chlorophyll and some carotenoid
pigments which helps in the tapping of light energy during
photosynthesis), Chromoplasts(contains fat-
soluble carotenoid pigments like orange carotene and yellow
xanthophylls which helps in synthesis and storage), Leucoplasts(are
non-pigmented plastids and helps in storage of nutrients).
DISCOVERY OF THE CELL
The discovery of the cell would not have been possible if not for
advancements to the microscope. Interested in learning more about
the microscopic world, scientist Robert Hooke improved the design of
the existing compound microscope in 1665. His microscope used
three lenses and a stage light, which illuminated and enlarged the
specimens. These advancements allowed Hooke to see something
wondrous when he placed a piece of cork under the microscope.
Hooke detailed his observations of this tiny and previously unseen
world in his book, Micrographia. To him, the cork looked as if it was
made of tiny pores, which he came to call “cells” because they
reminded him of the cells in a monastery.
In observing the cork’s cells, Hooke noted in Micrographia that, “I
could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous,
much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular…
these pores, or cells,…were indeed the first microscopical pores I
ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any
Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this…”

Not long after Hooke’s discovery, Dutch scientist Antonie van

Leeuwenhoek detected other hidden, minuscule organisms—
bacteria and protozoa. It was unsurprising that van Leeuwenhoek
would make such a discovery. He was a master microscope maker
and perfected the design of the simple microscope (which only had a
single lens), enabling it to magnify an object by around two hundred
to three hundred times its original size. What van Leeuwenhoek saw
with these microscopes was bacteria and protozoa, but he called
these tiny creatures “animalcules.”
Van Leeuwenhoek became fascinated. He went on to be the first to
observe and describe spermatozoa in 1677. He even took a look at the
plaque between his teeth under the microscope. In a letter to the
Royal Society, he wrote, "I then most always saw, with great wonder,
that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules,
very prettily a-moving.”
In the nineteenth century, biologists began taking a closer look at
both animal and plant tissues, perfecting cell theory. Scientists could
readily tell that plants were completely made up of cells due to their
cell wall. However, this was not so obvious for animal cells, which
lack a cell wall. Many scientists believed that animals were made of
“globules.”
German scientists Theodore Schwann and Mattias Schleiden studied
cells of animals and plants respectively. These scientists identified
key differences between the two cell types and put forth the idea that
cells were the fundamental units of both plants and animals.
However, Schwann and Schleiden misunderstood how cells grow.
Schleiden believed that cells were “seeded” by the nucleus and grew
from there. Similarly, Schwann claimed that animal cells “crystalized”
from the material between other cells. Eventually, other scientists
began to uncover the truth. Another piece of the cell theory puzzle
was identified by Rudolf Virchow in 1855, who stated that all cells are
generated by existing cells.
At the turn of the century, attention began to shift toward
cytogenetics, which aimed to link the study of cells to the study of
genetics. In the 1880s, Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri were
responsible for identifying the chromosome as the hub for heredity—
forever linking genetics and cytology. Later discoveries further
confirmed and solidified the role of the cell in heredity, such as James
Watson and Francis Crick’s studies on the structure of DNA.
The discovery of the cell continued to impact science one hundred
years later, with the discovery of stem cells, the undifferentiated cells
that have yet to develop into more specialized cells. Scientists began
deriving embryonic stem cells from mice in the 1980s, and in 1998,
James Thomson isolated human embryonic stem cells and developed
cell lines. His work was then published in an article in the
journal Science. It was later discovered that adult tissues, usually
skin, could be reprogrammed into stem cells and then form other cell
types. These cells are known as induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem
cells are now used to treat many conditions such as Alzheimer’s and
heart disease.
The discovery of the cell has had a far greater impact on science than
Hooke could have ever dreamed in 1665. In addition to giving us a
fundamental understanding of the building blocks of all living
organisms, the discovery of the cell has led to advances in medical
technology and treatment. Today, scientists are working on
personalized medicine, which would allow us to grow stem cells from
our very own cells and then use them to understand disease
processes. All of this and more grew from a single observation of the
cell in a cork.
CELL THEORY
In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory first formulated in the mid-
nineteenth century, that living organisms are made up of cells, that
they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and
that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of
structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The theory was once universally accepted, but now some biologists
consider non-cellular entities such as viruses living organisms, and
thus disagree with the first tenet. As of 2021: "expert opinion remains
divided roughly a third each between yes, no and don’t know". As
there is no universally accepted definition of life, discussion will
continue.
Modern interpretation
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells,
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living
organisms.
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of
independent cells.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome
and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms
of similar species.
Modern version
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
Energy flow occurs within cells.
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.This guide is
designed to provide you with an overview of the important processes involved
in the reproduction of cells. Cellular reproduction is a process by which cells
duplicate their contents and then divide to yield two cells with similar, if not
duplicate, contents. Understanding this process is helpful in understanding the
basis for human reproduction as well as the basis for the generation of life in
other classes of organisms. Cell reproduction does not always result in new
independent cells. It is also essential to growth and development as well as in
the day-to-day maintenance of many human cells.
INTRODUCTION TO CELL REPRODUCTION
We will be discussing two different types of cell reproduction--mitosis and
meiosis. These processes are responsible for creating two different types of
cells. Mitosis is a process that creates a nearly exact copy of the original cell.
Somatic cells, which include nearly all human cells, are created by this
process. Meiosis is a different form of reproduction that leads to the
production of germ cells, or sex cells. All cells fall into one of these two
categories, which we will discuss in depth in the coming SparkNotes on Cell
Reproduction. Some organisms, such as bacteria and single-celled organisms,
use only mitosis for cell reproduction.
The difference between mitosis and meiosis can also be thought of as the
difference between sexual and asexual reproduction. Humans obviously
reproduce sexually, but this is not true for all organisms. Many lower-order
cells create entirely new organisms with each round of mitosis: asexual
reproduction. In humans and other organisms that reproduce sexually,
meiosis is needed to take into account the genetic contribution of the two
parent organisms.
This SparkNote will provide a general introduction to cell division and cell
reproduction as well as introduce some terms that will ease our understanding
of mitosis and meiosis.

Cellular reproduction(mitosis and meiosis)

Our cells reproduce so that we may grow and regenerate. For example,
cells are constantly duplicating so that our nails and hair keep growing.
The process by which a cell splits into two genetically identical copies is
called mitosis. To achieve this, the cell must first make a second copy of
all the DNA in its nucleus. DNA is then condensed into rod-like structures
known as chromosomes. Both copies of the chromosomes stick together in
the middle, which is why they look like an X under the microscope. Once
the nuclear membrane breaks down, the chromosomes line up in a neat
row at the centre of the cell. The chromosome pairs then split and move
apart toward opposite poles of the cell before it divides into two
genetically identical daughter cells.
When sex cells, the sperm and the egg, are involved, cell division is taken
to a whole other level! The process is called meiosis. Regular cells have 23
pairs of chromosomes (for a total of 46 chromosomes), and each pair
contains one chromosome from our father and another chromosome from
our mother. But a sex cell can only hold half of the genetic material, since
it must unite with the other sex cell to produce a new individual. DNA in
sex cells must undergo another round of division: with 23 chromosomes
on one side and 23 chromosomes on the other. Meiosis produces four
genetically different cells containing half of the genetic material.
Meiosis is similar to mitosis, but it has an extra round of cellular division.
During meiosis, the mother cell copies its DNA molecules and condenses
them into rods (chromosomes). Both copies of the same rod are bound
together at the middle to form an X. We have 23 pairs of rods, for a total
of 46 chromosomes. The chromosomes then pair up. Once they have
found their partner, they line up at the centre of the cell for the first
round of division. The two resulting cells contain 23 chromosomes. A
second division occurs. During this round, the chromosomes are divided
into 23 rods in each of the 4 cells.
During the process, chromosomes can exchange pieces of DNA. This is
known as recombination. This shuffling of genetic material between the
maternal and paternal chromosomes during meiosis leads to greater
genetic diversity. It’s also what makes each of us unique!
How Many Cells Are in Your Body?
You and I began as a single cell, or what you would call an egg. By
the time you are an adult, you will have trillions of cells. That number
depends on the size of the person, but biologists put that number
around 37 trillion cells. Yes, that is trillion with a "T."
How Do Cells Know When to Divide?
In cell division, the cell that is dividing is called the "parent" cell. The
parent cell divides into two "daughter" cells. The process then
repeats in what is called the cell cycle.
Cell division of cancerous lung cell .
Cells regulate their division by communicating with each other using
chemical signals from special proteins called cyclins. These signals
act like switches to tell cells when to start dividing and later when to
stop dividing. It is important for cells to divide so you can grow and
so your cuts heal. It is also important for cells to stop dividing at the
right time. If a cell can not stop dividing when it is supposed to stop,
this can lead to a disease called cancer.
Some cells, like skin cells, are constantly dividing. We need to
continuously make new skin cells to replace the skin cells we lose.
Did you know we lose 30,000 to 40,000 dead skin cells every minute?
That means we lose around 50 million cells every day. This is a lot of
skin cells to replace, making cell division in skin cells is so important.
Other cells, like nerve and brain cells, divide much less often.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL
The critical property of water in this respect is that it is a polar molecule,
in which the hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge and the
oxygen has a slight negative charges. Because of their polar nature,
water molecules can form hydrogen bonds with each other or with other
polar molecules, as well as interacting with positively or negatively
charged ions. As a result of these interactions, ions and polar molecules
are readily soluble in water (hydrophilic). In contrast, nonpolar
molecules, which cannot interact with water, are poorly soluble in an
aqueous environment (hydrophobic). Consequently, nonpolar molecules
tend to minimize their contact with water by associating closely with
each other instead. As discussed later in this chapter, such interactions
of polar and nonpolar molecules with water and with each other play
crucial roles in the formation of biological structures, such as cell
membranes.
The inorganic ions of the cell, including sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), phosphate (HPO42-), chloride (Cl-), and
bicarbonate (HCO3-), constitute 1% or less of the cell mass. These ions
are involved in a number of aspects of cell metabolism, and thus play
critical roles in cell function.
It is, however, the organic molecules that are the unique constituents of
cells. Most of these organic compounds belong to one of four classes of
molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Proteins,
nucleic acids, and most carbohydrates (the polysaccharides) are
macromolecules formed by the joining (polymerization) of hundreds or
thousands of low-molecular-weight precursors: amino acids,
nucleotides, and simple sugars, respectively. Such macromolecules
constitute 80 to 90% of the dry weight of most cells. Lipids are the other
major constituent of cells. The remainder of the cell mass is composed of
a variety of small organic molecules, including macromolecular
precursors. The basic chemistry of cells can thus be understood in terms
of the structures and functions of four major classes of organic
molecules.The inorganic ions of the cell, including sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), phosphate (HPO42-),
chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-), constitute 1% or less of the cell
mass. These ions are involved in a number of aspects of cell metabolism,
and thus play critical roles in cell function.
It is, however, the organic molecules that are the unique constituents of
cells. Most of these organic compounds belong to one of four classes of
molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Proteins,
nucleic acids, and most carbohydrates (the polysaccharides) are
macromolecules formed by the joining (polymerization) of hundreds or
thousands of low-molecular-weight precursors: amino acids,
nucleotides, and simple sugars, respectively. Such macromolecules
constitute 80 to 90% of the dry weight of most cells. Lipids are the other
major constituent of cells. The remainder of the cell mass is composed of
a variety of small organic molecules, including macromolecular
precursors. The basic chemistry of cells can thus be understood in terms
of the structures and functions of four major classes of organic
molecules.