The Journal of The Korea Association of Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
The Journal of The Korea Association of Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
The Journal of The Korea Association of Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
3
Winter 2009
This journal was published with the support of the Korea Research Foundation(KRF).
This journal is enlisted on the Korea Research Foundation(KRF).
Officers & Executive Board
(2008. 1 ~ 2009. 12)
Founded in 1997 for promoting the teaching/learning of foreign languages through multimedia
Board Executives
President Inn-Chull Choi (Korea University)
Vice Presidents Chung-Hyun Lee (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Jae Kyung Kim (Pai Chai University)
Jin-Kyong Ae (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation)
Daejin Kim (Seoul National University of Technology)
Duck-Gi Min (Chongju National University of Education)
Ki-Wan Sung (Kyung Hee University)
Secretary Generals Heyoung Kim (Chung-Ang University)
Jungtae Kim (Pai Chai University)
Treasurer Sangmin Lee (Kyung Hee University)
International Affairs Ho Lee (Chung-Ang University)
Officers Dan Craig (Indiana University)
Public Relations Officer Young Woo Cho (Pai Chai University)
Auditor Hee-Jeong Ihm (Seoul National University of Education)
Editorial Board Haedong Kim (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Members Jie-Young Kim (Chung-Ang University)
Namhee Kim (Hanyang Cyber University)
Seo Young Yoon (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Jeong A Lee (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Yoonjung Cha (Hanshin University)
Tae-Young Jeong (The Korea Military Academy)
Tae-Eun Kim (Soongsil University)
Hosung Choi (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Bong Kyu Kim (Sungshin Women’s University)
Sujung Park (Hanyang Cyber University)
Richard Lynch (Korea University)
Editorial Committee Daejin Kim (Seoul National University of Technology)
Members Sung-Yeon Kim (Hanyang University)
Youngwoo Kim (International Graduate School of English)
Jin Seock Kim (Seoul National University of Education)
Heyoung Kim (Chung-Ang University)
Ki-Wan Sung (Kyung Hee University)
Eunkyung Sung (Cyber Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Dongkwang Shin (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation)
Sangmin Lee (Kyung Hee University)
Wonho Yoo (Sogang University)
Hyun-Woo Lim (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Sei-Kyung Cho (Kyung Hee University)
Kyung-Whan Cha (Chung-Ang University)
Seonghee Choi (Kyonggi Institute of Technology)
Heekyong Choi (Gyeongin National University of Education)
Hee-Jeong Ihm (Seoul National University of Education)
Jong-Bai Hwang (Konkuk University)
Jungtae Kim (Pai Chai University)
Duck-Gi Min (Cheongju National University of Education)
Beom Yoo (Chungbuk National University)
Chang-In Lee (Pai Chai University)
Kyutae Jung (Hannam University)
Kyong-Hyun Pyo (Dankook University)
Maria Oh (Jeonju National University of Education)
Jae Chul Choi (Chonbuk National University)
Dongkyoo Kim (Busan National University of Education)
Shin-Hye Kim (Keimyung University)
Chongwoon Park (Pukyong National University)
Ju-Seop Lee (Cheju National University)
Dan Douglas (Iowa State University)
Jamie Myers (Penn State University)
David Jonassen (University of Missouri)
Steve Thorne (Penn State University)
Chang-Yong Shim (Gyeongin National University of Education)
Elementary Education Jinkyu Park (Kyung Hee University)
Division Committee Keun Huh (Hannam University)
Sunhee Hwang (Samreung Elementary School)
Joo-Ri Chang (Deungchon Elementary School)
Hee Chul Jun (Yongcheon Elementary School)
Ji Young Nam (Korea Polytechnic University)
Secondary Education Yoo-Ah Jun (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation)
Division Committee Young Joo Kim (Pai Chai High School)
Mikyung Oh (Puchonbuk High School)
Seon Hee Park (Sutaek High School)
So-Ra Jung (Sungsa High School)
Hyo-Eun Lee (Noil Middle School)
Soyoung Kim (Changdong Middle School)
Il Ee Park (Chongam Middle School)
Yae-Jin Lee (Mansoo Middle School)
Myunghee Sung (Chung Kang College of Cultural Industries)
University Division Hyang-ki Jung (Gimcheon College)
Committee Young Sook Shim (Catholic University)
Jin Ah Lee (Sang Myung University)
Yunkyung Lim (Wonkwang University)
Hee-Kyung Lee (Yonsei University)
Hyun Sook Yoon (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Young Mi Kim (Korea University)
Chung Sook Kim (Korea University)
Foreign Languages Youngkyu Kim (Ewha Womans University)
Committee Jae Chul Choi (Chonbuk National University)
Kyunghee Kim (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Haeng-Gyu Choi (Kyung Hee University)
Jaekeun Lee (Korea National University of Education)
Research Division Sook-Kyung Jung (Daejeon University)
Committee Hyewon Lee (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation)
Heejin Kim (Cyber Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Hyunjin Kim (Korea National University of Education)
Byung Ro Lim (Kyung Hee University)
June Lee (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Yeongbeol Yoon (Geonggi Province Educational Information
Research Institute)
Chunja Sung (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)
Youngsoo Ha (Saneung Elementary School)
Hyungho Song (Myeonmok High School)
Gunwoo Kim (Incheon Physical Education High School)
The Journal of KAMALL is published three times a year in April, August, and December.
For a membership application and other information, write to:
KAMALL
Prof. Jungtae Kim, Secretary General
Dept. of TESOL, Pai Chai University
Doma2-dong, Seo-gu, Daejeon-si, Korea, 302-735
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 042-520-5913
C.P: 010-7239-6104
Annual membership fees are ₩20,000 for individuals and ₩100,000 for the library and
institution with the postage included. The fee for admission to KAMALL is ₩20,000 for
individual membership. The life-time membership fee is ₩300,000.
연구 상임이사: 이재근(한국교원대)
(교수학습) 김희진(사이버한국외대), 이혜원(교육과정평가원), 정숙경(대전대)
연구 상임이사: 김현진(한국교원대)
(교육공학) 이 준(한국외대), 임병노(경희대)
연수 상임이사: 윤영벌(경기도교육정보연구원)
초등
성춘자(한국외대), 하영수(사능초등)
연수
중등
김건우(인천체고), 송형호(면목고)
연수
Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
Youngsang Cho Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class 9
This paper presents a case study that examined the use of one of the Web 2.0
services, a social networking site (SNS), in an adult ESL writing class. The
main purpose of this study is to investigate and describe how the SNS was
implemented, and how the students perceived its use for their learning. Data
were collected over a five-month period, including classroom observations, online
artifacts, and interviews with the instructor and the seven ESL students.
Drawing on activity theory (Leontiev, 1981) and situated learning theory (Lave
& Wenger, 1991), the researcher analyzed factors that contributed to the
unsuccessful use of the SNS in this particular writing class. The findings of this
study show the major conflicts that existed between the English teacher and the
ESL students in terms of their ontological views on learning, which resulted in
reducing the students’ sense of achievement, belonging, and recognition in the
process of learning to write with the SNS. The educational implications for
using Web 2.0 services in L2 classes have been discussed.
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION
The Internet of the twenty-first century, particularly known as Web 2.0, the second
generation of the Web, is differentiated from its earlier version, Web 1.0. (Benito-Ruiz,
2009; O’Reilly, 2005, 2006; Warschauer & Grimes, 2007). When personal computers (PCs)
and the Internet started to be popularized in the late twentieth century, people were
excited about the unlimited accessibility to a plethora of information on the Web. The
10 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
Web was normally considered as a space where information could be retrieved, and the
Internet users mainly as consumers of knowledge that had already been prepared and
published by so-called experts. Although Web 1.0 tools such as personal websites allowed
the public to write and post their own content, this was most often restricted to experts
who had access to hardware and software and had skills and knowledge about them. In
addition, the publishing activities were mostly unidirectional from a specific author to
consumers, so that the information on the Web stayed stable and isolated. Benito-Ruiz
(2009) summarizes the characteristics of Web 1.0 as “Web as read-only” “Web as
medium,” “Web of geeks and techies,” and “Web as static” (p. 65).
On the other hand, Web 2.0 tools (such as blogs, wikis, and social networking sites),
which were mostly created and popularized in the early 21st century, have provided a
platform where ordinary Internet users can not only read but also easily write, publish,
and share their own content with other users (Benito-Ruiz, 2009; O’Reilly, 2005; Throne,
Black, & Sykes, 2009; Warschauer & Grimes, 2007). Web 2.0 has provided a place where
consumption, creation, and sharing of information and knowledge can arise simultaneously.
In addition, the media of content creation are not limited to written text anymore. Web 2.0
environments support multimodal ways of meaning making process, such as posting and
distributing images, audio tracks, and videos. Benito-Ruiz (2009) identifies Web 2.0 as
“Web as read-write,” “Web as platform,” “Web of anyone willing to try,” and “Web as
dynamic” (p. 65).
Along with the popularization of large-scale publishing and sharing activities on the
Internet, Web 2.0 has also provided its technical support and environments for connecting
people through many-to-many communication. Wesch (2007) emphasizes on his Youtube
video clip that Web 2.0 is not just linking information but linking people. It promotes
environments to weave a web of people and to build new communities in which people
can participate through active interactions and collaboration.
With this growing recognition of the characteristic architecture of Web 2.0 that “allows
more interactive forms of publishing (of textual and multimedia content), participation, and
networking” (Warschauer & Grimes, 2007, p. 2), its potential for second language (L2)
learning has been recently recognized and welcomed in the field of L2 education (e.g.,
Kern, 2006; Murray, 2005; Thomas, 2009). For example, Web 2.0 allows L2 learners more
easily to stay in contact with not only native speakers of the target language but also
other L2 learners all around the world and to sustain meaningful interactions with them in
a variety of ways. However, due to its recent debut on the stage of L2 education in
history, the research on Web 2.0 and L2 learning has been still in an infant stage, and it
Youngsang Cho 11
still remains questionable as to whether Web 2.0 can benefit L2 education in real
classroom settings (Carney, 2009; Halvorsen, 2009; Throne, 2008; Vie, 2008).
In this context, I designed this expository case study (Creswell, 1998) to investigate
the actual use of one of the Web 2.0 tools, known as a social networking website (SNS),
in an adult English as a second language (ESL) writing class. As Kern and Warschauer
(2000) indicate that one must “look at particular practices of use in particular contexts” in
order to answer whether computer technology positively contributes to the promotion of
L2 learning activities in institutional settings, I developed the following research questions
to explore the actual value of Web 2.0 in general and SNS in particular in a specific L2
class by listening to both sides of classroom agents, teacher and student: 1) How has a
social networking site been employed in an ESL writing class?; 2) How have the students
responded to the use of this new technology?; and 3) What contributes to the (un)success
of the use of this technology in this class?
Ⅱ. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. What is SNS?
Social networking sites (SNSs) are the online communities (e.g., Facebook, MySpace,
Hi-5, Mixi, and Cyworld) built by online users who want to share their interests, ideas,
information, and friendship with others. In general, SNS users can communicate with
others by uploading text messages, pictures, audio tracks, or videos by creating an
individual and/or a group website. On an individual level, a user can make connections
with others by inviting them to his or her own website or by visiting others’ as a
“friend.” Also, when users have common interests that they want to share with others,
they can create a virtual group where they register as a group member and discuss their
interests in a synchronous or an asynchronous way. Some scholars (e.g., Carney, 2009)
also view that SNSs are one of blog variations such as vlogs (video blogs), photoblogs,
and mobile blogs because of its main characteristics of promoting online journals and
embracing multimedia as a way of expression.
I generally put the meaning of social networking sites (SNSs) in the boundary of Boyd
and Ellison’s (2007) definition of social network sites:
with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of
connections and those made by others within the system (p. 211).
In their definition, the term “network” is used rather than “networking” because they
understand that the main role of SNSs is not initiating a new relationship with strangers
but maintaining off-line relationships online. However, considering that there are SNSs
that regard weaving networks between strangers as an important purpose of their
existence, I prefer using “networking” to “network.”
been found in the area of identity. Halvorsen (2009) states that Web 2.0 technologies in
general and SNSs in particular “allow users a platform on which they can create, shape,
and re-create their own identities” “through photos, blog entries, videos, musical
selections, and friend lists” (p. 244). For example, Lam (2000) conducted pioneering
ethnographic research on online L2 literacy practices of Almon, who was a Chinese
immigrant teenager living in the United States. This study showed how online literacy
activities helped him to transform himself from a negative and marginalized self who was
struggling in a formal school environment concerning about his limited English proficiency
to a positive and affiliated self developed through active participation in online discourse
activities within the Japanese-pop (J-pop) community. The author argued that Almon’s
textual activities such as designing a personal website introducing a J-pop singer and
corresponding J-pop fans through the online guest book, ICQ (an online chatting program)
and email contributed to his development of global affiliations with those interested in
J-pop culture. In result, the affiliating textual activities with the J-pop culture and its
global fans provided him with opportunities to successfully represent who he was, and at
the same time to be transformed to be an active communicator in English, which he had
hardly experienced in his formal school settings.
Black (2006) also explored L2 literacy activities of a Chinese adolescent immigrant
living in Canada, named Nanako, on the online fanfiction site, Fanfiction.net. The author
focused on the role of popular fan culture among youth, a Japanese anime and manga in
this study, and information communication technology (ICT) embedded in this fanfiction
website in the development of Nanako’s English writing skills and the change of her
online identities. When Nanako first immigrated to Canada, she was 11 years old, and
spoke mainly in Mandarin Chinese. During the first semester of school in Canada, she
experienced hard time in learning subjects and making friends due to her limited English.
However, while participating in social and discursive activities on Fanfiction.net (such as
reading other authors’ fanfictions first, publicly posting her own fanfictions, and receiving
readers’ feedback later), she started to build her image as a successful, popular fanfiction
writer on the site, and improve her writing abilities concomitantly. Black (2005, 2006, 2007,
2009) posited that the success of Nanako attributed to the hybrid and participatory nature
of the Fanfiction.net website where dialogic resources (such as mixed plots and characters
of existing fan media, positive and constructive critiques from fan members, and different
modes of representation, expression, and interaction) were provided in the networked
computer environments.
14 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
3. Theoretical Frameworks
The theoretical concepts that provided me with a structure through which I could
articulate the voices of the classroom teacher and students on the use of SNS and L2
learning came from activity theory and situated learning theory. First of all, according to
Roebuck (2000), activity theory considers that “human activity is a complex process, and
[is] determined by the context and the goals and [the] sociocultural history of the
participants” (p. 78). Leontiev (1981) establishes a hierarchy of human activity into three
levels—activity, action, and operation—which are driven by motive, goal, and condition(s)
respectively. Lantolf and Thorne (2006) translate these three levels of human activity into
everyday language. Activity is oriented to the question of “why something takes place.”
Action is defined as “what is being done.” And operation is “the actual doing” (p. 217).
The meanings of task and activity are differentiated in activity theory. According to
Coughlan and Duff (1994), a task is like a “behavior blueprint” that is designed by
researchers and teachers and then imposed on students (p. 175). It is simply what teachers
want their students to do. On the other hand, an activity is regarded as what students
actually do with the task; that is, “it is the process, as well as the outcome of the task,
examined in its sociocultural context” (p. 175).
Therefore, Lantolf (2000) criticizes the perspective that task-based instruction
automatically produces its intended learning outcomes. Because activity theory starts from
the assumption that activities are defined and changed on the basis of learners’ needs,
motivations, and goals as situated in their sociocultural context, and not by the given task
objectives and procedures themselves, there is no guarantee that task-based instruction
leads to satisfactory learning results as planned. In the same vein, it is premature to
predict learners’ task performance only on the basis of the external features of the tasks.
Therefore, he suggests that it is necessary to see what students actually do with the task,
and how their activities are related with their actual learning, in order to determine
whether a certain type of task is beneficial or not.
The second theory that helped me to interpret my data stems from Lave and Wenger’s
(1991) argument that learning is a situated activity; learning includes a process
represented by the conception of legitimate peripheral participation, which draws attention
to the notion that “learners inevitably participate in communities of practitioners and that
the mastery of knowledge and skill requires newcomers to move toward full participation
in the sociocultural practices of a community” (p. 29). From this perspective, learning is
not simply a cognitive process of acquiring decontextualized and decomposed knowledge,
happening only in the heads of learners. Instead, learning is an essential part of belonging
Youngsang Cho 15
process to communities, and a constituent element of all social practice. Therefore, deep
learning can take place when learners are in the process of becoming full participants in
the social practices of certain communities.
This view of learning as a socially situated activity differs considerably from cognitive
learning theories in its ontological stance. In his acquisition and participation metaphor,
Sfard (1998) states that acquisition (AM) learning involves the “acquisition of something”
resulting in “individual enrichment,” and the AM learner is characterized as “a recipient
and (re)constructor” of information whose mind is isolated from his/her sociocultural
contexts (p. 7). Whereas, the participation metaphor (PM) situates learning as “being a
participant” involved in “community building,” and the PM learner is “a person interested
in certain kinds of activities rather than in accumulating private possessions” (p. 7).
Through this participation process, Lave and Wenger (1991) state that gaining and
developing knowledge becomes “an integral part of generative social practice in the
lived-in world” (p. 35).
Ⅲ. METHODOLOGY
On the first day of class, the instructor, Ms. Kelly (pseudonym) was reading a class
syllabus with her students and introducing the main classroom tasks—writing an essay
and two or three free-style journal entries on paper per week. When she finished the
introduction of the tasks, one of the students suggested that the class use a social
networking site (SNS) for their tasks, and the other classmates agreed that this would be
a good idea. After class, the instructor told me that she was excited about her students’
suggestion, but she was also very concerned about using an SNS because of the lack of
her experience with it. Because she was not sure if she would be able to use this
technology for the class, she asked me to help her create and manage an SNS.
Two weeks after the first class began, I met the instructor and asked her how she
wanted to incorporate an SNS into her class. According to Prensky (2001), Ms. Kelly was
categorized as “digital immigrants,” who did not grow up with new computer technology,
but learned to use it at a later point in their lives. She had experience using an online
discussion board in one of her Master’s degree courses, so she knew how an SNS might
work in a classroom environment, but she had never created and managed one on her
own before. Ms. Kelly wanted to create a website where the students could interact with
16 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
each other by posting writing samples and responses to each other’s work, which she
thought would motivate her students to write more. In addition, she wanted a blog-like
website where the students could write journals in public so that other classmates could
read and respond to them.
On the basis of the talk with Ms. Kelly, I introduced Cyworld US (hereafter, called
Cyworld) among many other SNSs. Cyworld has two main features that meet the
instructor’s expectations for the class. The first feature is called, “Club,” which is a cyber
community where users can discuss specific topics together asynchronously. The other
feature is called, “Minihome.” It functions like a blog where each user can write his/her
own journal entries.
One week after the meeting with Ms. Kelly, we drafted the design for the Club
website. She decided to use it for essay writing, so we created a “My Writings” folder
under which each student was given his/her own writing room. Each individual student’s
writing room looks like an electronic bulletin board, so they can post their writing entries
by topic. Once the writing is posted, the instructor and other classmates can reply to it by
clicking the “Reply” button. Ms. Kelly and I added more folders on the main menu such
as “Our Lives,” “Pictures with Stories,” “Social Issues,” and “Expressions” so that
everyone could share their interests by writing messages or uploading pictures.
During the first three weeks of the writing class, Ms. Kelly taught lessons on the
writing process and on the elements of writing. Students practiced these lessons in their
textbook, “Ready to Write: A First Composition Text” (Blanchard & Root, 2003). On the
fourth Thursday of the semester, the class met in a computer lab, and were introduced to
the Club and Minihome in Cyworld. The students signed up for Cyworld on that day,
joined the club, and posted a short profile in Minihome.
Ms. Kelly sequenced her lesson as follows: learning with a text book, doing writing
practices in class, doing homework, and revising sample writings. In general, she had a
strong belief in the “model and practice” teaching strategy with a textbook, so the routine
of the writing class began with her to explain rules first, while the students would
practice afterwards. She said that “students could learn so much if they complete the
exercises from the book” [from the fourth interview with Ms. Kelly]. Thus, she went
through the textbook one step at a time before assigning the main writing tasks. After
the modeling practice, she gave a couple of writing tasks to the students, including essay
writing and journaling. The students worked on these writing tasks on a social
networking website in a computer lab every Thursday. As a homework assignment, the
students were asked to finish their tasks in the SNS and bring copies to class for
Youngsang Cho 17
revision. During the revision session, the students edited their classmates’ writing in
groups and/or they had individual revision time with the teacher.
The participants of this study were Ms Kelly and all of her seven adult ESL students.
The instructor, Ms. Kelly, is a Caucasian American and a native speaker of English. She
was in her late 40s, pursuing her Master’s degree in TESOL (Teaching English to
Speakers of Other Languages) at the time this research was conducted. The group of her
students (whose names are all pseudonyms) was linguistically and culturally diverse (see
Table 1). When the students first came to this ESL program, they completed English
placement tests, a PBT (Paper Based TOEFL) and an oral interview before they were
assigned to a beginner-level ESL class. All of their PBT scores were below 500. In
addition to Ms. Kelly’s grammar/writing course, they were also taking reading and
speaking courses everyday until 3:00 p.m.
The research was conducted at an adult ESL writing class. The course was a part of
the non-matriculated ESL 14-week program provided by the English Language Training
Institute at a university located in the northeastern United States. It was the
beginner-level class of which goal was to introduce the elements of writing (such as
ideas, organization, word order, vocabulary usage, and sentence structure) to the students,
and to let them practice writing by following the writing processes of prewriting, writing,
and revision. The writing class was a part of a two-hour ESL grammar and writing
course which started at 9 a.m., Monday through Friday. The writing session started at 10
a.m., and ended at 10:50 a.m. everyday during the first half of the semester. After the
mid-term, the writing session was held on every Wednesday (for one hour), Thursday
(for two hours) and Friday (for one hour). Ms. Kelly’s class was usually conducted in a
conventional classroom, but on Thursdays she held the writing session in the computer
lab where the students spent most of their time doing writing tasks.
18 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
French/
Fulani/ High school
Ebo Male 22 Senegal 1 year Yes
Wolof graduate
3. Data Collection
I observed the class from the fourth week to the last week (the 14th week) of the
program, which eventually helped me to understand how the instructor taught ESL
writing by using Cyworld and how the students participated in class. I ended up visiting
the class 31 times in total. While in the class, I recorded each classroom observation in
my field notes.
Another major data source was through interviews with the students and the
instructor. I conducted eight interviews with the instructor throughout the whole semester,
which was about 4 hours and 40 minutes in total. I had two interviews with each of the
seven ESL learner participants (one at the beginning and one at the end of the semester),
which took, on average, 2 hours and 30 minutes per participant. The purpose of doing the
interviews was to obtain background information on all of the participants, and to
Youngsang Cho 19
investigate their feelings and perceptions about the online writing tasks. In addition to the
class observations and interviews, I collected class evaluation forms, student writings on
Cyworld, a textbook, and class handouts as additional sources of data.
4. Data Analysis
As a first step, I read and reread the collected data including interview transcriptions,
observational fieldnotes, and Cyworld postings. I took marginal notes and circled or
underlined important words, phrases, and events from each data source, as guided by the
research questions.
Next, I sorted the data into categories. For the first research question regarding the
teacher’s interpretation of Cyworld, I aggregated the interview responses with Ms. Kelly,
classroom observation notes, and her Cyworld posts into the following two categories: the
intention to use Cyworld and the actual use of it. With regards to the question about
student reactions to the use of Cyworld, I developed two main categories and four
sub-categories as follows: fun—the frequency of log-in and the thoughts about writing;
motivation—homework and participation. I also conducted a descriptive statistical analysis
to the “homework” and “participation” sub-categories in order to support the qualitative
data.
For the data analysis for the last research question as to what contributes to the
explanation for the (un)successful use of Cyworld, I developed an illustrative display, a
table, which permits “careful comparisons, detection of differences, noting of patterns and
themes, seeing trend, and so on” (Miles & Humberman, 1994, p. 92). At the outset, each
individual participant was considered as a unit of analysis. I listed the perceived reasons
for the (un)successful use of Cyworld from each interview data and summarized them in
a table format. I then looked for recurring patterns from all of student responses in order
to represent their voices as a group, and this was the moment when the group started to
function as another unit of analysis. Six patterns emerged from this process, which were
organized into the following three themes: a sense of achievement, a sense of belonging,
and a sense of recognition. As the last step, drawing on the concept of practices in
communities and its ontological stance as a theoretical lens, I compared and contrasted
student and teacher responses by using a table format.
20 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
Ⅳ. FINDINGS
Ms. Kelly considered Cyworld as a tool that could encourage her students to write
more both in class and outside of class and let them have fun with their writing activities
as they did in their own SNSs outside of class. As one of her teaching philosophies, Ms.
Kelly liked to have her students do many writing practices. She stated that one of the
best ways to teach writing is to do a lot of writing because more practice makes students
better in their writing tasks. She emphasized the importance of putting content first and
mechanics later, so that students might let their thoughts flow without being “sidetracked
with concerns over grammar” [from the third interview with Ms. Kelly]. She also noted
that students required an ongoing dialogue with their classmates in order to develop their
ideas better and learn more about their writing through peer feedback. As seen from her
teaching philosophies, she believed that the features in Cyworld, especially the ones that
enable users to correspond with each other by exchanging text messages and posting
journal entries on the website could support the ways in which she wanted to teach.
With these intentions, Ms. Kelly held the writing session in a computer lab every
Thursday in order to access Cyworld. In the computer lab, the students were usually
instructed to post a one-paragraph formal writing sample on the Club site and two or
three daily journals on Minihome. They were also encouraged to give feedback to at least
one classmate’s formal writing sample. If they could not finish their tasks, they were
required to complete them in Cyworld at home as homework. The teacher also encouraged
them to post pictures and messages for the purpose of promoting interactive writing
practices. Only the one-paragraph essay and the free-style journal entries were counted
for grades, while the other tasks were completed on a voluntary basis. In order to
motivate her students to write more and let them have fun with each other in writing,
Ms. Kelly tried to limit her intervention in Cyworld by reducing the number of her
comments on student writing and by giving her students complementary feedback.
At the beginning of the class, most of the students expressed positive expectations
about using Cyworld. In general, they thought that the use of Cyworld would be
Youngsang Cho 21
interesting because 1) they would use a current technology, an SNS, 2) they would get to
know each other by posting messages and pictures on Cyworld, 3) and this would be
another place where they could learn and use English.
Towards the end of the semester, however, all of the students felt that Cyworld was
not as interesting as they had anticipated, and their loss of interest led to few log-ins
during the course of the semester. For example, this is how Wojtek felt about using
Cyworld:
When you like something to do very much, you always find a little time to
spend[…]. But I did not visit Cyworld often unless I had to do. [From the
second interview with Wojtek]
To the question about how many times the students thought they visited Cyworld
during the semester, only Wojtek said he visited the site three times a week, while the
other students only once a week (and only if they had attended class in the computer
lab). This indicates that the site was very infrequently used.
The students also showed that writing activities with Cyworld did not help them
change their ideas about writing. Ms. Kelly hoped that the students would realize that
writing could be a fun activity, but they still had a very different idea about writing. At
the last interview, most students commented that, while they worked on class writing
tasks, they felt “nervous or stupid,” “irritated,” “sometimes angry,” “like I’ve given up
already,” or “like I’m wasting my time.” They thought that good writing is impossible
unless they have better understanding of grammar.
(1) Homework
Ms. Kelly believed that Cyworld would help her students be motivated to complete
their homework in time and actively participate in class. First of all, she expected that the
students would complete in-class writing tasks at home, using Cyworld. Originally, she
planned one essay and a couple of journal entries every week as homework, but in early
March, she had to compromise her plan by requiring only eight one-paragraph essays and
eight journal entries for the whole semester. Her compromised plan also had to be
adjusted to eight one-paragraph essays and three journal entries in the end due to the
22 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
students’ lack of interest in completing assignments. Even with this reduced amount of
homework, Ms. Kelly was “frustrated” by the rate of return of completed homework
throughout the semester. According to her, “there would be a start but there was no
completion when it came to homework” [from the sixth interview with Ms. Kelly].
(2) Participation
It is natural for species of anmals to become die out over millions or years.
because human populations grow [Sooja, 4/19/2007]
In two years ago I was concentrate in my school but now [Ebo, 3/22/2007]
In addition to the in-class writing tasks, Ms. Kelly hoped that the students would do
extra activities in Cyworld, such as posting some pictures, exchanging friendly messages,
or leaving comments on other students’ writing samples, so that they could interact with
one another, have fun, and write more. At the beginning of the course, some students
posted pictures and exchanged messages. Jangsoo and Sooja left personal messages which
teased and greeted each other for fun one time. Sooja posted a group picture. Jangsoo,
Yumi, and Emre uploaded their favorite pictures as a profile photo, and Wojtek, Emre, and
Omar uploaded family or travel pictures and posted some messages on Cyworld. However,
after the mid-point of the semester, no personal interactions were noticed among the
students in Cyworld.
1) Teacher’s Perspective
As demonstrated by their work and behavior, the students did not meet Ms. Kelly’s
expectations. She felt a sense of frustration throughout the whole semester. Why did Ms.
Kelly think that the class did not progress as she had anticipated, even though she
implemented, with student suggestion, the use of an SNS?
First of all, Ms. Kelly commented that “the students were still in the transition process
of being not only in the U.S. but also in this program” [from the last interview with Ms.
Kelly]. They needed more time to adjust to the new environment and to the new program.
Once this transition was over, she believed that her students would be more engaged in
the class. Secondly, Ms. Kelly thought that the students were poorly motivated and poorly
24 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
participated as a result of the inadequate preparation in their home countries. Because the
students previously had little background knowledge about English and the U.S. culture,
they had to go through hard time in their adjustment process. And thirdly, Ms. Kelly
suspected that the low English proficiency of her students lowered their confidence in
writing in English, which resulted in low motivation and poor participation in the class.
Finally, she observed that her students might not be happy with the topics in the
textbook that they were assigned. If the topics in the textbook had been more relevant
with their lives, she thought that the students might have participated more.
In order to improve the student participation, Ms. Kelly tried to listen to what the
students wanted by holding a formal teacher and student conference in March along with
a couple of informal meetings during the semester. She also redesigned her class syllabus
so that she could “move slower,” focus more on “smaller and simpler tasks,” and be more
flexible in time management. In addition, she kept reminding the students of what they
must complete, posting the assigned task list on Cyworld, while also handing out a
checklist to individual students. And she tried to give more “input” such as writing rules
in order to make the whole writing process more understandable for her students. Below
are the excerpts from the last interview with her, talking about how she supported Omar
and Emre whom she thought had more problems than the others:
So with him [Omar] I concentrated on input, input, input hoping that the
transition will come with more time. Okay? So maybe we’ll see better change
next semester [from the last interview with Ms. Kelly].
He [Emre] is in that mode, right. The initial transition. And he is not ready. I
don’t think [he] really participates actively in any class because emotionally he
is not there. He is not ready. So what we can do for him is just being
supportive and continue the input, the input with support and just be there for
him. [from the last interview with Ms. Kelly].
When it came to learning English in the U.nited States, all the students had the same
primary goal in mind—they foremost wanted to improve listening and speaking. They all
Youngsang Cho 25
I came here only for speaking….When I was in Korea, the successful English
learning was to get a good score on an English exam…But if I can improve
my English in this institute to the level that I can speak with native speakers
of English, I can say I had a successful English language training here [from
the first interview with Yumi].
Each student had his/her own reason for this goal, but they agreed that their motive
came from their social needs that listening and speaking were required skills for
participation in social practices of their future job communities that they wanted to belong
to. For example, Jangsoo, Sooja, and Yumi said that listening and speaking skills were
more valued than reading and writing in the job market in Korea that they were looking
for, so their priority was to improve the former first. In the case of Wojtek, his company
sent him to this program because they needed someone who could communicate with
English speaking personnel for business. Omar and Ebo wanted to enter a U.S. college
where all lectures and communication are conducted by the medium of English. Emre
needed to join a medical research team in the U.S. after this program, so it was
imperative for him to improve his listening and speaking skills. The students’ primary
goal was to improve their listening and speaking, but what was common among all the
students was that the writing class in general and the use of Cyword in particular were
not thought to help them achieve their primary goal. They understood that Ms. Kelly’s
writing tasks and assignments in Cyworld were only for writing practice. Because they
could not see any contribution of writing practice to their improvement of listening and
speaking, they did not take the writing tasks seriously. As a result, the writing class
became “a listening time,” “a waste of time,” “unimportant,” or “less-worthy-of-spending
time.”
When Emre suggested the use of an SNS for this class, he focused more on its
26 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
authentic use for social networking, rather than as a posting place for class homework.
The main reason that most students had positive feelings about Cyworld at the beginning
was that it involved a human connection. However, while they were using Cyworld as
Ms. Kelly planned, they realized that the online activities turned into nothing more than
doing homework. As Cyworld became associated as another typical place where they
should work on assignments, the main reason why they welcomed it in the first place
was taken away. As Emre said, it should be a part of their real life. But most activities in
Cyworld were far removed from what they were doing in “real” SNSs—building up
relationships through discourse activities. For the students, writing in SNSs was an
integral part of getting to know their friends better, but it turned out to be an integral
part of completing school tasks and homework assignments in Ms, Kelly’s class.
As the students originally considered Cyworld as a site for social networking, they did
have a chance of using it in that way. However, there was little active participation from
the students for this purpose. Here is what some students said about the reason:
Every single classmate made this class uninteresting and useless [from the
second interview with Sooja].
I think we were too much separated at the beginning and now it’s too late.
Yes, we should live more like family [from the second interview with Wojtek].
Even though our class was behind, we never felt that we had to be united.
The atmosphere was worst. We didn’t have a close relationship with one
another…. Koreans were hanging out with only Koreans…. We didn’t have
any personal interaction except when we were in class. No single phone call
to other classmates… Because of this, we didn’t feel like leaving messages to
others on the Guest board in Cyworld. Cyworld was dead [from the second
interview with Yumi].
At a personal level, most of the students felt that each individual classmate was a
“nice” and “good” person. But they sometimes had trouble understanding the behaviors of
Youngsang Cho 27
others in and out of classroom. For instance, the Korean students could not understand
and questioned about classroom behaviors of other classmates such as why they asked so
many trivial questions (e.g., the meaning of vocabulary) during the class instead of
looking at the dictionary by themselves later; or why other students kept saying that they
were right even though they had wrong answers. On the other hand, Emre, Wojtek,
Omar, and Ebo could not understand why the Korean students spoke only Korean to each
other even when they were together. During lunch time, I also observed that the students
were parted into three groups—the Korean, the Saudi Arabian, and the rest group—and
rarely had lunch together. By the end of the semester, they still could not pinpoint why,
but everyone agreed that their differences might have prevented them from building up
strong relationships with one another, which led to a further lack of interest in getting to
know one another in Cyworld.
Some students also pointed to another reason—their low level of English. Even though
they understood and knew their own and other classmates’ limitations in the use of
English, they sometimes became impatient of a dragging conversation due to the others’
or their accented English or lack of vocabulary knowledge. Because they had difficulty
wording their thoughts in English, they had hard time building strong relationships with
one another. In the case of Sooja, she intentionally tried to find higher-level English
speaking friends to hang out with. She thought that she and other classmates were at the
same low level of English, so that there was not much that she could learn from them.
Whether it was because of cultural differences or low English proficiency, most of the
students did not attempt to build lasting relationships with their classmates. Instead, they
tried to find their own friends outside of the class. In addition, most of the students
frequently visited their own social networking websites such as the Korean version of
Cyworld (the Korean students), Yahoo Group (Emre), a company website (Wojtek), and
Hi5 (Ebo) in order to keep in touch with their existing friends from their home country.
Below is the conversation that I had with Ebo about his Hi5 friend:
Ebo: Yeah.
Researcher: How many friends do you have?
Ebo: 35, 34, 35?
Researcher: What do you usually do there?
Ebo: It’s like Cyworld. You can write message. You can see picture. Like that.
It’s like fun, fun, fun site.
Researcher: Fun place. [So] you often visit this place, but not Cyworld, right?
Ebo: Yes. [Hi5 is] Much [more] important. Yeah. Much [more] important.
Researcher: Why do you think you visit here often, but not Cyworld?
Ebo: You know, when I was in Africa, you know, I know this better than
Cyworld. That’s why….[but] if I want to write to Jangsoo, Emre, or you, I go
Cyworld and write.
Researcher: The friends in Hi5. Are they very close to you?
Ebo: Yeah. Those are my friends. My real friends.
[From the second interview with Ebo]
As this interview excerpt shows, because the students already spent more time with
other friends on-and off-line than with their classmates, they did not see any reason to
get to know their classmates better either for their leisure or for their study. Therefore,
the classmates became those who they “didn’t need to be together,” and the Cyworld
became the place where they “didn’t have time to visit.” Due to the students’ lack of
participation, Emre, Wojtek, and Omar said that they usually ended up being “alone” in
Cyworld.
The students had their own standards for measuring a “good” teacher, and had
different opinions about Ms. Kelly. For Ebo, she was the “best” teacher in the program
because she always “respected” and “wanted to help” her students. Some students (Sooja,
Wojtek, and Omar) said that she was “not bad” because she had the best intentions for
the class. And others (Jangsoo, Yumi, Emre) said that she was “not good” because of her
poor teaching skills. Even though they had different criteria for their opinions, they shared
something in common regarding her professional performance; it did not look professional.
For example, the students commented that “she always looked confused about what she
was teaching,” “she didn’t know what we wanted to learn,” “she didn’t know how to
manage the class,” and “she only read the textbook.” As they began to consider her as
“not a good teacher in terms of her teaching,” they started losing trust in her, which led
Youngsang Cho 29
to another question of why they had to attend and listen to her in this writing class and
do the writing tasks in Cyworld.
The students were also unhappy with her online feedback activity. The teacher’s
feedback was given in two ways: online feedback in Cyworld and off-line feedback during
the revision sessions. Because the students’ grammar errors were corrected during the
revision sessions, the teacher wanted to give complimentary feedback online. She also
tried to limit her feedback comments in order to encourage her students to do more peer
reviews. However, Jangsoo, Yumi, and Emre understood “complimentary and a few”
feedback comments as “insincere and few,” which led to the question of whether she was
doing her job as a teacher. They considered the teacher’s feedback in Cyworld to be an
expression of her interest in the online activities as a whole. Thus, once they found few
comments from her, they believed that she was not interested in the online activities, and
they ended up losing another reason to use Cyworld.
For some students, low writing abilities attributed to few writing activities in Cyworld.
When the students were doing writing activities, they sometimes experienced negative
emotions like “anger” and “disappointment” because their writings usually ended up being
30 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
Throughout the semester, some students became reluctant to write when they felt that
the classroom tasks did not reflect who they were in their real lives. Below are some
examples that show why some students negatively reacted to their writing tasks:
Because this homework is like, like for primary, primary school students. I’m
not primary school students. I finished my university and I’m adult. I’m not
like children. And…if uh…there was never come really, really different, really
different homework, maybe I could do homework [from the second interview
with Emre].
While conducting the interviews, I realized that each student had their own ideas about
who they were outside of being an ESL student. For example, Jangsoo saw himself as a
sales person, a rock singer, a sports fan, and a younger brother in his family. Emre saw
himself as a professional medical researcher, a physician, and a lover of his country.
Wojtek saw himself as an engineer, a father of two daughters, and a man of
responsibility. Omar was a banker and a scholarship recipient. Among these varied ideas
about who they were, they realized that the classroom writing tasks only required
student-like learning behaviors. They were aware that they enrolled in this program and
that learning English in a school setting was important. But at the same time, they hoped
to find meaningful learning activities that might better reflect those things that are
important to them in their real lives. For them, writing and posting in Cyworld for the
sake of school tasks was not a meaningful writing activity.
Youngsang Cho 31
Ⅴ. DISCUSSION
This study has described how the teacher employed the social networking website,
Cyworld, for her writing class, and how the students perceived its use. In contrast to the
positive findings of the previous research about Web 2.0 and L2 learning (e.g., Arani,
2005; Black, 2006; Carney, 2009; Halvorsen, 2009; Hann, 2007; Lam, 2004), this study
showed that Cyworld failed to function as a successful learning and teaching platform, on
which the students could experience high motivation and identity transformation that could
have led to their active participation in the class activities. As for the reasons for their
inactive participation in Cyworld, the students pointed out their lack of achievement (due
to their different primary goals from the teacher’s), their lack of a sense of belonging to
the class (due to its lack of use for social interactions, no needs for bonding between
classmates, and no trust on the teacher), and the lack of recognition they received through
the classroom activities (due to a low self-image of themselves as poor writers and
limited writing activities revealing their multiple identities).
The findings of this study indicate that there existed critical differences between the
teacher and the students during their online activities in Cyworld in terms of their
ontological stance on learning (see Table 3). First, there was a conflict about who learners
are. The research data show that the teacher saw her students as rule-oriented beings
who were interested in gaining knowledge and skills about writing. When the students
failed to participate in classroom tasks, she mainly attributed this to their incomplete
transition process. She believed that once her students finished their transition to new
environments (such as living in the U.S. and learning in the English language program),
they would actively try to learn and complete the classroom tasks. Here, the transition
process is unidirectional—from the students to the new environments—and it required the
students to adapt themselves to new rules for learning. According to Ms. Kelly, once they
became familiar with the new system, they were supposed to be ready for new learning.
On the other hand, the students acted like goal-oriented beings who were more
interested in learning for the benefit of joining certain kinds of groups and participating in
their social practices. All the students in this study were clear and determined about what
they wanted to accomplish in this program, and as activity theory indicates, their
behaviors and activities were different depending on their own social, cultural, and
historical contexts (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Leontiev, 1981; Roebuck, 2000). The more did
they begin to realize that the writing class did not facilitate the achievement of their
primary goal, the less likely they became to commit themselves to the classroom tasks. In
32 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
addition, their primary goals were not the end of their learning. Instead, they were another
means for them to reach the communities that they wanted to belong to.
[Table 3] Examples of the Conflicts between Ms. Kelly and her Students
Students Teacher
Learner as a goal-oriented being Learner as a rule-oriented being
The goals of learning are understood in their unique The goals of learning are bound to the teacher’s
social and historical contexts. plan.
Doing classroom tasks should be a means to an end
Doing classroom tasks is an end in itself.
in their real-life contexts.
Learning with an SNS is an effective way of Learning with an SNS is an effective way of doing
forming social networks. classroom tasks.
Learning should be helpful for them to participate Learning is a cognitive process of developing and
in the group(s) that each individual wishes to gaining knowledge (how to write in this case)
belong to. Learning either on- or off-line should through modeling and practicing, which is
be an integral part of belonging process to the class independent of the contexts or the worlds where
by participating in class activities. the learners lived, are living, or wish to live.
One identity matters most when it comes to
Learning involves struggles of multiple identities.
learning : collective student identity
Another conflict occurred in the view of learning. The teacher mainly considered
learning as a cognitive process of developing knowledge. Therefore, the main goal of
teaching was to help learners make progress in internalizing knowledge, which she
believed could happen best through modeling and practicing processes. With this concept
of learning and teaching in mind, when the teacher recognized problematic behaviors from
the students, she mainly focused on modifying her class for more comprehensible
knowledge so that the students would be able to function effectively. In addition, the
teacher limited writing practices merely as an extension tool for developing knowledge
about how to write. Here, learning was believed to happen in the classroom or cyber
space settings that were independent of the world where the students were living and
hoped to live.
However, the students’ learning activities showed that they wanted learning to be an
integral part of their social activities (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Throughout the semester,
the students showed that the sense of belonging was significant in their learning process.
When they sensed a lack of bonding with the teacher and classmates and realized that
Cyworld was being used as a place where just the homework mattered, they ended up
losing their interest in Cyworld. Although one of the teacher’s intentions in adopting
Youngsang Cho 33
Cyworld was for the students to have fun while doing writing tasks, she miscalculated
where the fun would actually come from. The teacher found that the sources of fun
mainly came from the technological features of Cyworld which would make it possible for
the students to do interactive writing practices, whereas the students intended to find
them from its technological affordances for their social belonging to the class.
The students’ learning with Cyworld also shows that learning involves struggles of
multiple identities. For example, even though the teacher and the students diagnosed low
writing proficiency as one of the reasons for their poor participation, they had different
ideas about how the low proficiency affected their writing activities. The teacher believed
that the low writing ability led to low confidence in writing, which explained the students’
poor writing activities. On the other hand, the students showed that their low writing
ability triggered a conflict between their lived-in identities and an emerging, unwelcomed
identity as an incompetent language learner. This conflict then led to emotional tensions.
The students’ inability to fully express who they were through writing practices resulted
in negative emotions, which discouraged them to write further even in Cyworld.
In addition, writing practices required that the students have a student-like identity.
From the teacher’s perspective, the students could learn best when they kept their student
identity, and followed what she was teaching. Although the students were aware of their
status as a student, the more experiences they had had in out-of-school contexts, the
more difficulties they had finding the meanings of their learning in this class. They had
varied identities that they valued in their real lives, but what mattered most to the teacher
was the student-like one, which did not work as a committed identity for the most
students in this writing class.
Ⅵ. CONCLUSION
Although this study is limited in application to similar cases like Ms. Kelly’s class, it
may address the following educational implications in the use of Web 2.0 in a second
language (L2) class. First, even with the initiation of students and the good intentions of
the teacher in integrating Web 2.0 technology into L2 education, technology per se does
not guarantee an effective use in a classroom setting. Instead, what makes difference is
how technology is used, by whom, and in what contexts.
In addition, this study shows that bringing Web 2.0 services that are widely used
outside of class into an institutional setting may widen a gap between teachers and
34 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
students, and between formal school contexts and informal real-life contexts unless they
are used carefully. When teachers bring a new technology (mostly used for
non-educational purposes outside the classroom) into a classroom setting, they should be
aware that what they bring to the class is not only a technological tool itself but also a
culture formed by those technology users. For example, when an SNS is used in a
classroom, students expect to bring their own culture (e.g., new ways of being, belonging,
acting, believing, knowing, and learning) that they have absorbed in their own SNS
environment to their classrooms. If teachers do not make an effort to understand students’
real life experiences with it, there is always a good chance that the culture embedded in
those technology activities is rejected in a controlled institutional environment. Without
this effort, the use of a new technology in the classroom may widen, rather than closing
the divide between teachers and students.
Last, but not least, for the better understanding of the nature of students’ life
experiences with a new technology and its better use in institutional settings, I believe
that it is important to have an ontological shift in learning in the sociocultural perspective.
Depending on how teachers view who learners are and what learning is, the way that
they approach a new technology becomes different. From the sociocultural perspective,
viewing learning as participation, teachers can ask whether online networking classroom
tasks are providing learners with a better chance of participating in communities of
practices where they want to belong, or whether the online tool can help a classroom
context itself to transform into a community to which learners feel a strong sense of
belonging. In seeing learners as multiple identity holders who struggle for participation,
teachers can ask whether online networked class tasks can embrace those multiple
identities so that they can be recognized as who they are and who they want to be
through their classroom activities. I believe that this perspective shift will contribute to a
better understanding of the use of a new technology in L2 classes.
REFERENCES
Arani, J. A. (2005). Teaching writing and reading English in ESP through a web-based
communicative medium: Weblog. English for Specific Purposes World, 4(3). Retrieved
September 1, 2009, from the World Wide Web: http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_11/
TeachingReadingandWritingin ESPthroughaWeb-BasedCommunicativeMedium.htm
Benito-Ruiz, E. (2009). Infoxication 2.0. In M. Thomas (Ed.), Handbook of research on Web
Youngsang Cho 35
2.0 and second language learning (pp. 60-79). Hershey, PA; Information Science
Reference
Black, R. W. (2005). Access and affiliation: The literacy and composition practices of
English-language learners in an online fanfiction community. Journal of Adolescent &
Adult Literacy, 49(2), 118-128.
Black, R. W. (2006). Language, culture, and identity in online fanfiction. E-learning, 3(2),
170-184.
Black, R. W. (2007). Fanfiction writing and the construction of space. E-learning, 4(4),
384-397.
Black, R. W. (2009). English-language learners, fan communities, and 21st-century skills.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(8), 688-697.
Blanchard, K. L., & Root, C. B. (2003). Ready to write: A first composition text. White Plains,
NY: Longman.
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1). Retrieved August 1, 2009, from
the World Wide Web: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vo113/issue1/body.ellison.html
Carney, N. (2009). Blogging in foreign language education. In M. Thomas (Ed.), Handbook
of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning (pp. 292-312). Hershey, PA;
Information Science Reference
Coughlan, P., & Duff, P. (1994). Same task, different activities: Analysis of a second language
acquisition task from an activity theory perspective. In J. P. Lantolf & A. Appel (Eds.),
Vygotskian approaches to second language research (pp. 173-193). Norwood, NJ:
Ablex Press.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
traditions. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
Cummings, M. C. (2004). “Because we are shy and fear mistaking”: Computer mediated
communication with EFL writers. Journal of Basic Writing, 23(2), 23-48.
DiGiovanni, E., & Nagaswami, G. (2001). Online peer review: An alternative to face-to-face?
ELT Journal, 55(3), 263-272.
Halvorsen, A. (2009). Social networking sites and critical language learning. In M. Thomas
(Ed.), Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning (pp. 237-255).
Hershey, PA; Information Science Reference.
Hann, F. M. (2007). The secret blog group as a writing motivator. In K. Bradford-Watts
(Ed.), JALT2006 Conference Proceedings, Tokyo: JALT. Retrieved September 12,
36 Investigating the Use of Social Networking Site in an ESL Writing Class
Sullivan, N., & Pratt, E. (1996). A comparative study of two ESL writing environments: A
computer-assisted classroom and a traditional oral classroom. System, 29(4), 491-501.
Thomas, M. (2009). Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning.
Hershey, PA; Information Science Reference.
Thorne, S. (2008). Computer-mediated communication. In N. Van Deusen-Scholl & N. H.
Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, Volume 4: Second and
foreign language education (2nd ed.) (pp. 325-336). New York: Springer.
Throne, S. L., Black, R. W., & Sykes, J. M. (2009). Second language use, socialization, and
learning in Internet interest communities and online gaming. Modern Language Journal,
93(4), 802-821.
Vie, S. (2008). Digital divide 2.0: “Generation M” and online social networking sites in the
composition classroom. Computers and composition, 25, 9-23.
Warschauer, M., & Grimes, D. (2007). Audience, authorship, and artifact: The emergent
semiotics of Web 2.0. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 1-23.
Wesch, M. (2007). Web 2.0... The machine is us/ing us. Retrieved July 3, 2009, from the
World Wide Web: http://www.youtube.com/user/mwesch#p/u
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION
The term ‘IT’ has been used since late 1980s substituting ‘computer’. This shows a
shift of main purpose of using computers from calculation to store and search for
information (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). The term ‘ICT’ has begun to be introduced with
spreading of E-mail use around 1992. Among the recent changes in educational policies,
the focus on ICT for education is most distinctive. Many advanced countries, such as
America, Japan, England and Australia, have carried out an educational revolution to adapt
this new trend since the 1980s. The Korean government also invested a great deal of
effort to improve education with ICT in recent decades. Especially, the 7th national
curriculum stresses the adaptation skills of students for the information-oriented society.
This kind of change also influences English teaching and learning in Korea. Unlike other
subjects, an elementary English textbook has a CD-ROM which provides multimedia
teaching/learning materials, such as video clips for dialogue, songs, and chants.
Haddad and Jurich (2002) suggest that ICTs have the potential to improve educational
quality by elevating learner motivation, promoting acquisition of basic skills, facilitating
inquiry, and exploration. However, some researchers (So & Chon, 2001) suggest that the
current 7th national curriculum in Korea, which was intended to facilitate the use of ICT,
may have problems promoting and supporting the use of ICT effectively. So and Chon
(2001) said that the relation between elementary schools and middle schools is not very
systematic so some contents are not only over lapped, but also inversed. They also
suggest that the instructions for ICT use in the 7th national curriculum are vague and
have little connection with the contents of each subject. Unsystematic learning material
and vague instruction can greatly undermine the original purpose of facilitating the use of
ICT at schools.
The unbalanced investment for hardware infrastructure may be another factor which
interrupts effective ICT use. So far now, Korean governments invested mainly in
hardware infrastructure, such as PCs, monitors and networking (Choi, 2006). However,
ICT can be most effective when all the components of ICTs are in appropriate condition.
Haddad and Draxler (2002) suggest that several parameters, such as educational policy,
infrastructure, content ware, personnel and financial resources need to be in a suitable
condition to improve the teaching/learning process and revolutionize the education
enterprise successfully. This means that simply studying with computers using multimedia
teaching/learning material or developing learning materials for computers may not
guarantee successful results.
Kyungbin Im 41
In this context, it is very important to investigate the use of ICTs at schools and the
ways to improve the current situation for a more effective application of ICT. Like any
other teaching materials, such as Radios and TVs, computers can have both negative and
positive influences on teaching and learning. Thus, it is essential to verify and monitor the
effects of ICT use at schools to find out the ways of implementing ICT for education
(Hayes, 2007). However, as the educational situation and ICT technologies are changing
very rapidly, it is difficult to catch up with the changes and trace their influences on
teaching/learning results. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the current
situation regarding the use of English CD-ROM in elementary schools and factors which
require improvement and suggest ways of improving the contents of English CD-ROMs
and methods of using them.
In this paper, I will firstly provide a theoretical summary regarding the influences of
using ICT at schools to highlight the potential effects of ICT use for English teaching and
learning. Secondly, an analytical report concerning the English CD-ROM and relevant
previous research results will be provided. Thirdly, the research methods for this study
and the results will be presented followed by a discussion of the findings. Finally,
suggestions for a more effective and desirable way of implementing ICT for English
classes in Korean elementary schools will be presented.
Ⅱ. LITERATURE REVIEW
Although the effectiveness of using ICT for education is a disputable issue (Felix,
2005), many researchers consented on the potential benefits of ICT in schools (Brett, 1998;
Chera & Wood, 2003; DeJean, Miller & Olson, 1997). One of the most important benefits
of ICT use at schools can be its positive effects on school achievement. This can be a
major factor for the decision to use ICT in education. Some research results (Mann,
Shakeshaft, Beker, & Kottkamp, 1999) support that ICT is effective on subjects like math,
science, and language. Mann et al. (1999) reported significant gains in reading, writing,
and mathematics regarding the use of ICT in schools. Harrison et al. (2002) also found a
statistically significant positive association between ICT use and National Test results for
English at Key Stage 2 and for Science at Key Stage 3. Their study was conducted in
the UK from 1999 to 2002 involving 60 schools. Recently, Ofsted (Office for standards in
Education) reported that the positive influence of the use of ICT in schools has risen year
42 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
by year, and learning ICT may make children aged 8-18 to learn more efficiently (Ofsted ,
2004). One of the most distinctive points which Ofsted (2004) suggests is the benefits of
the use of ICT for the situation when it is difficult or impossible to teach through
traditional teaching methods. O’Byrne, Securro, and Cadle (2006) also stress the affirmative
outcome of ICT on reading and language arts.
The effects of ICT on educational attainment can be found in the foreign language
teaching and learning area as well. Harrison et al. (2002) asserted that they found robust
evidence of a positive relation between ICT use and GCSE modern foreign languages at
Key Stage 4, although there was no statistically significant deviation. ICT can be an
effective tool to increase learners’ motivation in foreign language classes. Haddad and
Jurich (2002) suggest that videos, televisions and computer multimedia software not only
provides authentic and challenging information, but also stimulate students’ sensory organs
through images, movement, sounds and color. Much other research into CALL (Computer
Aided Language Learning) also supports this. Brett (1996), for example, suggests that
English learners expressed strong positive attitudes to multimedia CALL software
compared to traditional learning materials, and that they consider they could learn
effectively with it. Adair-Hauck, Willingham-McLain, and Youngs (2000) also suggest
successful and satisfactory results of the integration of technology-enhanced language
learning program in college-level French classes. They said that the students in the
treatment group accomplished as well as the control group in listening, and they
outperformed them in reading and writing.
ICT appears to be effective in developing essential aspects of reading and listening,
such as phonological awareness. Chera and Wood (2003) reported that a group of young
children (aged 3 to 6 years) using talking book software showed significantly higher
increases in phonological awareness than their control group. They wrote that the short
period of software intervention caused gains in general phonological awareness and in
awareness of letter sounds and word onsets.
Like the above listed examples, the positive effects of ICT use in schools can be
related to many sectors of education, such as promoting efficiency, expanding access for
learning, improving the quality of learning, and enhancing the quality of teaching (Haddad
& Jurich, 2002). These potentially positive effects, notwithstanding several research
results, indicate the possible negative effects of ICT use for education. For instance, Healy
(1998) expressed his concerns about the uncritical use of computers in education. His
criticism included the inappropriate application of computers, insufficient teacher
preparation, use of inadequate software, and irrelevant activities.
Kyungbin Im 43
One of the most frequently emerged criticisms against ICT use in schools inquires the
reliability and validity of the research on ICT. Some researchers (Healy, 1998; Felix, 2005)
said that the situation of the researchers can be problematic, and others said that the
descriptions of the research design can be poor. Healy (1998) said many pieces of research
regarding ICT have been commissioned by industry interests, and the results indicate that
computers have thus considerably contributed nothing of note to the learning
process--often less, in fact, than what is achieved by a good teacher with a moderate
class size and appropriate traditional materials.
Several research descriptions appear to lack crucial information, such as information
about subjects, materials, and technologies (Felix, 2005). The reliability of the research
results would be weakened without this kind of information. O’Byrne et al (2006) also
suggest several limitations in the research design of studies, which claim positive effects
of ICT in schools. They argue that the majority of research relied on analyses of surveys
and descriptive findings, and many of the experimental studies were done without a
control group, which limits the validity of the findings. They also argue that practically
none of the studies were reproduced at different times or with different students to
confirm the reliability of the result. Another concern regarding the use of ICT is related to
young children. Some researchers (Cordes & Miller, 2000) believe that using ICT from an
early age in schools may have a negative influence on young children. Cordes and Miller
(2000) claim that letting young children (aged 5) prematurely into sedentary, abstract
academic work neglects not only the actual cognitive needs of children, but also their
emotional and sensorimotor requirements. They also argue that the use of ICT makes
children skilled technicians who ‘access’ other people’s answers rather than think for
themselves and interrupts the development of ‘imagination’ of children (Cordes & Miller,
2000). In addition, Ferguson (2005) said that while ICT can be a useful tool for learning,
computers and the Internet can also disturb students from homework, foster shallow and
uncritical thinking, reduce chances of face-to-face interaction between children and
teachers, and encourage compulsive behavior. Although the above mentioned problems are
not specifically related to English teaching/learning, we should consider those matters
when we use ICT teaching material for English teaching for a better learning
environment.
As shown above, the use of ICT in schools can have both positive and negative
influences, and a number of research results on this can have methodological limitations.
Therefore, it is very important to investigate the factors which influence the result of the
application of ICT in schools so that learners can make the best use of ICT in their
44 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
learning. After all, not much successful educational progress can be achieved without
proper preparation. Pedro, Enrique, Ernesto, and Lucio (2004) wrote that adopting ICT into
the school, without proper teacher development plans and pedagogical perspectives, is a
low-return investment. With appropriate preparation for proper application of ICT in
schools, the negative effects of ICT use could be minimized, and the positive effects can
be increased.
In this section, I will provide several points which we should consider for the design
of ICT learning material in relation to the English CD-ROM and previous research results.
This can provide insights of improving the English CD-ROM for better learning results.
Although many researchers support the positive influence of ICT use at schools in
relation to learner motivation and school attainment (Brna & Cooper, 2000; Waite, 2004;
Cox et al., 2004), it is important to note the fact that not all ICT related tasks are
interesting to pupils. According to Deaney et al. (2003), pupils prefer interactive software
to learning with windows application programs, such as Excel. They said that a key
motivating factor of ICT is interactivity. Similar to a competent teacher would do, a good
ICT teaching material should be able to make learning enjoyable and satisfying while
continuously providing pupils with opportunities to learn. This property can be a useful
feature to evaluate the effectiveness of any ICT teaching material. The interactive feature
of ICT can be especially helpful in a classroom situation where one teacher has to teach
many students.
Interactive ICT teaching materials can provide feedbacks to students and response to
their questions whenever they want. This interactive instructional function of ICT may
therefore be very valuable to learners who need support in their learning process. Unlike
books, ICT materials can have interactive instructional functions. The feedback of
educational software could be improved to help learners more effectively if we design the
feedback function properly. Most educational software can give feedback right after
learners’ answers, and learners can try again anytime they want to try.
In this respect, this feedback can be better than that of teachers, and it is also
individualized. Deaney et al. (2003) suggest that the pupils in their study were appreciative
of software which presented instant feedback detecting pupils’ weakness, and which gave
chances for independent working and individual progresses. In relation to the CD-ROM
which this study investigates, there is not much interactive function. It does not provide
any feedback but only displays conversations, songs, and video clips when learners click
Kyungbin Im 45
the start buttons. Without this function, we cannot expect much increase of learner
motivation.
Making learning tasks easier is another important feature of ICT. By making learning
tasks easier, ICT teaching materials can sustain the learner’s attention and make learning
more interesting. Many pupils in Deaney et al.’s (2003) study replied that they could carry
out learning tasks with ease, fast and reliability, and to a higher standard by using ICT
tools. Nichol, Watson, and Waites (2003) also mentioned that ICT enables children to do
their task more easily compared to non-ICT material. They conducted comparative
research between the ICT version of Warley Woods mystery, which is an investigation
game for history study and card version of a similar type of game. The pupils in their
research said that the ICT version was easier to use and more convenient for acquiring
information due to the hyperlinks between clues. They also mentioned that the ICT
version was equally effective in terms of developing understanding compared to the card
version with a couple of advantages in developing learners’ systematic understanding of
the problem and ability to make links between various clues and parts of information
(Nichol et al., 2003). ICT can thus support learners in various ways by making a task
simpler, quicker and producing high quality results. It may be a considerable advantage of
using ICT if learners feel comfortable while doing a task. Learners may be more focused
on their task and could improve their learning, as Comber et al. (2002) said. Regarding
this, the English CD-ROM does not provide any help for learners except the dictionary
function in students’ CD-ROM. As the CD-ROM is not very interactive, it cannot provide
much help or interesting activities. If the contents of the CD-ROM is too difficult for
learners, they will feel stress and be bored early since they cannot acquire sufficient
support from it.
The use of ICT can make learning more fun and enjoyable. This factor is closely
related to the motivational factor of ICT described above and is also an important factor
in its own right, especially for children who have a weaker ability to concentrate.
According to Mann, Shakeshaft, Kottkamp, and Becker (2000), one of the teachers in their
study said that “students feel successful, they think it is fun, and they are excited to
learn” (p. 5). Their study showed a considerably better performance when children learned
using interactive ICT material on both reading and mathematics in the California Test of
Basic Skills. Goodison (2002) also said that elementary school children (aged 11) highly
valued fun and enjoyment in learning.
Sim, MacFarlane, and Read (2006) wrote that the children in their study want to study
with fun software which has a game function, although they found no correlation between
46 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
learning and any of the measures of pleasure and usability. Learning tasks which are
often perceived as tedious and difficult by children can become an interesting experience
with interactive ICT learning materials. As Mann et al. (2000) wrote, “all of us learn best
when we enjoy learning” (p. 2). In relation to this, the English CD-ROM appears to have
not many interesting activities for children. Unlike the time when the English CD-ROM
was designed, many children these days enjoy playing online games. These online games
are very interactive and interesting enough to lure children in front of computers and
make them spend a great deal of money to buy game items regardless of their gender and
age. It may sounds odd to compare the degree of fun between online games and English
learning material. It is necessary and important task to increase the interesting factor of
the English CD-ROM to make our children study with it, and it is also important to
understand what they like.
Finally, the simulation function of ICT teaching material can be another important
beneficial feature for learners. For example, learners can study with a simulated science
experiment without spilling water, breaking a beaker, or burning their fingers. As the
simulation can present the procedure of a scientific experiment, learners can organize the
order of the experiment and remember important things to avoid errors and small
accidents for their real experiment. The simulation can also be used as an after
experiment task to sum up what they studied. For English classes, virtual characters can
talk with learners or learners can talk to each other in a simulated learning environment
as they would do in an online game context. This function of ICT mimics another
characteristic of effective teachers. According to McBer (2000), effective teachers help
pupils understand something difficult by finding a creative way to explain it in simple
words. The simulation function of ICT can be a useful tool to make complex concepts
simple. With students’ English CD-ROMs, learners can record their voice. If we change
this function into a simulated English learning environment, children can talk with
characters on the CD-ROM practicing their English, and the characters can provide
feedback to the children. This function may require advanced technologies such as voice
recognition and artificial intelligence, which may be possible with the current technology.
There are several pieces of research regarding the use of English CD-ROMs in a
Korean elementary school context. Kim and Sung (2001) and Kim and Yun (2002)
surveyed children and teachers. In Kim and Sung’s (2001) study, teachers answered that
the content of the English CD-ROM was generally good in terms of the number of
Kyungbin Im 47
interesting factors and visual design but unsatisfactory in relation to interactive feature
and individualized teaching and evaluation. Students also said the English CD-ROM is
expected to be effective for their English study. In their study, many children (78.7%) said
that they want to study with it in their leisure time. In relation to the method of using
the English CD-ROM, teachers usually use it in their classrooms. This means that
teachers control the CD-ROM and present its contents with a projection TV rather than
let their children study with it individually. Kim and Sung (2001) said this method may
lead to teacher-centered teaching and suggest that the use of an English lab where
children study with the English CD-ROM individually. Their study also includes content
analysis result. Although this study relied on this result, it is not included in this article
due to the limitation of the number of pages. Kim and Yun’s (2002) research showed
similar results. In their study, children responded generally with high interest (3.95 on a
scale of 1 to 5); however, the actual use of the CD-ROM was not very high since 52.9%
of children showed passive attitude towards studying English using the CD-ROM. They
stress the need for further research on the ways to increase the frequency of using the
CD-ROM (Kim & Yun, 2002).
Kim and Lee (2007)’s study is another relevant research with this study. They
suggested the ways of improving English CD-ROMs. However, as they did not use a
survey method, their focus of suggestion is more on theoretical aspects rather than
practical side. Although there are several pieces of research similar to this study, it is
meaningful to investigate similar factors to identify any changes and deepen the depth of
research. The differences between the results of previous studies and that of this study
will be presented in the following discussion section.
So far now, I suggested several points which we should consider to design a more
effective English CD-ROM and relevant previous research results. Although there are
consistent research results which support the contention that the use of ICT results in
higher standardized test scores (O’Byren et al, 2006), it is difficult to explain the exact
aspects of ICT influences on the learning results due to lack of relevant research data
(Andrews et al, 2007). Therefore, it is important to conduct research regarding on ICT use
in English education to find out the precise factors and process of these which influence
the teaching and learning results.
This study focuses on the use of the CD-ROM for studying English at schools and
home. The English textbook in Korean elementary school comes with a CD-ROM which
48 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
contains video clips, English songs and chants, and activities for listening and writing.
When children receive their new English textbook, they are also given the CD-ROM. As
this CD-ROM contains most of the contents for the English textbook, English teachers
will likely use this CD-ROM to teach their children. In light of the purpose of this study,
the following research questions were posed:
1) How much do the teachers and the children use the English CD-ROM?
2) What kinds of contents the English CD-ROM should contain for better results?
Ⅲ. METHODOLOGY
1. The Participants
One group of the participants for this study was Korean EFL (English as a Foreign
Language) teachers working at an elementary school level in Daejeon, South Korea. The
number of teachers who answered the survey was 54. All of the teachers have had at
least two or more years of teaching experience ranging from 2 to 28 years. Their average
teaching experience was approximately 10 years. The number of English classes in a
week was also varied ranging from 1 to 22. Several teachers were teaching English as a
homeroom teacher, and others were teaching English as a subject only. The average
English class they taught was 12 classes in a week.
Another group of participants was 161 elementary school children. At the time of this
study, they were in sixth grade in an elementary school. The children had two English
classes in a week. They were asked to reply in the middle of December when they nearly
finished their English textbook.
Two sets of questionnaires were designed, one each for the students and the teachers.
The teachers’ questionnaire consists of nine questions which concern the use of
CD-ROMs at school and their opinions on the contents of the CD-ROM (Appendix, I).
Survey questions 1, 7 and 8 are related to the first research question and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
9 are related to the second research question. I revised previous surveys in several pieces
of research (Kim & Sung, 2001; Kim & Yun, 2002; Son, 2005) to make this survey more
reliable, relevant and updated. I also analyzed this survey with a statistical method to
Kyungbin Im 49
evaluate its reliability. The analysis shows that the split-half reliability of the teacher’s
survey was statistically significant (r=0.616) when using MS Excel with Spearman-Brown
formula while dividing the questions with most relevant pairs except those questions
which are difficult to match, such as question 5. The students’ survey has ten questions
about the children’s use of CD-ROMs at home and their opinions (Appendix II). The
students’ survey questions 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are related to the first research question
and 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are related to the second research question. Most of the questions are
multiple choice questions and have one open-ended option where the participants suggest
their opinions freely. The split-half reliability of the students’ survey was also statistically
significant (r=0.609) when using MS Excel with Spearman-Brown formula.
To survey the students, I first selected the elementary school and year group. As year
six students have the longest English learning experience, I decided to survey sixth
graders. After acquiring the appropriate permission of a headmaster, vice headmaster, and
homeroom teachers’, I surveyed the students. I explained the purpose of the survey and
each of the survey questions in as much detail as possible to them for clear
communication.
To survey the teachers, I firstly needed to find appropriate teachers to ask since not
all elementary school teachers teach English. It was important to select teachers who
were specifically English teachers. Then, I asked them to reply to the survey individually
via E-mail and collected their responses.
Both the teachers’ and the students’ responses were analysed to find out their patterns
of using the English CD-ROMs and their preferences of learning activities.
Ⅳ. RESULTS
The first question concerned the frequency of the use of English CD-ROMs in their
classes. Almost all of the teachers said that they use the CD-ROM in their classes.
Among them, 20.4% said that they use it in every English class and about 65% of them
use it in about half of their English classes. Only two teachers said that they had never
used it as shown in the following table 1.
50 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
The second question is about the way they use the English CD-ROM in their classes.
More than half of the teachers (31, 57.4%) use the contents of the English CD-ROM as it
is. The other teachers (21, 38.9%) said that they substituted part of the contents.
For the third question, twelve teachers (22.2%) said that they think most of the
contents were interesting and useful. Half of the teachers (50%) think that about 70% of
the contents of the English CD-ROM look interesting and useful. Fifteen teachers (27.8%)
said that they think about 50% of the contents are interesting and useful. None of the
teachers said that the contents of the CD-ROM are not interesting or useless.
The fourth question concerned the convenient factors of using the CD-ROM. The
teachers said that the function of demonstrating conversations and songs is the most
convenient factor (46.2%). The second factor was its simple preparation for English
classes. This means that the teachers like the fact that they can teach children without
Kyungbin Im 51
For the first question, more than half of the children answered that they had never
used the CD-ROM at home (58%) or had used it rarely (once a year) (32%) as shown in
the following [Table 1] (More detail version of the table is provided in Appendix II).
52 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
The second question asked them the factors which prevent them to study with the
English CD-ROM. Most of the children (43.7%) said that they were too busy to study
with it. About one third of the children (34.1%) said that they do not study with it since
the CD-ROM is not very interesting. Some children (19.8%) said that the level of the
English of the CD-ROM is too easy for them. On the other hand, two children said that it
was too difficult for them to study as in the following table.
The third question asked them whether they would study with it if the content of the
English CD-ROM was designed to make it very interestingly. Most children said they
would study with it. The question also asked them to specify the things that they are
currently enjoying. They suggested several kind of things they are enjoying at the time of
the survey, such as various popular online computer games (Crazy Arcade, Star craft,
Sudden attack, Magoo Magoo, and Maple Story etc), activities in relation to ‘Daum cafe’
or ‘Cyworld’ (kind of a blog), and fantasy novels, etc. A little over one-third of the
children said that they would not study with it even if it is designed to be very
interesting. Their main reason was that the content of the English CD-ROM was not
very helpful or they were too busy to study with it.
The fourth question asked them about the contents of the current English CD-ROM. A
little over half of the students (82, 51.9%) said that the contents were interesting;
Kyungbin Im 53
however, they would make the children feel bored if they study with it more than once or
twice. Only 18 children (11.4%) said that the contents were interesting enough to study
with it repeatedly. A significant number of the children (58, 36.7%) said that the contents
of the English CD-ROM were not very interesting.
The fifth question was about their preference of the contents of the English CD-ROM.
The majority (84, 55.6%) of the children said that they liked game activities. The second
most popular content was the animated dialogue (46, 30.5%). Other contents were similarly
interesting to the children. The video clip was the third and role playing was the fourth
most interesting content for them. Listen and repeat, reading and writing activity were
equally rated as the least favourite activity. Only three children chose each of the activity.
The sixth question asked them to suggest any other contents they wanted to add in
the current English CD-ROM. The highest number of the children (79, 40.7%) chose
English movies. Interesting games were ranked as the second (77, 39.7%) and English
stories came third (21, 10.8%). The rest of the children (18, 9.3%) suggested several other
kind of contents such as cartoons and pictures or video clips of celebrities.
The seventh question asked them whether they would use the English CD-ROM more
frequently if the contents of the CD-ROM were changed as they suggested in the sixth
question. About three-forth of the students (136, 84.5%) said that they would use it more
frequently. Among them, 34 children (21.1%) said that they would use it very frequently.
About a quarter of the students said that they would use it frequently on condition that
the contents were interesting (44, 27.3%). A little less than a quarter of the children (32,
19.9%) answered that they would use it 2-3 times in a week. Some children (26, 16.1%)
replied that they would use it 1-2 times in a month. However, 25 students (15.5%) said
that they would never use it.
The eighth question asked about the amount of the students’ leisure time in a day.
The leisure time means the amount of time they can have after school and a private
institute. The highest number of the children (56, 33.9) said that they had between one
and two hours of leisure time in a day. The second highest number of the students (46,
27.9%) said that they had more than three hours. The third biggest group of students (43,
26.1%) said that they had between 2 to 3 hours. The smallest number of the students (20,
12.1%) said that they had only one hour of leisure time in a day.
The ninth question concerned the activities the students do in their leisure time. The
students were also asked to write the duration of time of the activity they do. They spend
their leisure time for self-study about 80 minutes per student on average. Watching TV
was the second most popular activity they do. Each student spends about 53 minutes to
54 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
watching TV on average. The third was playing games. Each child spends about 43
minutes playing games on average. The fourth most popular activity they do was reading
books. Each child spends about 33 minutes reading on average. Except these, the children
suggested several other things they do such as knitting, chatting with friends, taking a
nap, talking with family members, practicing musical instruments, listening to music,
watching movies, doing origami, web surfing, and playing baseball. For these activities,
each student spends approximately 20 minutes on average.
The last question concerned with the activities they do on weekends. Many of the
children answered that they take a rest (48, 26.5%) and play games at home (48, 26.5%)
most on weekends. The second activity they do most was visiting friends (24, 13.3%).
The third activity they do most frequently was travel (19, 10.5%). The last thing they do
most was visiting relatives (10, 5.5%). Other than these, they suggested several activities
such as going to church, shopping, watching TV, playing football, playing baseball, and
chatting with friends.
Ⅴ. DISCUSSION
In relation to the first research question, the interesting factor of the English CD-ROM
should be considered. As shown above, the majority of the teachers use the English
CD-ROM as their main ICT teaching tool. This result was the same as that of previous
studies (Kim & Sung, 2001; Kim & Yun, 2002). These results stress the importance of
making high quality English CD-ROM. In relation to the first research question, teachers
use the English CD-ROM very frequently. Although, many of the teachers use the
English CD-ROM in their English classes, they suggest the contents of the English
CD-ROM should be improved. As seen in the third question result, many teachers think
that not all the contents are interesting. In addition, many teachers said that they want to
replace several contents such as writing, role-playing, listening and repeating, chant,
reading, and watching video clips. In the fourth question, many teachers said that they are
using the English CD-ROM because it is convenient for presenting conversations and
songs rather than the contents are interesting or good. For the ninth question, many
teachers replied that they think increasing learners’ interest by adding various levels of
activities is the most important factor. From the students’ point of view, the need to
improve or change the contents of the English CD-ROM appears to be greater. More than
one third of the children said that they do not study with it, since it is not very
Kyungbin Im 55
interesting, and nearly none of the children study with it regularly at home. This result is
significantly different from previous research results. In Kim and Sung’s (2001) study,
86.5% of children said they study with an English CD-ROM at home 30 to 60 minutes
every day. This became 27% in Son’s (2005) study. These results show that the use of an
English CD-ROM became less and less popular. The most important reason for this may
be the difference in the method of studying English. As more and more children go to
private English institute rather than study English at home, the use of the CD-ROM
appears to be gradually decreased. Another reason may be the children’s lack of interest
studying with the English CD-ROM. Although about half of the children (43.7%) said that
they cannot study with it as they do not have enough time in the second question, more
than half of them (63.4%) said they would study with the English CD-ROM if it was
redesigned to make it more interesting in the third question. Apparently, the children’s
interest in the English CD-ROM is not strong enough to drive them to study with it at
home. In relation to the first research question, the children do not use the English
CD-ROM often at home due to their busy schedule or uninteresting contents. Many
researchers stress the importance of repetition and recycle in language teaching and
learning process (Lynch & Maclean, 2000; Brown, 2000). Considering this, the contents of
the English CD-ROM should be very interesting enough to motivate the students to study
with it several times both at school and at home. However, as shown above, the current
English CD-ROM appears to be making the children bored easily. Although making the
contents of the English CD-ROM very interesting may be very difficult, it should be
improved to fulfil its original goal. Like any other computer software, it can be improved
gradually with a repetitive iteration process.
In relation to the second research question, the way of accommodating students’
diverse needs should be devised. The children have different preferences and levels of
English. Thus, for more effective learning results, the content of the English CD-ROM
should accommodate the learners’ requirements as many as possible. The activities should
be designed to make them more interesting and consider the ways of tailoring the needs
of various levels of English learners. As suggested above, many of the children said the
content of the English CD-ROM was not very interesting to them. According to the
children, game activities and animated dialogues are most popular learning tasks. More
activities should be included such as English cartoons, movie clips, puzzle activities, and
English stories to increase the children’s interest. Some children even said they would like
to see their favorite celebrities on the CD-ROM. Though, this may have a somewhat of
an unrealistic factor, using something or someone children like as a character or an actor
56 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
in the English CD-ROM can be a good motivator to study. In this sense, it is important
to investigate and develop interesting and effective learning contents for children based on
their preferences and characteristics. For example, a virtual English world similar to an
online game environment, such as “Ultima online” where children can adventure with their
characters can be a great way of providing less stressful, interesting and helpful learning
environment. In this kind of virtual English speaking environment, children may not worry
about English errors they might make due to the anonymity of virtual world. There can
be a personal learning assistance who can help learners whenever they need help.
Diversifying the levels of activity can be another way to increase learners’ motivation.
Kim and Lee (2007) also stress this for the sake of fostering learners’ self directed study
skill. In the survey question number eight, some teachers said that some of the contents
were not matched with the students’ level, or they were too simple. The students said
similarly. For the third question, some children said that even if the English CD-ROM
was redesigned to make it more interesting they would not study with it since it was too
easy for them. Usually, learners’ English levels are different from each other. However,
the English CD-ROM has only one type of each activity. If the children study with the
activity at school, they may not want to study with it again at home since they think
they already finished the activity, and unless the activity is very interesting they would
not like to study with it again. However, if the activities have several levels of difficulty,
the children can study at an appropriate level of activity, and they also study with the
activities at home since they did not finish them. This will also enable the children to
study on their own pace and study pattern. In this way, the English CD-ROM becomes
more useful than the current one. It would be a great waste of resources and money if a
CD-ROM intended to make students study at home goes into a bin never touched by the
children every year.
In relation to the first research question, we should consider a way of connecting
school work and home study to increase the frequency of using the English CD-ROM.
Usually, when teachers use the English CD-ROM in a class, teachers will show it using a
projection TV or a beam projector. This may help teachers control their students as well
as to show the contents of the teaching material. However, many researchers suggest that
one of the most important advantages of using ICT teaching/learning material is the
independent learning environment (Deaney et al. 2003; Chung, 2000; Ofsted, 2009). In
addition, most of the advantages mentioned in section II above related to independent
learning situations studying with ICT learning materials. Therefore, it may be difficult to
expect all the advantages of ICT use with the current method of using the English
Kyungbin Im 57
CD-ROM. To maximize the effects of ICT use in schools, learners need to interact with
the ICT teaching/learning material individually. However, teachers may not like to do this
as this requires many preparations. For a start, they need to move children to a computer
lab for every English class. This can make it harder to discipline the children, to organize
their time table, and to prepare for English classes. If this is the case, utilizing online
English classes may be a good idea as suggested by Kim and Hwang (2007). By adopting
this, teachers can easily communicate with children and monitor what the children studied
at school and at home. Children can review what they studied at school with various
learning tasks at home. In this way, children can make use of the advantages of using
ICT at least at home. Although the majority of the children said that they were too busy
to study with the English CD-ROM, many of them spend large amount of time watching
TV and playing computer games as shown in the above survey result. If their teachers
give them homework to study with ICT they can reschedule their time. However, many
things should be accomplished to implement this successfully. Firstly, the online learning
material should be developed in relation to English contents with various interesting
learning tasks. Secondly, teachers need to regularly give and check homework. Thirdly,
the method to help the students who do not have a computer or Internet connection at
home should be considered.
The final point to discuss is the user interface design of ICT teaching materials. Some
of the teachers suggested that the program is not very convenient to use in the eighth
question. Some of them said that it would be better if the program was more convenient
when they need to switch to another program. Some said that sometimes when they run
the program for the animated conversation, the voice and the animation are not matched
with each other. So the children had to listen to the narration a few seconds earlier than
the animation. This problem may occur due to the slow speed of the CPU or other
hardware, such as the optical disk drive. Although there is an instruction for this problem
to solve in one of the files on the CD-ROM, the teachers may not know the method to
resolve this problem. These tiny problems of software could ruin the entire English lesson
plan. Therefore, the designers of English ICT teaching material should consider probable
problems as many as possible to prevent this and design the interface of the software as
easy and predictable as possible.
58 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
Ⅵ. CONCLUSION
In the first part of the second section, I have summarized several important aspects of
using ICT in schools, such as increased motivation and engagement and making learning
tasks easier and fun. In the second part of the second chapter, I also suggested several
previous research results in relation to ICT use at schools. However, to maximize the
positive effects of ICT use in schools, the factors related to ICT use such as “the learner,
the learning environment, professional competency, system capacity, community
connections, technology capacity, and accountability” (Schacter, 1999, p. 10) should be
considered very carefully. This implies appropriate preparation for the application of ICT,
including teacher training, choosing and designing good software and understanding
learners’ needs.
This study focused on the design of software only. The English CD-ROM which has
been used widely in Korean elementary school English classes since 1997 appears to have
to be redesigned to improve its quality considering its current use. The CD-ROM not only
was designed considerably a long time ago but also contains not very interesting activities
according to the children who participated in this study. Considering previous study
results, it is apparent that less and less children are interested in studying with an
English CD-ROM. To make better use of the advantages of ICT, many things need to be
considered. In this section, I will summarise the important points of this study and
suggest several implications for the improvement of the English CD-ROM and ICT use as
a conclusion.
Firstly, the contents of the English CD-ROM should be re-designed to increase
children’s interest. As shown in the survey result, the children have very busy schedules,
and unless the English CD-ROM is very interesting they will not study with it. The
current English CD-ROM has activities closely related to the English textbook. In addition
to these, other activities with a similar theme and more interactive forms of activities can
be added to increase learners’ interest. For instance, a digital English story with
interactive features which can be found in a number of websites, such as ‘Yahoo kids’,
can increase learners’ interest greatly (Im, 2009).
Secondly, learners’ various English levels should be considered. Many of the children
said that the English CD-ROM was not very useful since it was too easy for them or too
difficult for some other children. By adding various English levels of activities, children
can study with the tasks which match their English level. In addition, more supportive
functions should be designed so that learners can ask questions when they encounter a
Kyungbin Im 59
difficulty. An animated character who can respond to children’s questions may not only
support the children’s learning but also increase their interest considerably.
Thirdly, using an online ICT English teaching/learning system should be considered to
manage and support learners’ learning rather than only using an English CD-ROM. An
online English teaching/learning system can provide more diverse types of activities and
easier ways to monitor learners’ studying. With an online learning system, like ‘cyber
home study’, teachers can easily check their students’ progress, provide support and guide
for subsequent study. If the contents of the online learning system are good enough and
the results are positive, this system might contribute to reduce the number of students
who attend a private English institute.
Finally, the user interface of the English CD-ROM should be considered more.
Generally, teachers do not have a profound knowledge on ICT related teaching tools such
as computer hardware, software, and beam projectors. If the software has any kind of
problem which requires a specialist’s skill, teachers may have trouble teaching with the
software. Children also usually do not have much technical knowledge. Therefore,
designers of ICT teaching material should anticipate every possible problem and design
the software’s user interface as easy as possible. They also need to consider a school’s
situation. School computers may be several years old and slow in processing audio and
video data compared to the latest computers. This might cause great havoc in English
classes. In addition, they should also consider the educational effectiveness since the main
reason of the software is for education and not for fun. This may require a great deal of
cooperation among software designers and teachers, educational specialists, and learners.
An effective educational software can not be designed without employing appropriate
teaching/learning theories and up-to-date computer technologies.
This study has suggested several implications in relation to the use of ICT
teaching/learning material focusing on the English CD-ROM which are being used in
Korean elementary schools nationwide. The implications are derived from the results of
the survey carried out for this study. However, the number of the participants is not large
enough to generalize the results, so the findings in this study may have limitations. The
region is limited to one city only, and the survey result is the only data this study is
based on. These limitations may weaken the suggestions above and should be improved
by combining them with empirical data in the following research. Although several
previous studies pursued similar answers with this study, it has significant meaning in
updating the results of the previous studies. More research in relation to this study such
as what kinds of software should be designed to make learners to be more interested in
60 An Analysis on the Application of CD-ROMs for English Teaching in Korean Elementary Schools
learning and easy to control, and how can we connect the learners’ school work with
home study should be followed.
REFERENCES
Adair-Hauck, B., Willingham-McLain, L., & Youngs, B. (2000). Evaluating the integration of
technology and second language learning. CALICO Journal, 17(2), 269-306.
Andrews, R., Freeman, A., Hou, D., McGuinn, N. Robinson, A., & Zhu, J. (2007). The
effectiveness of information and communication technology on the learning of written
English for 5- to 16-year-olds. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 325
–336.
Brett, P. A. (1996). Multimedia applications for language learning - what are they and how
effective are they (pp. 171-180). In: M. Dangerfield, G. Hambrook and L. Kostova
(Ed.), Europe from East to West. Veliko Turnovo: PIC Publishers.
Brett, P. A. (1998). An intuitive, Theoretical and Empirical Perspective on the Effectiveness
Question for Multimedia. In: Cameron, K., (Ed.), Multimedia CALL: Theory and
Practice (pp. 81-93). Exeter: ElmBank Publications.
Brna, P. & Cooper, B. (2000). Lessons from the NIMIS Classroom: An Overview of Progress
towards the ‘Classroom of Tomorrow’ in an English County Primary School. Retrieved
May 04, 2009, from the World Wide Web: http://computing.unn.ac.uk/staff/
cgpb4/projects/cblnimis/NIMISbriefing.html
Brown, S. (2000). Slow Down! The Importance of Repetition. Planning, and Recycling in
Language Teaching. Paper Presented at the Meeting of the Ohio Teachers of English
to Speakers of Other Languages, Columbus, OH. (Eric Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 448 594)
Chera, P. & Wood, C. (2003). Animated multimedia ‘talking books’ can promote phonological
awareness in children beginning to read. Learning and Instruction, 13, 33–52.
Choi, Soo-Young (2006). An exploration of ICT use in foreign language learning and
teaching at Brigham Young University, and its application to the foreign language
education in Korea. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 7(3), 255-282.
Comber, C., Watling, R., Lawson, T., Cavendish, S., McEune, R., & Paterson, F. (2002).
ImpaCT2: Learning at Home and School: Case Studies. Coventry: Becta /London:
DfES.
Cordes, C. and Miller, E. (Eds). (2000). FOOL’S GOLD: A Critical Look at Computers in
Kyungbin Im 61
Kim, & Lee. (2007). A study on the directions of developing CD-ROM titles based on the
National Elementary English Curriculum. Primary English Education, 13(2), 197-212.
Kim, & Hwang. (2007). Connection on-class elementary school English learning with
selected on-line differentiated contents. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
10(1), 130-154.
Mann, D., Shakeshaft, C., Beker, J., & Kottkamp, R. (1999). WESTVIRGINA STORY:
Achievement gains from a state-wide comprehensive instructional technology
program. Milken Family Foundation.
Mann, D., Shakeshaft, C., Kottkamp, R. & Becker, J. (2000). Playing to learn. American
School Board Journal, 187(9), 34-36.
McBer, H. (2000). Research into teacher effectiveness: A model of teacher effectiveness.
London: Department for Education and Employment.
Nichol, J., Watson, K., & Waites, G. (2003). Rhetoric and reality: Using ICT to enhance pupil
learning—Harry Potter and the Warley Woods Mystery—Case study 2. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 201-213.
O’Byrne, B., Securro, S., & Cadle, J. (2006). Making the cut: The impact of an integrated
learning system on low achieving middle school students. Journal of Computer
Assisted Learning, 22, 218–228.
Ofsted. (2004). ICT in schools; The impact of government initiatives five years on. Ofsted
Publication Centre. Retrieved December 1, 2009 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ofsted.gov.uk
Pedro, K., Enrique, S., Ernesto, M., & Lucio, F. (2004). Technology in schools: Education,
ICT and the Knowledge Society. World Bank Education Advisory Service.
Pelgrum, W. J., & Law, N. (2003). ICT in education around the world: Trends, problems and
prospects. Paris: UNESCO IIEP.
Schacter, J. (1999). The impact of education technology on student achievement: What the
most current research has to say. Milken Exchange on education technology.
Sim, G., MacFarlane, & Read, J. (2006). All work and no play: Measuring fun, usability, and
learning in software for children. Computers and Education, 46, 235–248.
So, & Chon. (2001). A study on the strategies for utilization of information technology in the
7th national curriculum. Korea Institute of Curriculum & Evaluation.
Son, Hyo-Sang (2005). An analysis of the primary English CD-ROMs on the 7th national
curriculum and suggestions for its improvement. Primary English Education, 11(2),
97-132.
Kyungbin Im 63
Waite, S. (2004). Tools for the job: A report of two surveys of information and
communications technology training and use for literacy in primary schools in the
West of England. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(1), 11-20.
Appendix I
Appendix II
Other 53 19.5
Key words: ICT, CD-ROM, English teaching, elementary English teaching, young learners
Applicable level: elementary education
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION
It has been observed and argued that social interaction is fundamental to any
educational process including learning language by distance. One of the key questions
addressed in the field of distance learning is to what extent distance learning materials or
activities can or should replicate the social interaction that is central to the practice of
teachers in face-to-face contact with students. Some research findings from different
distance education context have supported the centrality of social interaction to effective
language learning, and some studies have been conducted on the effects of online
materials or activities upon encouraging interaction. The findings have provided
implications for designing and using online materials or activities to enhance interaction.
Beldarrain (2006:140) observes that distance education “emerged in response to the
need of providing access to those who would otherwise not be able to participate in
face-to-face courses”. Distance education encompasses, he (2006:140) continues, “those
programs that allow the learner and the instructor to be physically apart during the
learning process and maintain communication in a variety of ways”. In the early days of
distance education, it was seen by many as a kind of ‘fall back’ option, for those who, for
various reasons, could not avail themselves of the ‘normal’ educational opportunities. Key
questions for those involved in distance education, therefore, in their first attempts to
design distance learning materials for the research were, how the distance learning
experience can be made as close as possible to that of the face-to-face students, and how
ongoing interaction can be facilitated between student and teacher.
The rapid development of distance learning technologies, such as computer-mediated
communication (CMC), web- or network- based learning, e-learning, has affected the
relationship between technology, pedagogy and social interaction. Changes in the
relationship have raised pertinent questions with regard to social interaction in the context
of online education. Some fundamental questions can be raised and they seem to be
relevant to practitioners and their decision-making (Beaumont, 2007):
∙ How is students’ interaction with their peers developed in peer review tasks
in writing activity of the online English class?
∙ How does interaction among students through peer feedback online benefit
their English learning?
∙ Can peer feedback activity in the online language class bring about change
to the heavily teacher dependent online class?
∙ How does the teacher-initiated classroom-centered research affect his or
her own professional development?
In the field of second or foreign language writing, some studies were conducted to see
how peer revision or correction can help learners improve their writing (Kim, 1996;
70 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
Mangelsdorf, 1992; Mença & Johnson, 1994; Moon, 2000; Zhang, 1995). While recent
developments in distance learning have drawn attention to aspects of online interaction,
relatively little research has been done in the social interaction on the online language
class (see, Park, 2004).
Ⅱ. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The discussion on technology, pedagogy, and social interaction in the current research
is related to the outline of the delivery of distance education by generation Garrison and
Anderson (2003) propose. They outline four generations of the delivery of distance
education in terms of their technological and pedagogic characteristics. As Beaumont
(2007) notes, they are careful to point out that, despite the fact that such classification
systems carry with them the implication of linear progress and the replacement of a
previous generation by subsequent ones, all generations continue to co-exist, in some
contexts in a comfortable, complementary way, in others in a rather more uncomfortable
and possibly contradictory way.
Johnson (2001) draws a parallel here by generations of language teaching approaches-
from ‘traditional’ grammar translation methods to communicative language teaching and
task-based learning. Garrison and Anderson’s (2003) first generation of distance education
programmes was largely print-based, and the pedagogic model underpinning them was an
essentially behavioristic one, with learning outcomes explicitly defined, and more objective
assessment procedures to render students’ achievement of those outcomes more
demonstrable. Materials were mostly print-based, a combination of content, equivalent to
that normally delivered in lecture mode, and therefore transmissional in nature, and what
we called self-assessment questions, designed to help students check their understanding
of the content as they went along the process element (Beaumont, 2007). Beaumont (2007)
goes on to note that as a self-assessment key was provided at the end of the booklets,
there was a tendency for the self-assessment questions to be designed in an objective
format, so that students could get unambiguous feedback on their completion of the tasks,
not very far removed from the stimulus-response-reinforcement of behaviorist learning
theory. It seems that no social interaction was involved in this process.
The next generation of distance education programmes was developed as students’
access to the broadcast media became wider. Beaumont (2007) points out that materials
could be seen as an early move towards a multimedia technology, with live broadcasts or
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 71
audio and video input combining with print-based materials, and later CD-ROM or DVD
disks, to provide students with a more varied and stimulating learning experience.
According to Garrison and Anderson (2003), distance learning practitioners also began to
grapple with developing a pedagogy more consistent with cognitive learning theory. Direct
interaction between students and teachers continued to be restricted to the first generation
technologies, although, they argue, the amount of interaction tended to increase.
While it is possible four, or even five, generations of distance education technologies
exist, for the sake of the argument here it will be subsumed that the rapid technological
developments of the last ten years or so under a single, third generation of distance
learning materials. The field has spawned a succession of overlapping terms such as
computer-mediated communication (CMC), web- or network- based learning, e-learning,
multi-media learning. These terms, to a non-specialist, are at best bewildering, sometimes
incomprehensible. As Beaumont (2007) points out, however, what has become clear is that,
in many ways, the once clear distinction between face-to-face and distance learning has
become blurred, some would say irrelevant. He observes that through the Web, students
of whatever subject in whatever mode of learning have unlimited access to huge amounts
of material, whether that material is informational or pedagogic in nature. It is also further
noted that within an institutional context, course participants can access courseware,
e-books, and e-journals, can inhabit an almost completely virtual learning world, but, most
importantly for the argument here, can engage in a wide variety of synchronous and/or
asynchronous interactions with their teachers and fellow students. Beaumont (2007)
assumes that these flexible, negotiable, and interactive learning modes are seen by many
scholars as an ideal vehicle for the realization of constructivist and social interactionist
learning paradigms. It has been observed that the previous distance learning has been
often limited to the delivery of course material through authoring tools, including edited
recordings of excerpts from the lectures, with associated tasks, the management of
discussion forums, and the organization of collaborative tasks, to be conducted online by
groups of students working in different educational contexts (Beaumont, 2007). However, it
has become clear that the new technologies lessen the control of teachers over the kind of
interaction students are engaged in, and that the nature of the social interaction is
different from what is experienced in the face-to-face classroom. This seems to provide
interesting implications for the distance delivery of language learning programs (Felix,
2002; Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1997).
Since then distance learning has been transformed by a succession of developments in
Information and Communication Technology, justifying Beldarrain’s (2006) claim that
72 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
communication between student and teacher (and between student and student) can now
be maintained in a variety of ways. More than that, though, it has led to claims not only
that the new technologies improve the quantity and quality of interaction on distance
learning or online courses, but also that they enhance the learning of all students (Felix,
2002).
There has been an increasing institutional recognition of the value of distance or online
learning. This resulted in materials being made available for the professional video
recording or webcasting of one of my face-to-face courses. Beaumont (2007) observes
that participants in the sessions coped with the technological intrusion with equanimity,
and materials were eventually produced which were a pretty faithful reproduction of the
experience of the face-to-face student group. However, as he argues, this development in
technology produced interesting and significant changes in the pedagogy of the distance or
online learning materials. It seemed that distance or online students were exposed to the
same (oral) input as the face-to-face students. It seemed less necessary to design tasks
or activities that allowed students to objectively check their understanding. Moreover, as
Beaumont (2007) indicates, distance or online students were now able to observe the
interactive tasks that the teacher set the students in the face-to-face sessions and to
eavesdrop on their outcomes. The students were able to experience the teacher-student or
student-student interaction, albeit at second hand. This resulted in the design of tasks for
the distance materials that guided the students’ attention to significant aspects of the input
and the interaction, and then required them to reflect on that input and interaction in
relation to their own experience. As many students now have access to e-mail, electronic
interaction with the teacher, and with other students, both distance and face-to-face,
became an increasing possibility. It seems that technology was bringing the two worlds of
face-to-face and distance or online education much closer together, and a more fruitful or
beneficial kind of social interaction in the latter has been developing (Beaumont, 2007).
Ⅲ. METHODOLOGY
1. Research Design
The current study has been done a part of the on-going action research that has
continued since it initiated in 2004. The course under examination is titled ‘English in the
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 73
News Media’ (ENM, henceforth) is an liberal arts (or general education) subject offered by
the Center for Teaching & Learning of H university. It is a three credit (and 3 hours)
course. The teacher has developed the course materials and revised the contents on the
basis of peer feedback and course evaluation. In each term with an aim to improve the
online course, research has been done in different themes from the course.
As defined earlier, action research is individual teachers’ reflective process in order to
improve the way they teach. It has been argued that this form of classroom-focused
action research provides teachers with louder voice in the change process than the
theory-focused traditional educational research context. Following the conventional action
research framework, that is, a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of
planning, acting, observing, and reflecting (Hart & Bond, 1995; Kemmis & Mctaggart,
1988), at the end of every term problem areas were identified, some actions were taken,
the results of the evaluation were fed into the design process of the subsequent course.
Planning
Reflecting Acting
Observing
The present study was conducted during the first semester of 2007 into the areas
identified to be improved through the course evaluation of the previous term following the
proposed action research spiral cycle. The data from the student questionnaire survey and
the class observation revealed that interaction in the online class took place heavily
between teacher and individual students but little took place among students. According to
the analysis of the responses to the questionnaire, 64.1% of the class (39 students) said
that they got some help from the teacher through bulletin board or through meeting with
the teacher. 20.5% of the class said they solved problems by themselves. Only 6% of the
class interacted with the peers in the course. It was found that students heavily depend
on the teacher in problem-solving or completing the assigned tasks. The analysis of the
questionnaire responses shows that benefits of cooperative learning among students have
not been brought in the course while other merits relevant to time and place were shared.
74 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
The analysis of the written feedback on the course revealed that students felt isolated
from each other and they needed to interact with each other.
Following the results of the previous course evaluation, the teacher devised alternative
strategies to be applied to the subsequent course to improve the identified problem areas.
The strategies were divided into two phases. At the first phase the class was put into
groups of six on the web. Each group had its leader and was given a task that required
online discussion among its members to be completed. After the interim evaluation of the
first strategy the teacher made some changes in organizing group work. At the second
phase, the class was put in pairs. Everyone had to do the same writing task and
exchange the draft with each other for feedback.
Strategy evaluation was done at two levels. The first one was done after applying the
online group discussion, and the second one after the peer feedback strategy. The focus of
the evaluation was given to the students’ being actively involved in interaction process
online in a group or in pairs. In order to improve the validity of the evaluation, data from
different sources was gathered and some decisions were made following reflection upon
the evaluation results.
2. Contextual Factors
1) Students
66 students registered the course. Male students were 20 and female students 46.
Among the participants, there are 4 freshmen, 6 sophomores, 33 juniors and 23 seniors. 46
students major in liberal arts (English 39, French 5, German 1, Creative Writing 1). 4 of
the participants comes from the faculty of life science & nano Tech. Engineering majors
are 4. 6 students major in economics and business administration. Social sciences majors
are 5. Natural science and law majors are one respectively.
According to the responses from the questionnaire, 51 students (77.2%) said that they
took the course because they could attend the class anytime and anywhere they want. 8
students (12.1%) noted that they can take the lesson as many times as they need or want.
It was observed that the majority of the students were aware of advantages online course
has over the traditional face-to-face class.
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 75
2) Course
The course ENM is designed to develop and enhance the students’ global mindsets as
well as linguistic competences for the 21st century. It aims to help students be aware of
issues around the world through the medium of the English language. Focus is given to
critical thinking skills, and communicative competence in English.
The main course material is taken from “Voice of America”. The material is used
according to the copyright statement at the site. Topics include areas of arts and
entertainment, disasters and accidents, economy and finance, education, environment,
health, human interest, human rights and law, labor, lifestyles, politics, religion, science
and technology, social issues, sports, war and conflict, weather and so forth. The theme of
the news changes every other week, and one topic is dealt with in depth in a two-week
cycle, where four sub-lectures are given. The following describes how each sub-lecture is
structured.
Lecture 1 consists of warm up and pre-listening task. It aims to provide students with
an opportunity to relate their background knowledge to the theme of the video materials
they are going to watch. Activities such as picture description, brainstorming, questions
and answers, and predicting are used for this purpose. For the pre-listening task students
write a short draft following the teacher’s instruction and then revise their drafts. Lecture
2 is vocabulary study. This activity gives students an opportunity not only to get the
meaning of English vocabulary, but also learn the context where and how vocabulary is
used. Lecture 3 is reading comprehension practice. Students listen the week’s article and
are involved in a variety of language activities. More emphasis is given on the
understanding of the overall message rather than the English-Korean sentence to sentence
translation. Lecture 4 is speaking and listening practice. Students watch the video in a
paragraph level and repeat as many as they can. This activity is designed to give the
76 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
The data were gathered from different sources to validate findings. Among the data
sources were students’ course evaluation, their perceptions on group work and peer
revision, student self-assessment, pre- and post-tests, students’ work, and teacher diary.
Different techniques were used to collect data and analyse them according to the nature of
the data and the research questions to be addressed. Course evaluation was done by using
questionnaire. Data on students’ perceptions on group work and peer revision was
gathered through the open questions of the questionnaire (see Appendix). Self-assessment
was also done by using questionnaire. Pre- and post-tests were administered to compare
the differences in key language areas before and after the course. The same test tool was
used for the pre- and post-tests to see if there was any significant difference over the
course. The test is developed by the teacher for this purpose. The test is composed of
seven categories: subject and verb identification, sentence fragments and run-ons, parallel
structure, subject-verb agreement, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, and punctuation and
capitalization. There are two sub-sections under subject and verb identification, that is,
sentence fragments and run-ons, and parallel structure. Each category has questions that
are designed to measure students’ linguistic knowledge. Students’ written work was taken
to see how interaction took place among groups or pairs and what changes were brought
about. The teacher kept the journal on the class observation and his own reflection upon
the online class. Some entries from the journal were sometimes used for the discussion
with the colleague.
Quantitative data from the responses to the questions was statistically analyzed to see
frequency. Reponses to open questions were qualitatively analyzed. Extracts from the
student’s work and the teacher diary were categorized according to theme, saliency and
frequency. The data gathered from these different sources were triangulated in order to
validate the findings and to gain a more comprehensive picture of the context.
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 77
It was found that the students gained benefits from peer review activities in learning
English. The analysis of the data gathered from different sources support this.
1) Self-assessment
Some students point out that their linguistic skills improved with the activities
provided throughout the course. The analysis of the students’ self-evaluation of the
effectiveness of the course on improving their English language learning. As the analysis
results of students’ self-assessment shows in Table 2, it was found that they thought
their listening, reading and writing have been improved with global awareness. The table
also shows that fewer students thought their speaking skill was improved, compared with
the other skills, This can be explained by the structure of the course, where the students
have no direct speaking practice.
2) Students’ views
The analysis of the interactions the students exchanged with each other shows how
the interaction in pairs helped the students with writing1). In the feedback through e-mail,
some students pointed out that peer feedback helped him find areas to be improved. More
specifically they found that peer feedback was helpful in learning new expressions they
did not know before. Some students experienced that peer feedback was beneficial to their
1) The data for the students’ views are taken from the excerpts of interactions they exchanged and the
responses of the open questions of the questionnaire.
78 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
writing skill although it is not easy to have a critical look at the draft by their peers.
They said that peer review made them work harder to be a critical reviewer, that is, to
be helpful to peers. There are some students who said that peer feedback motivated them
to get self-directed. The students frequently pointed out that the peer review helped them
see what they otherwise missed or areas to be improved. Some say that to be helpful to
their partner they had to study more than usual. Others noted that they were encouraged
when they knew that their feedback was helpful to their partner.
The analysis of the reponses to the open question in the questionnaire shows that
many students agreed to the benefits they could get from peer review. They said that if it
was done better, the benefit could be maximized. According to the suggestions they made,
the teacher needed to intervene the peer feedback activity at the final stage; the
face-to-face meetings should be arranged to see each other for discussion; the students
need some orientation to get used to the activity before the activity. Some students said
that they needed more opportunities to do peer work. They added that at the beginning
stage, they should have more frequent teacher intervention. It was also suggested that the
way of grouping should be changed, so that students with similar level of English could
work together and get more benefits than in working in random grouping.
The analysis of the responses also revealed that some students encountered difficulties.
Most frequently mentioned problem was that lack of self-confidence made them hesitate
or feel uncertain about the feedback they provided the pair. Some experienced that when
they were put to work with the pair with a higher level of proficiency than they, they
became concerned with mistakes or errors they might make. The limitation some
mentioned about was that they had to be very careful in being critical about the pair’s
work because they did not know each other and they did not see face to face. It was
pointed out that the feedback sometimes needed to be done at the superficial level not to
make the partner feel embarrassed or lose face.
Some students indicated that the most serious problems they experienced with peer
feedback was that they hesitated to give comments or could not do it because they had
no or little confidence in their English. There were some students who said that when
they worked with the pair with high English proficiency, they found it hard to understand
the work done by the partner. It was also pointed out that when they found any errors or
mistakes in the peer feedback, they didn’t know what to do with the feedback or
correction the peer gave. Late feedback was sometimes a problem. Some students
complained that the lateness made them helpless, and they couldn’t do anything about the
problem but to wait.
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 79
The analysis of the students’ views on the course reveals that they were satisfied
with the majority of the aspects of the course. The following table shows how much the
students were satisfied with various features of the online course. According to the
statistical analysis, 18 out of 21 aspects of the course got over 4 points out of 5.
5 1
4 3 2
aspects mean (Strongly (Strongly total
(Agree) (So-so) (Disagree)
agree) Disagree)
1 Goal/objectives 4.35 24(36.4) 41(62.1) 1(1.5) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
2 Themes of content 4.30 25(37.9) 36(54.5) 5(7.6) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
3 Level 4.14 20(30.8) 34(52.3) 11(16.9) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 65(100.0)
4 Test content quality 4.23 24(36.9) 32(49.2) 9(13.8) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 65(100.0)
5 Assignment content 4.09 23(34.8) 27(40.9) 15(22.7) 1(1.5) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
6 Assignment level 3.94 18(28.1) 26(40.6) 18(28.1) 2(3.1) 0(0.0) 64(100.0)
7 Teacher feedback 4.25 29(44.6) 23(35.4) 13(20.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 65(100.0)
8 Teacher enthusiasm 4.41 35(53.0) 24(36.4) 6(9.1) 1(1.5) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
9 Easy to understand 4.05 20(30.3) 32(48.5) 11(16.7) 3(4.5) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
Updatedness of course
10 4.48 35(53.0) 28(42.4) 3(4.5) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
content
Quality of video
11 3.55 14(21.2) 18(27.3) 26(39.4) 6(9.1) 2(3.0) 66(100.0)
materials
12 Amount of class hour 4.03 22(34.9) 25(39.7) 12(19.0) 4(6.3) 0(0.0) 63(100.0)
13 Interest 3.89 16(25.0) 26(40.6) 21(32.8) 1(1.6) 0(0.0) 64(100.0)
Easy access to
14 3.65 14(21.5) 28(43.1) 11(16.9) 10(15.4) 2(3.1) 65(100.0)
program
15 Teacher preparedness 4.42 33(50.8) 27(41.5) 4(6.2) 1(1.5) 0(0.0) 65(100.0)
16 Teaching methods 4.28 32(50.0) 21(32.8) 9(14.1) 1(1.6) 1(1.6) 64(100.0)
17 Usefulness of course 4.33 33(50.0) 25(37.9) 5(7.6) 3(4.5) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
18 Motivation 4.03 27(40.9) 16(24.2) 21(31.8) 2(3.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
19 Use of bulletin board 4.25 30(46.2) 23(35.4) 10(15.4) 2(3.1) 0(0.0) 65(100.0)
20 Evaluation criteria 4.02 18(27.3) 33(50.0) 13(19.7) 2(3.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
Satisfaction with the
21 4.24 27(40.9) 30(45.5) 7(10.6) 2(3.0) 0(0.0) 66(100.0)
course in general
Note: ( ), percent
80 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
The analysis of the students’ feedback on learning a activities shows that pre-listening
activity was a beneficial experience in their language learning. As the questionnaire
results reveal at Table 4, the mean score for the pre-listening task, where the students
did peer-review was 4.29 out of 5 points. According to Table 4, 64 students (97%)
thought the activity was helpful. The advantages the students most frequently mentioned
at the open-ended questions were that peers helped them identify areas to be improved,
they learned while preparing themselves for peer-review activity, and they gained
knowledge on certain areas with peers’ help. This is related to what social constructivists’
claim on the role of scaffolding in learning.
Note: ( ), percent
3) Students’ work
The analysis of the interactions among students showed that the students got benefits
from the peer review activity by exchanging their views meaning as well as mechanical
aspects. At the following extracts, Student A wrote:
conviction for their major. That is because the center of university is students.
It is very difficult to evaluate, but it is a very crucial part.
Student B reacted to his partner A’s written work for pre-listening task by using
parenthesis (in italic):
If I don’t (suggested that you use past tense for the conditional sentence) go
to my fitness (you need to use a preposition unless it is not a compound
noun)university, I wouldn’t (I think ‘couldn’t’ is more appropriate here)study
(preposition needed)happy mind. So, I think that a (you need to put ‘the’
before the superlative adjective form) best university (if it is not a compound
noun, you need a preposition)standard is my fitness.
The key message is that a university which meets one’s needs is the best one
for one, I think. Right? I just tried to point out the basic grammatical aspects.
In general some sentences sounded like the direct translation from Korean to
English. This made them sound a bit inappropriate. For example, fitness
university doesn’t sound like an English expression commonly used. I think we
can put this like this to make it easier to understand: I think that it is the best
college which is fit for me.
Student B’s review showed that her feedback was done at the level of content as well
as mechanical aspects. By making suggestions instead of providing the directly corrected
forms, student B helped the partner A self-correct the draft as the following extract
shows:
If I didn’t go to the best college which is fit for me. I couldn’t study a happy
mind. So, I think that the best a university standard is my fitness.
The following extract shows how pair feedback helped the writer clarify what he or
she meant. Student C provided her peer Student D with feedback (in italic):
Honestly (it’s better to put a comma here) I thought (‘that’ would help the
82 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
reader) the best colleges in Korea should have three things. The first, they
are placed in Seoul. Secondly, they have students who (how about putting
‘have’?) got good grade in the national college entrance exams. Lastly, after
graduating the school, how many students can work at the large corporations
like SAMSUNG, LG and so on. However, my thoughts have been changed
through my several years’ social activities. My criterion for the best college is
students who have good personality and conviction for their major. That is
because the center of university is students. It is very difficult (something is
missing here) to evaluate, but it is a very crucial part.
… they have students who got good grade in the national college entrance
exams. (I put ‘got’ to mean what happened in the past. You might be right as
the grade has influence until the present. I need to think what I am trying to
mean.) It is very difficult to evaluate, but it is a very crucial part. (I agree to
your comment. It needs to be stated more clearly.)
In reaction to the feedback provided by the peer, Student D showed what he thought
of the comments instead of accepting them without any reflection. Then based on the
review, he revised the first draft as follows:
Honestly, I thought that the best colleges in korea should have three things.
The first, they are placed in Seoul. Secondly, they have students who got good
grade in the national college entrance exams. Lastly, after graduating the
school, how many students can work at the large corporations like
SAMSUNG, LG and so on. However, my thoughts have been changed through
my several years’ social activities. My criterion for the best college is students
who have good personality and conviction for their major.
In most cases, the analysis of the discourse reveals that the students made
suggestions, instead of providing corrected forms directly, to help their peers revise the
draft. For some students this was regarded as the best way for doing peer correction with
their limited linguistic resources. For others, it was considered a way of saving face.
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 83
The analysis of pre- and post-test results reveals that the students’ test scores in
some areas have improved significantly. This is shown in the following table.
Areas M SD MD t P
pre-test 4.57 2.417
1 .933 2.494 .019*
Subject & verb post-test 5.50 2.751
I
identification pre-test 7.30 1.803
2 1.167 2.719 .011*
post-test 8.47 1.548
pre-test 11.40 2.313
1 -.500 -1.306 .202
Sentence fragments & post-test 10.90 2.759
II
run-ons pre-test 2.50 1.167
2 .233 .684 .500
post-test 2.73 1.799
pre-test 3.93 2.016
1 2.167 4.788 .000***
post-test 6.10 1.900
III Parallel structure
pre-test 5.83 1.949
2 .367 1.433 .163
post-test 6.20 1.448
pre-test 16.03 2.697
IV Subject-verb agreements -9.00 -1.632 .114
post-test 15.42 3.431
pre-test 12.98 3.652
V Pronouns 1.383 2.248 .032*
post-test 14.37 2.798
pre-test 15.37 3.716
VI Adjectives & adverbs .633 1.044 .305
post-test 16.00 1.702
pre-test 12.17 4.235
VII Punctuation & capitalization 2.67 .504 .618
post-test 12.43 4.415
According to Table 5, the students showed improvement in three areas: subject and
verb identification, parallelism, and pronouns. In the other areas, there were no significant
differences, though the mean scores were improved. For the areas of sentence fragments
and run-ons, and subject-verb agreement, the mean scores got lower with no significant
difference. At the first section of subject and verb identification area, the means of the
84 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
pre- and post-test were 4.57 and 5.50 out of 10 respectively. T-value was 2.494 and p
value was 0.019 at .05 significance level. This shows that the difference was statistically
significant.
At the second section of subject and verb identification area, the results show that the
mean scores of the pre- and post-tests raised from 7.30 to 8.47 by 1.167. It also shows
that t-value was 2.719 and p-value was 0.011 at .05 significance level. It can be said that
the difference was statistically significant. The participants also showed the statistically
significant difference at parallelism with t-value of 4.788 at the significance level of .000.
At the pronoun area the means of the pre- and post-tests revealed a statistically
significant difference with t-value of 2.248. This was significant with p-value of .032 at
the level less than .05.
The analysis of the logs from the teacher diary reveals that the teacher tried to
identify his students’ needs at the beginning of the semester and design the course to
meet them. He stated what he planned to do during the first week of the course:
...from the past experience, it is helpful that the students set their own goals
they want to achieve through the course. As I tried last semester, I will let
them identify their strengths and weaknesses, and then clarify their goals to
be achieved this semester. This week I will identify what their needs are. The
pre-test results will help me identify areas they need support...(written on
March 4)
The teacher was very careful in choosing themes every other week. He considered his
students’ needs as well as their interest. He tried to keep a balance between needs and
interest. For example, when the theme was about ‘Water’, in the letter to his colleague he
gave the rationale for his choice:
How about dealing with ‘Water’ next week? Water Day is coming soon. This
theme will give my students an opportunity to think about the importance of
water and the ways of saving water. It is kind of what is required to be a
globalized citizen. This is one of the learning objectives the students are
expected to achieve through this course. (written on March 14)
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 85
The analysis of the teacher diary reveals that the teacher put focus on the objectives
set at the beginning of the course. The teacher often asked himself a question whether
materials, tasks or assignments were appropriate and helpful for the students in achieving
the learning goals. It was observed that the criteria for his choosing materials, tasks or
assignments were the course objectives. The questions the teacher went back when he
needed to make decisions on the course materials were shown in the following:
Is this appropriate for the course goals? Are they helpful to the mixed-level
class? Is it going to encourage the student to think about the topic? What is
the focus of this week? What are the students going to learn from this
activity? This sounds very interesting, but is it relevant to the learning goals
for the week? What learning goals did I set? Are the students cooperating
with each other? (taken from different weeks)
It seems that such questions helped the teacher identify which areas he needed to
improve or devise new strategies and apply to solve identified problems.
The teacher reflected upon his online class, seeking for the ways of improving some
aspects and solving the problems he identified from different sources. For some problems
he got consultancy from colleagues. When it was not available, he looked for references
on English language teaching. When he managed to find out or devise alternative
strategies to solve the identified problems, or get advice from colleagues or outside
experts through the pre- and po-observation sessions, he kept a record and investigated
its effects or the results, following Kemmis and McTaggart’s action research cycle. The
following extracts from his reflective journal show some of the problems and alternative
strategies or actions he needed to take to bring about change:
So, the teacher decided to give more specific directions using the pictures. In the
86 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
following logs, the teacher reflected his own teaching, trying to improve the quality of
instructions and his own use of English.
He sometimes left some questions for the further investigation as in the following
extracts:
Teacher’s reflection on his practice in the online class continued not only through his
own investigation but also through the colleague’s consultancy.
At the discussion with the colleague I was again pointed out to improve
instruction as they aren’t still clear enough for the students to follow. I didn’t
realize when I recorded the class, but the problem became clear I need to
improve the way I give instructions for activities. ...I thought they were clear
enough, but clear only for me, maybe... I was advised to put myself into the
student’s shoes. I’m thinking of using visual materials to help the students.
One of the ways I can change my instruction is to review the class before
up-loading it on the internet. This means I need to record the class much
more beforehand than now. This is going to be very difficult for me...
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 87
It was very often observed that he came up with more questions on certain features
than others. All the observations or reflections he made throughout the course helped him
evaluate the course and use the results in improving the course by bringing about more
change to the course with new strategies. His reflections at the end of the course
supported this:
To look back this semester, I think I got answers to some questions I raised
at the beginning, but there are still many questions left unanswered such as
the place of teacher intervention in peer review, pairing the mixed-level class,
unexpected technological problem and... From the course evaluation results I
can see the students seemed to be satisfied with the course in general, but
this doesn’t mean that there has been nothing to be improved. This semester
has left some new questions to be answered through further investigation….
Among them are ways of integrating oral interaction to the course, increasing
learner autonomy through training, and devising more systematic approaches to
gathering data...
Ⅴ. CONCLUSION
The findings of the present investigation suggest that peer review in writing activity
can promote interaction among students in the online class and benefits students and their
second or foreign language learning (Chun, 1994; Felix, 2002; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995;
Sullivan & Pratt, 1996). It was also found that peer feedback activity can bring some
change in the traditional teacher-centered online class by giving students an opportunity
to get less dependent on the teacher, but to work in collaboration with their peers in the
online language class. The finding of the current study in terms of continuing professional
development suggests that teachers learn and develop through the investigation into their
own language class (Richards & Lockhart, 1994; Richards & Farrell, 2005; Richards &
Nunan, 1990). It is suggested that action research can be an effective tool in bringing
about change in the language class. In this respect the value of applying action research
to professional development has been discussed along with as a research method in
classroom investigation. It is shown that the cycle of action research can continue not as
one-off activity. Further research can be done on persistently problematic areas or newly
identified ones such as how to promote speaking interaction in the online class, what kind
88 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
of learner training students need to be given to maximize benefits interaction can bring, or
when, on what, and how the teacher can intervene in peer review.
As the scope of the current study was set to a context where 66 students from a
university registered to the course for one semester, the findings have limitations in terms
of generalizability. The reliability of the current research can be improved if further
investigation is done in different contexts in a large scale. The data triangulation strategy
is considered to improve the validity of the teacher-initiated action research. It is
suggested that action research can be carried out with rigor by adopting the data
triangulation technique in an appropriate way (Cohen & Manion, 1994; Nunan, 1992).
Considering the nature of validity and reliability, it is necessary that one should have the
questions under investigation in mind. Decisions need to be made on the basis of research
questions and its scope.
REFERENCES
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K. M. (1991). Focus on the language classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Beaumont, M. (2007). Distance education and social interaction: New opportunities or a
contradiction in terms? A paper in the proceedings at the 10th anniversary KAMALL
& KSET Joint International Conference. Korea University, Seoul.
Beldarrain, Y. (2006). Distance education trends: integrating new technologies to foster
interaction and collaboration. Distance Education, 27(2) 139-153.
Burns, A. (2009). Doing action research in ELT: A guide for practitioners. London:
Routledge.
Chun, D. (1994). Using computer networking to facilitate the acquisition of interactive
competence. System, 22, 17-31.
Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
Felix, U. (2002). The web as a vehicle for constructivist approaches in language teaching.
ReCALL, 14(1), 2-15.
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st century: A framework for
research and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
Hart, E., & Bond, M. (1995) Action-research for health and social care. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Johnson, K. (2001). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching. Harlow:
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 89
Longman.
Kemmi, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner. Melbourne: Deakin
University.
Kern, R. (1995). Reconstructing classroom interaction with networked computers: Effects on
quantity and quality of language production. Modern Language Journal, 79, 457-476.
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Introduction: Theory and practice of network-based
language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.). Network-based language
teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 1-19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kim, Y-S. (1996). The aspect of peer students’ error correction. English Teaching, 51(2),
125-147.
Mangelsdorf, K. (1992). Peer reviews in the ESL composition classroom: What do the
students think? ELT Journal, 46, 274-284.
Mença, C. O., & Johnson, K. E. (1994). Peer review negotiation: Revision activities in ESL
writing instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 745-769.
Moon, Y-I. (2000). The nature of peer review in an EFL writing class of a Korean university.
English Teaching, 55(1), 119-140.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Park, E-Y. (2004). Peer-revision in web-based English writing. English Language &
Literature Teaching, 10(1), 107-126.
Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2001). Handbook of action research. London: Sage.
Richards, J. C. & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional development for language teachers:
Strategies for teachers learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Nunan, D. (Eds.). (1990). Second language teacher education. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ur, Penny (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Sullivan, N., & Pratt, E. (1996). A comparative study of two ESL writing environments: A
computer-assisted classroom and a traditional oral classroom. System, 24, 1-14.
Van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner: Ethnography and second
language classroom research. Essex: Longman.
Wallace, M. J. (1998). Action research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
90 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
University Press.
Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: theory and practice. The
Modern Language Journal, 81, 470-481.
Zhang, S. (1995). Reexamining the affective advantage of peer feedback in the ESL writing
class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4, 209-222.
Appendix
Course Evaluation Questionnaire
Strongly Strongly
Components Agree So-so Disagree
agree disagree
1 Goal/objectives
2 Themes of content
3 Level
4 Test content quality
5 Assignment content
6 Assignment level
7 Teacher feedback
8 Teacher enthusiasm
9 Easy to understand
10 Updatedness of course content
Kyutae Jung․Kyungsuk Chang 91
Strongly Strongly
Components Agree So-so Disagree
agree disagree
11 Quality of video materials
12 Amount of class hour
13 Interest
14 Easy access to program
15 Teacher preparedness
16 Teaching methods
17 Usefulness of course
18 Motivation
19 Use of bulletin board
20 Evaluation criteria
21 Satisfaction with the course in general
II. Effect of Teaching and Learning Activities (Tick the box if applicable.)
No useful at
Activity Very useful Useful So-so Little useful
all
Pre-listening Task
Key Expressions
Explore the News
Section by Section
Listen and Read Aloud
Recording Assignment
2. problems or obstacles
3. suggestions
92 A Classroom-centered Research on Interaction through Peer Review in the Online English Class
IV. Others
Which language areas or skills do you think has been improved through the course?
(Check if applicable.)
① listening ② reading ③ speaking ④ writing ⑤ global mind
Kim, Sung-Yeon & Ryoo, Young-sook. (2009). Korean college students’ voca-
bulary profiles as predictors of English reading and writing proficiency.
Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 12(3), 93-115.
The present study aims to identify the association between Korean students’
vocabulary profiles and their reading and writing proficiency. For the purpose of
the study, 107 college students from two universities in Seoul were asked to
write an argumentative essay on the following two topics: English Only Classes
(EOC) and the Additional Point System for conscripts (APS). In addition to the
writing tasks, the students took a reading comprehension test. Then based on
their scores on the reading test, the students were assigned to a high proficiency
group (n=17) or a low proficiency group (n=17). The students were also
classified into a high (n=26) or a low proficiency group (n=29) based on their
performance on the first writing task (EOC). A Lexical Frequency Profile (LFP)
was then used as a measure of vocabulary knowledge to examine the
relationship with other variables, such as writing topic, writing proficiency, and
reading proficiency. The findings indicate that the students’ written essays on
the two topics displayed significantly different vocabulary profiles. Interestingly,
the students’ vocabulary profiles did not differ according to their writing
proficiency whereas their use of academic words differed according to their
reading proficiency. The findings are discussed in greater detail, along with
pedagogical implications.
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION
vocabulary and their written language proficiency. Most previous studies have simply
focused on the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency (Laufer,
1997; Qian, 1999). Few studies have attempted to investigate whether and to what extent
L2 learners’ productive vocabulary knowledge is associated with their writing and reading
performance (Astika, 1993; Koda, 1989). Thus, this study aims to examine Korean college
students’ vocabulary profiles in their writing and how these profiles differ according to
writing topic and students’ proficiency in writing and reading. If a sufficiently predictive
relationship can be found between the vocabulary profiles of L2 students’ written texts
and their reading and/or writing performance, the study results may lead to improved
efficiency in L2 writing assessment and research. The research questions posed for the
study are as follows:
Ⅱ. LITERATURE REVIEW
Researchers in the field of L2 writing assessment have perceived writing topic as one
of the potential factors that contribute to variance in writing scores. As an example,
Tedick’s (1990) study found that students showed significantly better performance in
terms of the length and the linguistic measures when given a specific topic rather than a
general topic
Similarly, Reid (1990) examined whether topic types influence writers’ performance. For
the purpose of the study, the students were given two topic types: comparison/contrast
(CC) and graph description (G). The study found significant differences in the students’
lexical choice in relation to the topic types although the syntax in their writing did not
significantly differ. The students used longer words in the graph description task but
more content words (e.g., nouns, adjectives, adverbs) in the comparison-contrast task.
These different lexical distributions in L2 writing suggest that topic is an important factor
affecting writers’ vocabulary use.
Likewise, Lee and Anderson (2007) reported an association between topics and learner
performance in the chemistry TEACH test. The study found that topics rather than
96 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
students’ majors were related to learners’ writing performance. Based on the results, Lee
and Anderson argued for selecting a general topic for a writing test, warning that writing
topics could have a great influence on test outcomes.
Other studies suggest that L2 writers prefer certain types of writing prompts. For
example, Polio and Glew (1996) investigated how ESL students chose a prompt from
several options when they had to write under time constraints. The results showed that
the students’ preferences for a writing topic were determined according to how familiar
they were with the given topic and how much background knowledge they had about the
topic. Lee (2008) and Laufer and Nation (1995) also argue that topic familiarity is one of
the possible factors affecting lexical richness in writing. These studies indicate that
writing outcomes can be closely related to the writers’ topic familiarity and background
knowledge.
It can be inferred from the findings reviewed above that the vocabulary used by L2
learners in their writing is likely to vary according to their topic familiarity and
background knowledge. Thus, this study aims to identify whether and to what extent
writing topics affect L2 learners’ vocabulary profiles.
The LFP was originally formulated by Laufer (1994), and Laufer and Nation (1995). As
Laufer and Nation (1995) describes it, “the LFP shows the percentage of words a learner
uses at different vocabulary frequency levels in her writing” (p. 311). They claim that the
LFP allows us to access “the relative proportion of words from different frequency levels”
(p. 311). Laufer and Nation recommend the LFP as a reliable measurement of vocabulary
in L2 writing in that “it provides similar stable results for two pieces of writing by the
same person and discriminates between learners of different proficiency levels” (p. 319).
Due to such benefits, the LFP has been extensively used as a reliable instrument in
vocabulary research (Laufer, 1998; Laufer & Paribakht, 1998; Lee 2003; Lee & Muncie,
2006; Morris & Cobb, 2004; Muncie, 2002).
As one of the studies to examine learner vocabulary profile, Laufer (1998) measured
Israeli EFL learners’ vocabulary in terms of three types of lexical knowledge: passive,
controlled active, and free active. Laufer defines the three types of vocabulary as follows:
passive as understanding the most frequent and core meaning of a word; controlled active
as producing words when prompted by a task; and free active as the use of words at free
will. The findings indicate that after one year of high school instruction the students made
the greatest progress in passive vocabulary but made no progress in free active
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 97
vocabulary. Interestingly, the learners’ passive vocabulary was highly correlated with their
controlled active vocabulary, whereas their free active vocabulary did not correlate with
the other types of vocabulary.
Another study that looked into the association between vocabulary profiles and
academic success is Morris and Cobb (2004). Morris and Cobb suggested that vocabulary
profiling could predict TESL applicants’ academic success. The highest correlation was
found between the TESL students’ academic word list (AWL) and their grades in the
pedagogical grammar course (G2). In contrast, the students’ most frequent 1000 word and
function word knowledge negatively correlated with their grades in G2.
More recently, Lee and Muncie (2006) investigated whether L2 learners’ vocabulary
use in writing (LFP) was influenced by their encounter of the target vocabulary, single
words, and lexical phrases while reading. Their findings revealed that intermediate level
students’ use of 1000-2000 words remained constant while their productive use of
advanced vocabulary improved. This indicates a qualitative change in their LFP.
As a slightly different approach, other researchers analyzed L2 student writing with
the LFP to determine whether there was any significant increase in vocabulary use. For
example, Muncie (2002) investigated whether a process writing approach was useful to
improve Japanese students’ vocabulary in writing. For the study, the students were asked
to perform a set of timed writing tasks: the first draft written about friendship and the
final draft on the same topic after two more revisions. The LFPs of the first and the final
draft were then obtained. The study noted a higher percentage of more sophisticated
vocabulary in the final draft than in the first one. This finding indicates that process
writing can help students to expand their vocabulary knowledge.
As Laufer, Elder, Hill, and Congdon (2004) claim, vocabulary knowledge is associated
with reading, writing, and general language proficiency. The present study aims to test
the assumption that vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to text production (writing)
and comprehension (reading) by investigating the relationship between L2 learners’
vocabulary use and their performance in both reading and writing.
Ⅲ. METHOD
1. Participants
The participants of the study were college students enrolled in four English writing
classes at two universities in Seoul (3 classes from one school and 1 from the other).
98 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
Initially, 107 students participated in the study. The number, however, decreased because
the students classified as intermediate level according to the test results were excluded
from the data set. The students were assigned to the high reading/writing proficiency
group or the low reading/writing proficiency group according to the test results (see the
data collection procedure section for more specific information).
These students were from different fields of study: Law, English Language and
Literature, International Relations, Economics, Social Welfare, Municipal Administration,
Political Science, Urban Sociology, Taxation Business, and Chinese Language and Culture.
Their age ranged from 20 to 27.
2. Instrument
The present study used the VocabProfile (Cobb, 2002) to obtain the Lexical Frequency
Profile (LFP), a measure of lexical richness. The Web-based program, VocabProfile is
available at http://www.lextutor.ca. The program provides profiles of vocabulary in the
following four frequency word lists: the most frequent 1000 word families (K1), the second
1000 (K2), the Academic Word List (AWL), and words that do not appear on the other
Lists (NIL). These categorized frequency lists indicate that the higher the percentage of
infrequent words, the larger the subject’s productive vocabulary. The program is both
efficient and effective since it enables us to examine how many words a text contains at
each of the four frequency levels. If you simply type or paste a text and click on the
submit button in the computer program, you can get the results.
In addition to the VocabProfile, a reading test was designed to assess the participants’
proficiency. The reading test was extracted from a TOEFL preparation book, Hackers
TOEFL reading (Cho, 2002) and included a total of 15 questions on three passages, 5
questions for each passage. Since each item was counted as one point, the test scores
ranged from 1 to 15. It took 15 minutes to conduct the reading test. Moreover, a writing
task was designed to assess the students’ proficiency. To this end, the students were
asked to take a position on English-Only Classes (EOC). Then the ETS writing
assessment rubric was used to identify the high- and low-proficiency groups (see
Appendix A).
For the purpose of the study, the students were asked to perform two writing tasks
for which they had to take a position on two controversial issues: English only classes
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 99
(EOC) and the additional point system for conscripts (APS). The APS means the
additional points given to those who have completed their military service in Korea. The
topics were chosen because they were provocative enough to engage college students’
ideas and opinions.
Prior to the writing task, the students were given relevant reading materials to
facilitate their thinking. Before reading, the students first had a warm-up activity related
to the topic. After 10 minutes of reading, they learned about the meaning of new
vocabulary from the reading materials. The explanation was given to the students in
Korean. The students were then asked to take a position on the issue and develop an
argument of their own. They were supposed to write a minimum of 200 words on the
topics and posted their writing on a discussion board so that other students could respond
to their peer’s writing. They had sufficient time to complete the task at their own pace.
For the first writing task the students wrote their opinions on EOC and then on APS for
the second task. They took the reading test after performing the writing tasks.
Since learner proficiency is one of the crucial variables of this study, the participants
were grouped according to their performance on the reading and the writing test. First,
after grading the reading test, the researchers rank-ordered the 107 students’ scores using
the Microsoft Excel program to identify the high proficiency group and the low proficiency
group. The students who obtained 11 or above out of 15 were classified as a high
proficiency group (HR, n=17) and those with less than 3 points as a low proficiency group
(LR, n=17). Based on the reading scores, the students’ writing on EOC and APS was
assigned either to the HR or LR group, and thus the number of essays collected for HR
was 34 and the number for LR was 34.
In addition to the reading test, the students’ first writing task (written on EOC) was
used to group the students according to their writing proficiency. Prior to assigning
scores, the two Korean raters with more than four years of experience in teaching writing
had a norming session. At first, the two raters independently marked 10% of the student
writing using the ETS assessment rubric (see Appendix A) and compared their scores.
The student writing was assessed to discriminate highly proficient writers and low
proficient writers.
Then, they discussed the results, along with their rating schemes. In doing so, they
were able to narrow the gap in their marking and adjust their scores. Afterwards, they
scored the rest of the student writing individually and compared the results later. The
students with score 5 and score 1 were assigned to a high proficiency group (HW, n=26)
and a low proficiency group (LW, n=29), respectively. The students with score 3 were
100 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
excluded in order to select the two obviously different proficiency groups. Thus the
number of essays collected for HW was 52 and the number for LW was 58.
4. Data Analysis
The current study used the VocabProfile (Cobb, 2002) to obtain the students’ LFP.
The students’ essays on EOC and APS were analyzed in terms of the following
categories: token, K1, K2, AWL, NIL, function words (FW), and content words (CW). The
token was chosen as the object of analysis in that it has been suggested as a measure of
L2 learners’ written fluency. The lexical profiles of K1, K2, and AWL were also obtained
to examine the students’ vocabulary knowledge and use. Particularly notable is the AWL
since it is useful for advanced learners in higher education (Morris & Cobb, 2004).
In addition to these categories, the profiles of FW and CW, although being subsets of
K1, were examined to see if there was any difference in the percentage of the function
words and content words in the total tokens according to learner proficiency and writing
topic.
For data analysis, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed
using SPSS version 17. The different categories of LFP were the dependent variables,
while the writing topic and the levels of proficiency were entered as independent variables.
One of the goals of the study was to examine whether writing topic would affect L2
students’ vocabulary profiles in writing. The two different writing topics (EOC and APS)
were used for the study. When the students completed the writing tasks, the written texts
produced were analyzed using the VocabProfile (Cobb, 2002). From the analysis, the LFP
was obtained for each student. Then a MANOVA was performed to analyze the
differences in vocabulary profiles according to the writing topics. Table 1 summarizes the
descriptive statistics.
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 101
As shown in the table, the mean vocabulary profiles were different due to the topics in
many categories. First of all, the students produced more words when writing about EOC
as indicated in the token. The students also generated more words in the K1, K2, and CW
categories when they were asked to write about EOC. It is interesting to note that the
topic APS was associated with more frequent use of academic words and function words.
To see if these mean differences were statistically significant, the tests of
between-subject effects was performed using a MANOVA. As shown in Table 2, the
significant effects for writing topic in all categories indicate that the different topics
resulted in different distributions of LFPs. In other words, significant differences were
noted in most of the categories except for the token. More specifically, while the topics
did not bring differences in the quantity of student writing, they influenced vocabulary
profiles, such as K1, K2, FW, CW, AWL, and NIL. For instance, the topic EOC generated
more K1, K2, and content words whereas the topic APS produced a higher proportion of
function words and academic words than its counterpart EOC. These differences confirm
findings from earlier studies (Lee & Anderson, 2007; Polio & Glew, 1996; Reid, 1990;
Tedick, 1990). Writing topic affects L2 writing and thus the vocabulary used in writing.
102 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
The student writings from the high- and the low-proficiency group were compared to
examine if there was any difference in their vocabulary profiles. As summarized in Table
3, the mean vocabulary profiles do not show great differences except for token (HW:
188.38 and LW: 163.33). This finding is notable, considering that there were three more
students in the low-proficiency group. Although the high-proficiency group had fewer
number of students, they produced much more than their counterparts. This finding
supports the suggestion from earlier research: longer texts are indicative of greater
fluency in L2 writing.
HW 5.8310 3.46934 52
AWL
LW 5.9617 3.15411 58
HW 5.4785 2.37848 52
NIL
LW 5.5262 2.33934 58
To examine whether the token difference was significant, statistical analyses were run.
As presented in the tests of between-subject effects (Table 4), the difference in token
was not significant. Moreover, none of the vocabulary profiles were found to be different
according to writing proficiency.
This finding contradicts the general assumption that the students’ vocabulary profiles
are likely to differ according to their writing proficiency. The finding seems to suggest
that vocabulary is not an absolute indicator of writing proficiency. Writing involves
multidimensional skills: developing and organizing ideas, producing well-formed structure,
using appropriate vocabulary, achieving textual coherence, ensuring clarity, unity, and
consistency, etc. Vocabulary is just one of many skills involved in the writing process.
Perhaps more weight should be given to other criteria, such as content and organization
when determining the quality of writing or distinguishing advanced writers from poor
ones.
To further examine whether the learner vocabulary profiles would differ according to
writing topic and proficiency, statistical analyses were performed for each topic. Table 5
summarizes the descriptive statistics for learners’ vocabulary profiles according to writing
proficiency when they were asked to write about EOC. Table 6 presents the tests of
between-subjects effects, i.e., statistical differences in vocabulary profiles due to writing
104 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
As in Table 5 and Table 6, none of the vocabulary profiles were found to be different
according to learners’ writing proficiency. Regardless of learner proficiency, the students
showed similar patterns in their use of vocabulary when writing about EOC.
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 105
Table 7 presents the mean differences in vocabulary profiles due to learners’ writing
proficiency for the writing topic APS. The differences seem marginal in most categories
except for the token. Particularly notable is that the students from the high-proficiency
group wrote more than the low-proficient students, although this token difference was not
found to be significant. Furthermore, other vocabulary profiles did not differ across the
106 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
proficiency groups.
All these findings seem to suggest that, whatever topic learners were asked to write
about, their vocabulary profiles did not differ according to their writing proficiency. In
other words, the advanced writers did not necessarily use more sophisticated vocabulary
than their counterparts did. This implies that vocabulary knowledge alone cannot
adequately account for writing proficiency. The finding is noteworthy in that it is not
consistent with Laufer and Nation’s (1995) argument that LFP is a sensitive research tool
that discriminates learners at different proficiency levels. This finding instead highlights
the importance of other components of writing, such as content, organization, structure,
etc. Therefore, other factors, such as coherence and the development of ideas, should
receive greater weight when teaching writing. In addition, vocabulary should not be used
as the sole determinant of writing skills,
Learner vocabulary profiles were also examined in relation to their reading proficiency.
As indicated earlier, the students were assigned to the high- or the low-proficiency group
according to their scores on the reading test and then their vocabulary profiles were
compared according to proficiency. Table 9 indicates the mean percentages of vocabulary
profiles according to learners’ reading proficiency. We can see from the marginal mean
differences that vocabulary profiles do not differ much except in academic words.
HR 7.0509 4.67294 34
AWL
LR 4.8921 3.01865 34
HR 5.5538 2.44607 34
NIL
LR 5.1656 2.51355 34
Tables 11 through 14. Surprisingly, the significant effect for AWL disappeared when the
unit of analysis was limited to essays on EOC (see Table 12). More specifically, highly
proficient readers and low proficient readers did not show differences in the way they
used academic words when they were asked to write about English-only classes.
[TABLE 11] Descriptive Statistics: Vocabulary Profiles according to Reading Proficiency (EOC)
On the other hand, with regard to the other topic (APS), the results showed different
patterns. For the topic APS, the effects of learners’ reading proficiency on their vocabulary
profiles are summarized in Table 13 and Table 14. Interestingly, the effects of reading
proficiency were found to be statistically significant for K1 and AWL. Namely,
low-proficient readers used more K1 words than highly-proficient readers, whereas
advanced readers produced more academic words than their counterparts.
The different patterns of the findings across the two topics may be because the topic
(EOC) was not so sophisticated as APS. This difference in the nature of topic might have
influenced the way the students used academic words in their writing. That is, the effects
of their reading proficiency on the use of academic words can become even greater when
learners are given a more specialized topic like APS. Therefore, it can be reasonably
presumed that cognitively more demanding topics would lead to variability in L2 learners’
performance, particularly in the use of academic words. These findings indicate that the
effects of reading proficiency interact with writing topic, which in turn influences learners’
vocabulary profiles.
[TABLE 13] Descriptive Statistics: Vocabulary Profiles according to Reading Proficiency (APS)
The findings described above suggest that learners’ vocabulary profiles are influenced
by their reading proficiency. Good readers are more likely to acquire vocabulary from
reading input and use it in their output production, compared to poor readers. Particularly,
the two groups of learners were found to be different in the way they used academic
words when they had to write about a more sophisticated and demanding topic. To
summarize, the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading proficiency was
complex and dynamic, compared to the association between writing proficiency and
vocabulary profiles.
Ⅴ. CONCLUSION
The present study examined if Korean college students’ vocabulary profiles would
differ in relation to writing topic and learner proficiency. For the purpose of the study, the
students enrolled in writing classes were asked to take a reading test so that groups
could be formed according to proficiency (the low-proficiency group and the high-
proficiency group). They also performed two writing tasks: opinion essays on EOC and
APS, the first one of which was then assessed by two Korean raters. Based on the
results of the writing test, the students were assigned to the highly-proficient or the
low-proficient writer group. Then, with the VocabProfile (Cobb, 2002), students’ written
vocabulary was analyzed to obtain the LFPs for each student. The vocabulary profiles
were also statistically analyzed to see if they were significantly different due to topic
and/or due to learner proficiency.
The results indicate that the learners’ vocabulary profiles differed due to topic in most
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 111
of the categories except for token. More specifically, the topic EOC generated more K1,
K2, and content words whereas the topic APS produced a higher proportion of function
words and academic words than its counterpart EOC. These differences are consistent
with previous findings (Lee & Anderson, 2007; Polio & Glew, 1996; Reid, 1990; Tedick,
1990).
With regard to the effects of proficiency, while writing proficiency had minimal effect
on vocabulary profiles, reading proficiency was associated with the use of academic
words. To further investigate, the vocabulary profiles of both reading and writing
proficiency groups were analyzed in relation to writing topics. The results showed that
there was no significant difference in vocabulary profiles of the HW group and the LW
group. In contrast, significant differences were noted for K1 and AWL between advanced
and poor readers when the assigned topic was APS. In other words, when learners were
given a relatively more sophisticated and demanding topic, advanced readers produced
more academic words, whereas low-proficient readers used a higher proportion of K1
words.
Although the findings are interesting and pedagogically important, the present study
has a limitation: the length of the student writing was not strictly controlled. Although
researchers made it clear at the outset that the participants should write a minimum of
200 words for their writing task, some students did not meet the requirement. This might
have influenced the reliability of the data in that Laufer and Nation (1995) suggested that
written texts should be more than 200 words to yield stable results. Lee and Muncie
(2006) also recommended the use of at least 200 words for the same reason. Therefore,
future research should control for the length of student writing. In addition, it would be
interesting to examine the association between general language proficiency and learners’
vocabulary profiles. It is hoped that a carefully designed future study will stimulate
further debate with regard to the role of vocabulary in L2 writing.
Yet, the findings of this study are significant in that they provide a different
perspective for learner vocabulary profiles. Previous research has suggested that the LFP
is stable across different writings of the same learners regardless of their language
proficiency levels or writing topics. The present study, however, found that learners’
vocabulary use varied according to writing topic and reading text. For example, highly
proficient readers and low proficient readers did not differ in their vocabulary profiles
when they were asked to write on an easy topic. They, however, differed in their
vocabulary use for a more specialized topic like APS. While advanced readers used more
academic words, poor readers relied on K1 words.
112 Korean College Students’ Vocabulary Profiles as Predictors of English Reading and Writing Proficiency
This finding seems to indicate how reading is connected to writing. The highly
proficient readers used in their output production the words they had encountered in the
reading text. In other words, they transformed passive vocabulary into active vocabulary.
Classroom teachers should, therefore, design instructional methods to facilitate this process
and teach students the strategies advanced readers use. Moreover, teachers should put
more weight on developing fluency than accuracy when teaching writing. Since
multidimensional skills, such as generating ideas, developing an argument, and organizing
ideas, are involved in the task of writing, teachers should shift learners’ attention from
vocabulary to content and organization.
REFERENCES
Astika, G. (1993). Analytical assessment of foreign students’ writing. RELC Journal, 24,
61-72.
Cho, D. (2002). Hackers TOEFL reading. Seoul: Hackers Language Institute.
Cobb, T. (2002). VocabProfile program [computer software]. Available from http://www.
lextutor.ca/vp/
Koda, K. (1989). The effects of transferring vocabulary knowledge on the development of L2
reading proficiency. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 529-540.
Laufer. B. (1991). The development of L2 lexis in the expression of the advanced learner.
Modern Language Journal, 75, 440-448.
Laufer, B. (1994). The lexical profile of second language writing: Does it change over time?
RELC Journal, 25, 21-33.
Laufer, B. (1997). What’s in a word that makes it hard or easy: Some intralexical factors that
affect the learning of words. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary:
Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 140-180). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language:
Same of different? Applied Linguistics, 19, 255-271.
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written
production. Applied Linguistics, 16, 307-322.
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1999). A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability.
Language Testing, 16, 36-55.
Laufer, B., & Paribakht, T. S. (1998). Relationship between passive and active vocabularies:
Sung-Yeon Kim․Young-sook Ryoo 113
APPENDIX
5 : Indicates the ability to write an organized, developed, and logical essay. The main
ideas are adequately supported by examples and details. Sentence structure may be
less varied than that of a level 6 essay, and vocabulary less sophisticated. Some
grammatical and mechanical errors will appear.
3 : Indicates a moderate ability to write an acceptable essay. Although main ideas may
be adequately supported, serious weaknesses in organization and development are
apparent. Sentence structure and vocabulary problems occur frequently.
Grammatical errors are frequent and may make the writer’s ideas difficult to
comprehend.
throughout the essay and make it very difficult to understand any of the author’s
ideas. Writer may have completely misunderstood the essay prompt.
0 : Did not write an essay, did not write on the topic, or wrote in a language other
than English.
Key words: Lexical Frequency Profile, writing topic, writing proficiency, reading proficiency,
productive vocabulary, vocabulary instruction, writing instruction
Applicable levels: secondary education, tertiary education
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION
Many new media technologies have rapidly emerged during the last decade. These
media technologies, including the Internet, Computer-Mediated Communication tools, and
more recently mobile and ubiquitous technologies, are potentials to serve as learning
vehicles (Abdous & Wu, 2009; Baydar, Kagitcibasi, Kuntay, & Goksen, 2008; Jung, 2009).
118 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
Television, which has been available to us for many decades, is nothing new as an
entertainment tool or a learning tool but still one of the most familiar and popular media
technologies (Fallahkhir, Mashthoff & Pemberton, 2004). TV has been an accessible and
cheap learning medium to most Korean EFL students. Language learning programs and
other entertaining TV programs in English made in Korea as well as in other countries
are now widely available in this country. Considering that the costs of private English
learning programs are often prohibitive for low socioeconomic status families, TV can
potentially provide high quality language learning programs to EFL students at low costs.
EBSe, the government-funded broadcasting system for learning English, offers the
widest range of English learning programs, more than 100 programs, including the
programs archived on the website. The channel has about 1,949,200 regular members and
about 7,360,000 daily viewers (including website visitors). The channel provides a variety
of English learning programs in diverse areas and skills of language, for different age
groups, in different language proficiency levels. In this sense, EBSe is offering a lifelong
English learning curriculum to its audience free of charge. In order to serve as a lifelong
English learning channel, EBSe needs to provide a systematic curriculum in which each
program presents a sound syllabus and each of them should seamlessly connect with one
another and between each school level. Although there have been a few studies and
reports on EBSe programs, no one has yet evaluated EBSe as a lifelong English learning
program from a broad perspective, and the syllabi and contents of its individual programs.
Thus, it is necessary to evaluate the programs in order to diagnose the educational
benefits and potential problems of the current programs and reflect the results of the
diagnosis in future programs. This paper intends to answer the following questions:
1) Which categories and criteria should be included to evaluate TV English learning
programs?
2) Does each individual program on EBSe provide an appropriate and effective
syllabus?
3) How effective is each individual program as a language learning medium/material?
Ⅱ. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Learning with TV
Television can serve as a powerful vehicle for informal education. A great deal of
studies have confirmed the educational potentials of TV; viewing TV can 1) promote
particular communication strategies; 2) increase vocabulary; 3) acquire knowledge of the
subject matters (Baydar, Kagitcibasi, Kuntay & Goksen, 2008); 4) provide learner control
over their own learning; 5) allow learners to follow their interests and needs; and 6) have
the potential to extend lifelong learning opportunities (Linebarger, 2004) In addition, a
broad range of literature evaluated educational TV programs in particular and drew their
educational benefits. Educational TV programs can 1) increase school readiness; 2)
promote social competence (Liontas, 2002); 3) enhance cognitive strategies; 4) increase
learner motivation, particularly in young viewers’; and 5) be positively associated with
self-concept (Wiley, 2000). Education TV programs can be more beneficial to learning
than regular TV programs delivered in English, as they are carefully designed for the
target audience, supplied with a curriculum and a syllabus in order to attain the
educational goals. Fallahkhir, Mashthoff, and Pemberton (2004) particularly focused on the
pedagogical effectiveness of TV on language learning. In their article, the authors
identified the conditions for good language learning experiences based on second language
acquisition theories as follows: focus on meaning, learner fit, salient linguistic features,
negotiation of meaning, task appropriateness, learner opportunities of correcting their
output, and learner management system. They further claimed that educational TV
programs should meet the conditions for an optimal learning environment.
Since entertainment is the primary role of TV, the entertaining factors are still
important in educational TV programs. When learners view the educational TV programs,
they often expect that they would be more interesting, authentic, and motivating compared
with paper-based learning materials (Godwin-Jones, 2003; Moores, 1996). In fact, many
educators believe that motivation is the key to educational TV programs. Multimedia is
one of the factors which raise learner motivation (Lee, 2006; Richards, 2005). TV, by
using movies, sound, animations, and pictures, can offer a more interesting and fun
learning experience. Videos ad images also can provide visual cues about the language
and content in a more contextualized way (Lee, 2006). Furthermore, the use of subtitles
can scaffold student learning (Al-Seghayer, 2001).
Although TV has many potential benefits in education, a group of scholars put its
pedagogical effectiveness into question. For example, learning with TV may be a passive
120 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
learning experience rather than an active one. Moreover, the quality of programs is
sometimes questionable. Whereas many studies confirmed that young learners from low
socioeconomic status families benefited from TV learning programs, it is not clear that
TV learning programs help learners from better SES backgrounds, who take private
lessons (Linebarger, 2004). Despite the controversial nature of TV learning programs, it is
still evident that a large number of audience is learning via a variety of TV learning
programs at this moment all over the world.
components introduced. In doing so, the syllabus reinforces the target language element.
The matrix format provides a language learning content table or matrix, from which the
learner can select in random order according to his/her needs and interests in learning the
language. Last, the scenario-based syllabus is developed based on a scenario. A
story-telling and digital story-telling belong to this format. The scenario-based syllabus
can motivate and interest the learner but it is not easy to integrate all the target language
elements into a story.
A syllabus is, as shown above, not limited to learning content; rather, it projects the
learning process and learning product as well as learning content. It encompasses the role
of materials, teacher, learner, and learning context. Hence, studying a syllabus should be
the first step in the evaluation of a course.
In order to provide the best education for the learner, materials development and
evaluation is an essential part in language teaching. Nunan (1996) advised to consider the
following aspects when developing and evaluating materials: 1) length and size; 2) internal
format; 3) sequencing/grading; 4) processes; 5) consumable; 6) external format; 7)
ancillary (additional elements included in the materials); 8) visual and auditory aids; and 9)
evaluation. Brown (1995) developed a checklist for textbook evaluation, which listed: 1)
materials background, such as author’s credentials, 2) fit to curriculum, including approach,
syllabus, needs, goals and objectives, and content, 3) physical characteristics in the layout,
organization, and editorial quality, 4) logistical characteristics in price and auxiliary parts,
and 5) teachability. Tomlinson (1998) also suggested 1) clarity of instruction, 2) clarity of
layout, 3) comprehensibility of texts, 4) credibility of tasks, 5) achievability of tasks, 5)
achievement of performance of objectives, 5) practicality, 6) teachability, 7) appeal, 8)
motivating, and 9) impact for materials evaluation.
In many materials development studies, it is found that leaner’s affective domains are
seriously taken into account (Littlejohn, 1998; Tomlinson, 2005; Willis & Willis, 2007).
McGrath (2006) identified the interesting aspect of materials as an important criterion of
textbook evaluation, and McDonough & Shaw (2003) included the motivating aspect. For
more interesting and motivating learning, studies recommended that materials should
employ experiential-discovery learning, raise both instrumental and integrative motivation,
utilize multimedia, and deliver the content in an informal, personal voice rather than formal
and distant discourse.
Another important function of language learning materials is teaching learning
122 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
strategies to learners (Bolitho, 2005). For instance, transferring strategies from short-term
memory to long-term memory, utilizing schema, and using skimming reading strategies
can be smoothly integrated into learning materials, which in turn, can accelerate student
learning. Some studies also advised to consider multidimensional processing theory and
mental connection theory when developing learning materials in order to double learning
outcomes and facilitate learning strategies (Ellis, 1997; Tomlinson, 2000).
In addition to the principles, parameters, and criteria of materials development, studies
also suggested the methods of evaluation (Carter & Nunan, 2001; McDonough & Shaw,
2003; Tomlinson, 2004). The impressionist method is concerned with a general impression
of the material. This method is wide-ranging but relatively superficial. The checklist
method, as shown in the term, consists of a list of categories and items to be checked.
The advantage of this method is that it is systematic, cost effective, convenient, and
explicit. The potential limitations of the checklist method are that the checklist may be
irrelevant for a certain type of materials and it can be subjective. The in-depth method
looks into the author’s claims, underlying assumptions, and values of the material. This
method can provide a thorough analysis of the material, but requires a good deal of time
and expertise. Depending on when the evaluation is conducted, it is categorized into
pre-use, while-use, and post-use. Therefore, when evaluating materials, teachers should
carefully choose the best method appropriate for their purposes and the situations, bearing
the principles and parameters of evaluation in mind.
In sum, this research analyzed the EBSe English programs from multiple perspectives:
as TV learning programs, as lifelong learning English learning curricula and syllabuses, as
English learning/teaching materials. In doing so, the research will provide a more robust
analysis on the programs under the study.
Ⅲ. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Site Description
previous programs and shows anytime (www.ebse.co.kr; Figure 1). The evaluators viewed
the movie files on the Internet instead of watching TV, because it was more convenient
for the evaluators to evaluate many programs in a short period.
The site obtains a large number of regular members. As shown in Figure 2, between
the ages of 14-16 is the largest group, followed by the 30-39 age group, the 8-13 age
group and the 17-19 age group. Hence, this figure indicates that school age groups are
the major audience of EBSe. However, while Figure 2 presents that the number of middle
school students exceeds the number of elementary school students in site enrollment,
Figure 3 shows that elementary school students actually visit the site far more often.
400000
350000 336051
300000
250000
218367
207644 201381
200000 178752
150000
100000
74077 71348
50000 38040
22213
2407 2933
0
[figure 2] The statistical data of the users according to the age groups (EBSe resource)
124 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
8,000,000 elementary,
6,816,325
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000 middle school,
2,932,138
3,000,000
kindergarden,
2,000,000 1,454,602
high school, adults, 1,182,400
1,000,000 609,023 teachers,
141,531
-
kindergarden elementary middle school high school teachers adults
[figure 3] The statistical data of the users according to the school levels (EBSe resource)
2. Participants: Evaluators
3. Data Collection
The evaluators evaluated the syllabus and at least four lessons in each program for a
more precise assessment. For this study, a pre-use checklist and in-depth evaluation
methods were combined for use. For the checklist method, the researcher and evaluators
developed a checklist, first based on the literature and the checklists previously developed
by other scholars, including McDonough and Shaw (2003) and Brown (1995), and then
narrowed down and finalized the categories and the criteria for each category through
discussions.
In addition to the checklist method, the evaluators also employed the in-depth method,
for which they wrote qualitative evaluations in each category. They discussed the
strengths and the weaknesses of the program under study in each category.
Sangmin Lee 125
4. Data Analysis
The research employed a two-step data analysis procedure. For the first step, the
evaluators evaluated each program using the checklist. The checklist comprised seven
evaluation categories: syllabus, content, teaching methods, affective factors, activities,
multimedia factors, and assessment. Activities and assessment were originally included in
the checklist, but was not included in the analysis of the research, as a considerable
number of programs did not contain the categories. The researcher and evaluators gave
different weights to each category depending on their significance in the program
evaluation; thus, the more weighted the category was, the more items it contained. The
answers were on the five-point Likert scale.
The inter-rater reliability was 0.78. A pairwise comparison was also conducted in
order to determine the weight among the categories and among the items. The final total
score of one program after the analyses was 90, which was translated to 100 using
z-score for easy reading and comparing.
At the second step, the answers and comments collected in the survey were coded
according to the category in a matrix. Open-coding for the emerging patterns and then,
axial-coding were employed for categorizing the patterns. The qualitative in-depth
analysis revealed what was not explained by the quantitative analysis, such as what made
the program effective or limited to learning. The results in each category were
accumulated and compared in order to draw the common features of high-scored
programs and low-scored programs.
1. Syllabus
A theme-based syllabus was the most frequently used in all school levels. More than
76% of the programs were developed based on a theme-based syllabus. Situational/
functional syllabi occupied 13%. A few programs were made anchored in the public
English textbooks and the National English curriculum in the elementary and secondary
level programs - two programs for each level. The evaluators, however, regarding the
current situation in the secondary English education in Korea, maintained that more
programs in this syllabus type should be developed to satisfy the secondary school
students’ needs. The theme-based syllabus was also dominant at the adult level. The
functional/situational syllabus type was found only in one program. Concerning diverse
needs and interests of adult learners, the syllabus in the adult programs should be
developed in a more diverse way. This biased syllabus development in the adult programs
resulted in a low score in the category in the expert evaluation.
In the content and topic evaluation, the following questions were asked: 1) whether the
topic was interesting and appropriate for the target audience; 2) if the target language
skill and level fit into the goal of the program; 3) if the target form was proposed in an
appropriate level; and 4) whether the content was authentic and educational. The
quantitative evaluation indicated that results were satisfying in all three levels (Table 3).
The qualitative evaluation showed that the EBSe programs covered a wide range of
topics in all levels - from the topics based on the public English textbooks to science to
Sangmin Lee 127
history. Because the topics covered in the public English textbooks were still seriously
limited, by dealing with diverse topics, the content and topic rich English learning
programs can benefit the learners with diverse interests and needs. This aspect was
considered as a benefit particularly to secondary learners whose learning too often focused
only on test-preparations. Teaching language with diverse topics could expand the
learners’ perspectives, content knowledge, and vocabulary; however, at the same time, it
weakened the connection with the school curriculum, so that secondary school learners
might not feel the immediate need for learning. The adult programs, partly due to the
small number of programs, could not cover enough range and scope to cover the needs of
adult learners.
In addition to content, the target language skill, level, and format were evaluated. Since
the idiosyncrasy of the TV learning programs constrained teaching productive skills, the
programs significantly concentrated on receptive skills as shown in Table 4. Even though
this would be difficult to completely avoid, balanced teaching in all four language skills is
essential to effective language teaching. Thus, more programs promoting productive skills
and integrative curricular should be developed in the future.
L S R W L, S G G,V Integrated
elementary 3 4 3 0 8 1 0 13
secondary 3 2 7 0 5 2 1 5
adult 6 1 0 0 2 0 0 11
total 12 7 10 0 15 3 1 27
3. Affective Factors
The affective factor category measured whether the program would be interesting and
motivating to the learners based on the previous research (Brown, 1995; Dörnyei, 2001).
The programs in the elementary and secondary levels marked quite high scores, whereas
the adult-level programs were comparatively low (Table 5). Interest, motivation, and
engagement factors play significant roles in EBSe programs since they are aimed at
edutainment, and consequently, the majority of them were not directly related to school
curricular or test-preparations. Hence, if the program is not interesting to watch, the
learner would not watch the program in the long run.
The study showed that the evaluators took interesting topics and contents for the
most important components to increase student interest and motivation in learning. For
example, the programs that introduced new and interesting topics in science, nature,
travel, culture, or history in English earned high scores in this category. Content-based
learning, whose educational benefits have been widely discussed in English education, is
still in the rudimentary stage in Korea due to the limitations in classrooms. EBSe
programs, however, support content-based English learning with the aids of various
multimedia, which could increase comprehensible input. Multimedia, in fact, is another
major attribute to facilitate student interest and motivation in learning. Additionally, due to
the idiosyncratic characteristics of uni-directional TV learning programs, instructors
played a significant role in regards to student motivation. These will be further discussed
in the following sections.
4. Multimedia
The multimedia category included: 1) whether the program utilized diverse multimedia;
2) whether the multimedia were appropriately arranged in the program; 3) if the
multimedia was visually attractive to learners; and 4) whether captions and texts were
Sangmin Lee 129
language learning. They further suggested that the synchronization of sound and caption,
learner control over the caption, and the changing of the color of the font in accordance
with narration would further facilitate student language learning. As Lee (2006) claimed,
the simple using of multimedia would not necessarily result in student learning; rather, it
can sometimes double the cognitive load of the learner as they go through a dual process,
for example, the image process and the text process.
5. Teaching Methods
Ⅴ. CONCLUSION
As an old but still popular language learning tool, TV can provide quality language
learning programs to EFL learners without much extra cost (Baydar, Kagitcibasi, Kuntay,
& Goksen, 2008; Godwin-Jones, 2003). Even though many TV programs spoken in English
and not originally intended for educational purposes can serve as authentic language
learning materials, the educational effectiveness may be very limited for the majority of
EFL learners due to a number of reasons. On the other hand, since the programs on
EBSe were designed solely for English learning, they can benefit many EFL learners in
different age groups with different goals and different language proficiencies. This study
evaluated 85 programs in five categories by using the checklist method (quantitative
method) and the in-depth method (qualitative method) in order to provide useful
information for planning for future program curriculum, syllabus, and content design. In
most categories, the elementary schools earned the highest scores, as they were the focus
programs of EBSe. The results of the study showed the strengths and weaknesses of the
programs in each category. This, in turn, can be useful information for the future because
it distinguishes quality in the language programs and it indicates what makes a program
a good language learning material and what makes one a low quality language learning
program.
The analysis of the EBSe programs showed that EBSe provided sound and qualified
Sangmin Lee 133
programs. However, it also discovered that a majority of the programs still have
tendencies associated with the transmission and hierarchical assumptions about learning,
partly due to the technical affordance of TV as a unidirectional learning tool. In such an
environment, interactions and activities are difficult to realize. The advent of IPTV, which
will allow interactions between TV and the audience, will be able to mitigate some of the
current weaknesses of TV learning programs. In addition to the weaknesses caused by
the technical affordance, several programs, particularly those for adult learners, need more
systematically designed syllabi. From a broad stroke, the study found that the channel did
not offer programs in a balanced way in regards to learning purposes, language skills and
areas, language proficiency levels, and age groups. If EBSe aims at lifelong learning, then
it is essential to offer a more systematic curriculum and balance the curriculum of the
programs.
The limitation of the study is, first, that only the expert analysis method was used,
without the learners involved. This can exclude the learner’s perceptions and learning
outcomes of the programs, which may be different from those of the teacher-evaluators.
Second, it may not be fair to use the same checklist for all the programs as each EBSe
program is designed for different learning goals and for different sets of audiences.
Although the in-depth evaluation method was used to complement the checklist, it may
skew the results of some programs. For future research, a longitudinal learner test will
help understand the mechanism of learning with TV and design more effective programs.
REFERENCES
Abdous, M., & Wu. H. (2009). Implementing an enterprise information system to reengineer
and streamline administrative processes in a distance learning unit. Journal of
Asynchronous Learning Networks, 13(2), 21-39.
Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on L2 vocabulary
acquisition: A comparative study. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), 202-232.
Baydar, N., Kagitcibasi, C., Kuntay, A., & Goksen, F. (2008). Effects of an educational
television program on preschoolers: Variability in benefits. Journal of Applied
Development Psychology, 29(3), 349-360.
Bolitho, R. (2003). Materials for language awareness. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.) Developing
materials (pp. 422-425). London: continuum.
Brown, J. (1995). The elements of language curriculum. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
134 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of
other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). New themes and approaches in second language motivation research.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 43-59.
Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fallahkahir, S., Masthoff, J., & Pemberton, L. (2004). Learning languages from interactive
telelvision: Language learners reflect on techniques and technologies. Retrieved
August 29, 2009. from the World Wide Web: http://www.csd.abdn.ac.uk/∼jmasthof/
Publications/EdMedia04.pdf
Godwin-Jones, R. (2003). Emerging technologies: tools for distance education: Toward
convergence and integration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(3), 18-22.
Jung, S-W. (2009). A reality check on students’ preparedness for 21st century CALL
activities. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 12(1) 35-57.
Lee, S. (2006). Technology in EFL whole language classrooms. Multimedia-Assisted
Language Learning. 9(2), 154-173.
Linebarger, D. (2004). Young children, language and television. Rereived May 30, 2009, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Pubs/linebarger.html
Liontas, J. (2002). CALL Media digital technology instruction: Interactions of pedagogy and
design. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(3), 261-274.
Littlejohn, A. (1998). The analysis of language teaching materials: Inside the Trojan Horse.
In B. Tomlinson (Ed.) Materials development in language teaching (pp. 190-216).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, J., & Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and methods in ELT. Oxford: Blackwell.
McGrath, I. (2006). Materials evaluation and design for language teaching. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Nunan, D. (1996). Learner-centered curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moores, S. (1996). Satellite television and everyday life. Luton, UK: Luton University Press.
Richards, C. (2005). The design of effective ICT-supported learning activities: Exemplary
models, changing requirements, and new possibilities. Language Learning &
Technology, 9(1), 60-79.
Richards, J. (1996). Teachers as course developers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomlinson, B. (1998). Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Sangmin Lee 135
Tomlinson, B. (2000). A multidimensional approach. The language Teachers Online, 24, 7-10.
Tomlinson, B. (2005). Developing materials for language teaching. Trowbridge, UK:
Cromwell Bridge Press.
White, R. (1988). The ELT curriculum: Design, innovation and management. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers.
Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition,
a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of learning
objects. Retrieved April 05, 2009. from the World Wide Web: http://reusability.
org/read/chapters/wiley.doc
Wills, D. & Willis, J. (2007). Doing Task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
APPENDIX
Program Evaluation Checklist
프로그램 명
목적 및 교육목표
학습시간
Target language skill
수준 (교과서기준)
수준 (EBSe내에서) ->
1. 배워야 할 요소들이 전 차시에 적절히 분배되어 있는가?
Syllabus의 적절성
1 2 3 4 5
2. 학습자의 흥미를 끌 수 있는가?
1 2 3 4 5
3. 몰입요소가 있는가?
정의적 요소 1 2 3 4 5
4. 동기유발과 지속의 기제가 있는가?
1 2 3 4 5
그 외 이 프로그램이 갖는 정의적 요소의 장단점, 특징에 대해 써 주세요.
5. 학습자 수준에 적절한 내용(주제와 소재)인가?
1 2 3 4 5
내용(content)의 6. 언어형식이 적절한가?
적절성 1 2 3 4 5
7. 의사소통기능이 적절한가?
1 2 3 4 5
136 Evaluation of English Learning Programs on EBSe
박선호 (경인교육대학교)
임혜숙 (부천상인초등학교)
Park, Seon-Ho & Lim, Hye Sook. (2009). Elementary English teachers’ perceptions
and use of English learning web sites of the public institutions. Multimedia-Assisted
Language Learning, 12(3), 139-168.
Ⅰ. 서 론
Ⅱ. 이론적 배경
1. 이러닝
2. 이러닝과 영어교육
3. 선행 연구
인터넷을 활용한 영어교육 연구에는 인터넷 활용의 효과에 대한 연구와 활용의 방법이 주류를
위루고 있다. 우선 효과에 대한 연구를 살펴보면 김용대(2006)는 인터넷을 활용한 자기주도적 학
습이 듣기 능력의 향상에 미치는 영향을 알아본 연구에서 실험처치 후 실험집단이 비교집단에 비
해 듣기 능력이 향상되었다고 하였다. 허준(2003)은 인터넷을 활용한 영어 지도가 영어 듣기 능력
을 향상시켰다고 보고하였다. 뿐만 아니라 인터넷을 활용하여 문화교육, 영작문 교육을 실시한 사
례와 같이 영어교육의 다양한 분야에서 적용되어 좋은 효과가 있다고 보고되고 있다(이정원, 최욱
경, 2002; 조동완, 2001).
다음으로 효과적인 인터넷 활용의 방법에 대한 연구로 배지영(2005)은 인터넷을 활용한 영어
교육의 장단점을 통해 장점을 최대한 부각시키고 단점을 줄일 수 있는 실제적으로 유용한 수업방
안을 일반교실 환경, 열린 정보실 환경, 컴퓨터실 환경의 세 가지로 분류하고 이를 활용한 지도방
법에 대한 이론 및 실제수업 모형을 제시하였다. 또한 온라인 학습 사이트를 개발하여 학습 보조
도구로 활용한 사례 보고에서 최연희와 강명희(2002)는 중학생들의 영어 학업 성취도가 유의 수준
에서 높아지고 영어 학습에 대한 태도가 긍정적으로 바뀌는 것이 관찰되기도 하였다. 권기영
(2006)은 영어 학습 신장도구로서 효과적인 인터넷 대화 프로그램의 활용을 위해 학습자 스스로
인터넷을 활용하여 원어민과 의사소통을 직접 해 볼 수 있는 과제를 부여하고 영어교육에 종사하
는 사람들과 IT관련 전문가, 학교와 정부 모두가 우리와 같은 EFL환경에서도 자유롭게 영어로 의
사소통할 수 있는 온라인 환경을 만들어주어야 한다고 제언하였다. 유현정(2006)은 언어의 4영역
별로 활용 가능한 사이트들을 분석한 후 교실수업에 인터넷을 적용할 수 있는 구체적인 절차와 언
어 교수 활동 시 교사가 유의해야 할 점에 대한 제안을 하였다. 손은주(2001)는 교사와 학생의 인
터넷 학습 사이트에 대한 인식 조사에서 교사는 인터넷을 학습에의 흥미 유발 도구로써 평가한 반
면 학생은 인터넷 학습을 능력, 수준에 맞는 교수‧학습 도구로 평가하여 교사와 학생 간 인식의
차이가 있음을 보여주므로 사이트 제작 시 이러한 인식의 차이를 고려하여 사이트를 개발해야 한
다는 의견을 피력하였다. 강후동(2005)은 초등학교에서 영어를 가르치고 있는 교사들을 대상으로
이러닝 매체에 대한 인식과 선호도를 조사하였다. 연구 결과 교사들은 아직 영어교육용 CD와 교
과서 CD를 가장효율적인 매체라고 생각하고 있었고 다음으로 웹 EBS, EBS TV, 학교 홈페이지,
영어교육전문 웹사이트, 영어교육 자료가 탑재되어 있는 포털 사이트를 선호하는 것으로 나타났다
고 보고하였다. 또한 수업 시간에 바로 활용할 수 있도록 구안된 자료를 많이 올려놓은 웹사이트
를 선호하고 있는 것으로 나타났다고 하였다. 최근에 허근(2009)은 초등학교 교사들을 대상으로
영어수업에 있어서 멀티미디어 활용에 대한 인식 조사를 실시하였는데 활용도와 효과에 대한 인식
박선호․임혜숙 143
Ⅲ. 연구 방법
1. 연구대상
[표 1] 설문 조사 대상자 개요
학력 영어교육 기간 및 형태 ICT연수이수
교직경력 인원수(%)
학력 인원수(%) 기간 인원수(%) 이수함 이수안함
5년 미만 12(16.7) 2년미만 23(32)
5년이상∼ 대졸 51(70.8) 2년이상∼
42(58.3) 30(41.7)
10년미만 5년미만
10년이상∼ 5년이상∼
11(15.3) 16(22.2) 54(75) 18(25)
15년미만 7년미만
15년이상∼ 대학원졸 21(29.2) 7년이상∼
5(6.9) 3(4.1)
20년미만 10년미만
20년이상 2(2.8) 10년이상 0(0%)
[표 2] 심화 인터뷰 대상자
03∼04 담임
Y교사(인천) 11년 대학원졸 이수 O X
05∼07 전담
00∼03 담임
H교사(경기) 20년 대학원졸 이수 O O
06∼09 전담
02∼05 전담
Y교사(서울) 13년 대학원졸 미이수 O O
06∼07 전담
H교사(경기) 7년 대졸 07∼09 전담 이수 X X
2. 연구 도구
[표 3] 설문 문항 내용
구분 내용 문항번호 문항 수
기본신상 교육경력 1 1
인터넷 영어교육 활용여부 2,4,5,13 4
알고 있는 영어교육 사이트 수 3 1
인터넷활용
사이트 정보 출처 6 1
영어교육
사이트 활용 분야 8,10 2
사이트 선정 기준 11 1
공공 기관 영어 학습 사이트 7,7-1,7-2,12 4
사이트에 관한 견해
사교육 기관 영어 학습 사이트 9,9-1,9-2 3
Ⅳ. 연구 결과 분석 및 내용
1. 교사 설문 조사
[표 4] 인터넷 활용 영어교육 경험
구 분 응답수(%)
인터넷을 영어교육에 활용한 적이 있다 59 (81.9)
인터넷을 영어교육에 활용한 적이 없다 13 (18.1)
계 72 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
학습용 CD만으로 충분하기 때문에 7 (53.8)
시간적 여유가 없으므로 3 (23.1)
사이트에 관한 정보 부족으로 3 (23.1)
계 13 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
3개 미만 28 (47.5)
3개 이상 5개 미만 21 (35.6)
5개 이상 10개 미만 9 (15.3)
10개 이상 1 (1.7)
계 59 (100.0)
*( )안은 응답자수
148 초등영어교사의 공공부문 초등영어 학습 사이트 인식 및 활용 실태 연구
(4) 사이트에 관한 정보 출처
[표 8] 사이트에 관한 정보 출처
구 분 응답수(%)
동료 교사 추천 10 (16.9)
직접 자료 검색 37 (61.0)
공공기관 운영 사이트 통해 3 (5.1)
교육이나 연수 10 (16.9)
사설 학원이나 사이트 홍보 통해 0 (0.0)
계 59 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
듣기 37 (62.7)
말하기 11 (18.6)
읽기 5 (8.5)
쓰기 3 (5.1)
문법 0 (0.0)
영어권 문화 3 (5.1)
계 59 (100.0)
(6) 공공 기관 영어 학습 사이트 활용 분야
[표 10] 공공 기관 영어 학습 사이트의 활용 분야
구 분 응답수(%)
노래나 챈트 23 (19.5)
게임 활동 6 (5.1)
영어동화 11 (9.3)
파닉스 8 (6.8)
생활 영어 익히기 8 (6.8)
교수‧학습 지도안 36 (30.5)
워크시트나 그림 자료 26 (22.0)
계 118 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
노래나 챈트 40 (33.9)
게임 활동 11 (9.3)
영어동화 26 (22.0)
파닉스 12 (1.2)
생활 영어 익히기 2 (1.7)
교수‧학습 지도안 0 (0.0)
워크시트나 그림 자료 27 (22.9)
계 118 (100.0)
순위 구분 계(점수)
1 학습내용 94
2 흥미도 87
3 유료/무료 82
4 교육적 타당성 78
5 화면구성 56
6 접속속도 35
계 432
구 분 응답수(%)
대체로 만족함 25 (42.4)
대체로 만족하지 못함 34 (57.6)
계 59 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
자료의 현실성 및 실용성 20 (40.0)
언어의 영역별 자료의 균형성 0 (0.0)
화면 구성과 디자인 2 (4.0)
수준별 학습 자료 이용 가능 9 (18.0)
동영상이나 플래시 자료 5 (10.0)
자기 주도적 학습 가능 10 (20.0)
사이트의 안정성 4 (8.0)
계 50 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
자료의 비현실성 및 비실용성 4 (5.9)
영역별 자료의 불균형성 7 (10.3)
단조로운 화면 구성 16 (23.5)
수준별 학습 자료 부족 3 (4.4)
단순한 동영상이나 플래시 자료 23 (33.8)
시스템의 불안정성 1 (1.5)
내용 구성의 평이성 14 (20.6)
계 68 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
대체로 만족함 58 (98.3)
대체로 만족하지 못함 1 (1.7)
계 59 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
자료의 현실성 및 실용성 7 (6.6)
언어의 영역별 자료의 균형성 5 (4.7)
화면 구성과 디자인 33 (31.1)
수준별 학습 자료 이용 가능 5 (4.7)
동영상이나 플래시 자료 39 (36.8)
자기주도적 학습 가능 10 (9.4)
사이트의 안정성 7 (6.6)
계 106 (100.0)
구 분 응답수(%)
자료의 비현실성 및 비실용성 1 (50.0)
영역별 자료의 불균형성 0 (0.0)
단조로운 화면 구성 0 (0.0)
수준별 학습 자료 부족 0 (0.0)
단순한 동영상이나 플래시 자료 0 (0.0)
시스템의 불안정성 0 (0.0)
지나친 상업성 1 (50.0)
흥미 위주의 내용구성 0 (0.0)
계 2 (100.0)
(3) 공공 기관 영어 학습 사이트의 개선 사항
구 분 응답수(%)
사이트 접근의 용이성 9 (13.6)
영어 교과의 학습 내용을 가르치기에
7 (10.2)
용이하고 도움이 될 만한 자료 개발
재미와 흥미를 유발할 수 있는 다양한 자료의 개발 16 (25.4)
타당성과 신뢰도를 갖춘 평가 자료의 개발 4 (5.1)
박선호․임혜숙 155
사이트에 대한 많은 홍보 필요 6 (8.5)
자료의 지속적인 업데이트 필요 2 (1.7)
무응답 21 (35.6)
계 65 (100.0)
2. 심층 인터뷰
1) 교사 대상 인터뷰
인터넷을 활용한 교수․학습이 어렵다고 응답한 교사들은 인터넷을 활용한 교수‧학습 활동이
주는 장점에도 불구하고 교육 현장에서는 학생 수에 비해 컴퓨터 시설이 부족하여 교과 전담교사
156 초등영어교사의 공공부문 초등영어 학습 사이트 인식 및 활용 실태 연구
(6) 공공 기관 사이트의 발전 방향
2) 사이트 운영 대상 인터뷰
3. 공공 기관 영어 학습 사이트의 효율적 활용 방안
1) 정책적 지원
안한다. 기존의 사이트들은 대부분 한국인 교사와 학생, 원어민 교사가 따로 접속하거나 혹은 한국
인 교사와 학생은 같은 도메인을 이용하지만 원어민 교사는 다른 도메인으로 접속하는 체계로 구
성되어 있다. 접근의 경제적인 측면도 고려하여 한국인 교사와 학생, 원어민 교사가 한 도메인을
활용하여 접속은 한 경로로 하되 그 안에서 각자 필요한 입장에서 이용할 수 있는 통합적인 시스
템이 필요하다. 세부 메뉴로 학년별, 언어 영역별, 주 교과와 보조교과 시간, 게임이나 영어 동화,
노래 등의 활동 주제별 섹션으로 나누거나 교사주도와 학생주도 등의 영역으로 분리하여 사이트를
편성한다면 필요한 정보를 얻기 위하여 사이트 검색에 드는 시간을 절약할 수 있고 사교육 기관의
사이트 이용에 지불하는 비용도 절약할 수 있을 것이다. 그러나 현재 지역 교육 기관별로 예산이
지급되고 있는 상황에서 포털 사이트 구축은 쉽지 않을 것이다. 분배된 예산의 범위 내에서 교육
기관별 사업 목적에 따라 사용 방법과 항목이 달라질 수 있기 때문이다. 따라서 교육부 차원에서
하나의 핵심 영어 포털 사이트를 제작 및 운영한다면 불필요한 이동경로를 통해 정보를 얻지 않아
도 되므로 교사와 학생을 막론하고 사이트의 활용률은 더욱 높아질 것으로 여겨진다. 영어뿐만 아
니라 초등 전과목 학습 자료 포털 사이트인 ‘인디스쿨’의 경우, 교사들이 자발적으로 학습 자료를
제작하거나 유용한 사이트를 링크시켜 각종 자료를 공유하고 교사들 사이의 활용도도 무척 높다.
이런 점에 착안하여 영어교육 포털 사이트에도 교사들이 일정 권한을 부여받아 영어 수업시간에
유용한 자료를 탑재하여 교사들 사이의 정보교환이나 자료 공유가 이루어질 수 있는 방법도 고려
해 볼 만하다. 양질의 자료를 제공하는 교사들을 영어교육 사이트 운영 및 자료제작에 투입하여
교육현장의 현실성에 부합되는 실제적인 자료를 제작하는데 기여하도록 하며 이들 교사들에게 인
센티브를 부여한다면 다른 교사들로 하여금 활발한 참여 활동을 이끌어낼 수 있을 것이다.
(4) 홍보 전략
2) 교사 인식의 전환
Ⅴ. 결론 및 제언
참고문헌
부록
2. 인터뷰 질문(교사용)
신동광 (한국교육과정평가원)
정다운 (고려대학교)
Shin, Dongkwang, & Jeong, Dawn. (2009). How can we make word family lists
with graded affixes? Mutimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 12(3), 169-193.
The present study aims at developing a program which could be used for
making word lists with graded affixes. First of all, valid and reliable criteria
were proposed for distinguishing various levels of affixes not explained even in
Nation and Bauer’s (1993) classification of affixes. The classification was
elaborated and applied to Nation’s (2004) 14,000 word family list. That is, by
giving numbers of three to seven, Nation’s word family list was coded according
to the level of the word difficulty. Some errors found in Nation’s (2004) word
family list were corrected during the coding procedure. Thus, four word family
lists at levels four to seven of affixes were developed and each of the word
family lists was loaded onto the RANGE32 program (Heatley & Nation, 2,000) to
create graded word family lists into 250, 500, and 1,000 word family bands for
example. The RANGE32 programs loaded with four different word family lists
were respectively named Familizer7, Familizer6, Familizer5, and Familizer4
which are downloadable at http://cafe.daum.net/sdhera. These programs could
contribute to popularizing the skills of making word family lists and developing
graded teaching learning materials. The article concludes with some suggestions
for further research.
Ⅰ. 서 론
(1) 사용범위(range)
(2) 빈도수(frequency)
(3) 사용분포(dispersion)
1) 가장 보편적으로 사용되고 있는 100만 단어의 영국 코퍼스로 1991∼1995 사이에 수집되어 10%는 구어자료이
고 90%는 문어자료로 4,124개의 텍스트로 구성되어 있다.
신동광․정다운 173
2. 굴절 및 파생접사 등급분류
[표 1] 접사 분류규칙의 적용방식 예
SOLID 0 DANGER 0
SOLIDIFY 6 DANGEROUS 4
SOLIDIFIED 6 DANGEROUSLY 4
SOLIDIFIES 6 DANGERS 0
SOLIDIFYING 6 ENDANGER 5
SOLIDLY 3 ENDANGERS 5
SOLIDS 0 ENDANGERED 5
SOLIDITY 4 ENDANGERING 5
SOLIDITIES 4 ENDANGERMENT 5
ENDANGERMENTS 5
4. 코딩의 규칙
(1) 2007년 영어과 개정 교육과정의 지침의 일부를 적용하였다. 명사의 복수형(규칙, 불규칙 포
함), 인칭대명사의 격변화형, 3인칭 단수 현재형 동사의 -s/-es, 동사의 과거형 및 과거분
사형(규칙, 불규칙 포함), 동사의 진행형 -ing, 형용사의 규칙/불규칙 비교급/최상급을 대표
형에 포함하였다. 동일어의 의미변화 및 문법 기능상 차이가 있는 경우는 원칙적으로 한
개의 낱말로 간주하였다. 미국영어의 철자를 기준으로 하지만 영국영어에 바탕을 둔 철자
도 기본 어휘로 인정하였다.
(2) Bauer와 Nation(1993)의 분류기준으로 코딩하되 [표 1]에서 살펴본 solidly와 dangerously
의 예처럼 기준 단어군 목록에서 대표형이 무엇인가에 따라 파생어를 상대적으로 코딩하였
다(부록 2 참조).
(3) 어휘의 굴절형 변화 시 일어나는 형태변화인 어말의 ‘e’탈락, 어말의 ‘y’의 ‘i’변화, 중복 자
음의 현상은 Bauer와 Nation(1993)의 분류기준으로는 2급에 적용이 되지만 이러한 어형
변화는 굴절형 변화 규칙으로서 기본적으로 익혀야 하는 것들이므로 본 연구에서는 3등급
이상에서도 적용되는 것으로 하였다.
(4) 접사가 중복적으로 나올 경우에는 서로 같은 등급의 접미사가 두 개 이상 연속으로 나올
경우에는 그 등급을 유지하였다.
176 접사(affix)의 등급분류가 반영된 사용자 맞춤식 어휘 목록 제작
INFORM 0
INFORMS 0
INFORMING 0
INFORMED 0
INFORMER 3
INFORMERS 3
INFORMATION 4
INFORMATIONAL 4
MUSIC 0
MUSICAL 4
MUSICALS 5
MUSICIAN 5
MUSICIANS 5
MUSICALLY 4
ADEQUATE 0
ADEQUACY 6
ADEQUATELY 3
INADEQUACIES 6
INADEQUACY 6
INADEQUATE 4
INADEQUATELY 4
는 더 높은 등급으로 코딩하였다.
(5) 파생어 명사형은 복수형도 단수형과 같은 수준으로 코딩하였다.
[표 5] 파생 명사형의 복수형 예
ADJUST 0
ADJUSTED 0
ADJUSTING 0
ADJUSTS 0
ADJUSTMENT 4
ADJUSTMENTS 4
[표 6] 파생 동사형의 굴절형 예
BRIGHT 0
BRIGHTEN 5
BRIGHTENED 5
BRIGHTENING 5
BRIGHTENS 5
[표 7] 굴절형의 파생형 예
AMAZE 0
AMAZES 0
AMAZED 0
AMAZING 0
AMAZINGLY 3
AMAZEMENT 4
하였다.
(7) Bauer와 Nation(1993)에 따르면 다음의 접사는 형태는 같으나 그 쓰임에 따라 두 개 등급
으로 분류된다. 괄호 안의 숫자는 각 접사가 속하는 등급이다: -able(3, 6), -er(2, 3),
-y(3, 6), -ly(3, 5), -th(3, 6), un-(3, 5), -al(4, 5), -ist(4, 6). 각 분류의 기준은 부록 1,
2 및 코딩의 절차를 참조한다. 특히 파생어휘가 문맥에 따라 뜻을 달리하는 경우가 있으므
로 주의하여야 한다. 예를 들어 접미사 -al을 포함하는 파생어휘는 [표 8]과 같다.
[표 8] 동일형의 다른 등급의 예
등급 4 등급 5
RECESSIONAL 4 O
REFUSAL 5 O
COLONIAL 4 O O
[표 9] 등급이 명시되지 않은 예
WHIMSY 0
WHIMSIES 0
WHIMSICAL 6
WHIMSICALLY 6
WHIMSICALITY 6
WHIMSICALITIES 6
Ⅳ. 단어군 목록 제작 절차
(1) 간단하게 단어군 목록을 제작하기 위해서는 먼저 단어군 목록에 반영한 접사의 수준에 따
라 Familizer7, Familizer6, Familizer5, Familizer4 중 하나의 프로그램을 선택해야 한다.
그 다음은 단어군의 대표형을 추출할 소스로 사용할 코퍼스(텍스트)를 선택해야 한다. 사
용목적에 따라서 코퍼스는 교과서가 될 수도 있고 특정 분야의 언어자료가 될 수 있다. 예
를 들어 10개의 코퍼스를 소스로 활용한다고 가정할 때 보다 일반적인 단어를 추출하기
위해서는 구어자료(spoken corpus)의 비율을 높여야 한다. 반면 문어자료(written corpus)
의 비율이 높이면 보다 어려운 단어들이 포함될 수 있다.
(2) 단어 선별의 기준은 위에서 언급한 바와 같이 빈도수(frequency), 사용범위(range), 사용
분포(dispersion)를 고려해 볼 수 있다. 소스선택과 일관성을 유지하려면 보다 일반적으로
사용되는 단어를 선별해야 하고 그러기 위해서는 사용범위를 가장 우선순위에 두어야 한
다. 사용분포는 단어형태(type)에만 적용할 수 있는 관계로 Familizer만을 이용하여 단어
군 목록을 제작하고자 한다면 기준에서 제외 될 수밖에 없다 또한 빈도수와 사용분포는
상관관계가 상당히 높아 제외한다 하여도 결과 값에는 큰 영향을 미치지 않는다. 빈도수와
사용범위의 수치를 구하기 위해 다음과 같은 절차를 따른다.
(2-1) [그림 1] 왼쪽 상단에 보이는 File을 클릭하고 Open을 클릭하여 분석하고자 하는 코퍼
스들을 불러온다.
(2-2) 먼저 분석한 결과 값을 Save를 클릭하여 원하는 이름의 파일로 저장한다. 일반적으로
여타 프로그램에서는 결과 값은 분석 후에 저장하도록 되어 있지만 본 프로그램에서는
저장 후 분석을 진행한다는 점이 색다르다.
(2-3) 사용하는 단어군 목록이 basewrd1으로 통합되어 있는 관계로 하단의 Number of
Baseword Files에는 1로 입력하고 Basewrd1 On만 선택한다. Basewrd2 On과
Basewrd3 On에는 클릭하여 선택을 해제한다. 분석 어휘의 정렬 순서를 위해 Sort by
Freq(빈도순) 또는 Sort by Range(사용범위순)를 선택한다.
5) 등급별 Familizer는 LEXIPIA(http://cafe.daum.net/sdhera > Corpus & Lexis > Graded Familizer)에서 다운
로드하여 사용할 수 있다.
신동광․정다운 181
[그림 2] 결과분석
[그림 3] 엑셀 데이터 입력
[그림 4] 엑셀 데이터 정렬
(4) 단어군 목록을 만들기 위해서는 복사한 표제어를 메모장(텍스트 파일)에 붙여 저장하고
Familizer의 open을 클릭하여 저장한 파일을 불러오고 basewrd1 on만 선택, Number of
Baseword Files를 1로 수정, Update basewords, Zero basewords를 클릭한다. 그 다음
Save한 후 Process Files를 클릭하면 Range 값이 저장된다. 실제로는 분석 값은 불필요
한 것이지만 절차 상 필요한 과정이다.
(5) Familizer를 통해 분석을 마치고나면 [그림 6]과 같이 상단의 File를 클릭하여
Move/Copy Basewords를 선택하고 greater than 0을 클릭, Copy words, Append to
184 접사(affix)의 등급분류가 반영된 사용자 맞춤식 어휘 목록 제작
[그림 6] 선택 단어군(family) 복사
(6) Move/Copy Basewords 기능을 통해 [그림 6]에서 OK를 클릭하면 지정한 이름, 즉
basewrd4의 이름으로 다음과 같은 단어군 목록(family list)이 생성된다. 단, Nation의
14,000단어 내에 포함된 단어군만 생성된다. basewrd4를 basewrd1로 바꿔 따로 저장하
고 [그림 5]에서 분석한 그 다음의 단어를 선택하여 똑같은 절차로 단어군을 생성하여
basewrd2로 저장하고 계속 원하는 만큼 반복하면 사용자만의 수준별 단어군 목록이 작성
된다. RANGE 프로그램 폴더에 기존의 basewrd를 삭제하고 제작한 단어군 목록을 붙여
넣으면 새로운 RANGE 프로그램의 제작이 끝난다.
신동광․정다운 185
[그림 7] 단어군(family) 목록 생성
kimchi 0
gimchi 0
america 0
american 0
americans 0
minsu 0
minhee 0
[그림 8] 단어군(family) 목록 생성
Ⅴ. 결 론
참고문헌
부록 1
굴절 및 파생 접사의 분류표
(Bauer와 Nation, 1993; Nation, 2001)
단 계 내용
형태가 다르면 기본형이 같더라도 낱말들의 형태가 다르면 모두 다른 낱말로 간주하는 단계이다;
1단계
book과 books가 같은 뜻을 갖을 것을 구별하지 못하는 단계
등급 7 고전어 어근과 접사(classical roots and affixes): 이 등급은 영어어휘에 많이 있는 모든
2단계
고전어의 어근을 포함한다.
빈도가 높으며, 생산적이고, 규칙적인 접사
3단계
-able, -er, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -th, -y, un-, non-이있다.
빈도가 높고, 생산적인 편이며, 종종 어근에 변화를 주는 접사
4단계
-al, -ation, -ess, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ize, -ment, -ous, in-의 11개 접사를 포함한다.
빈도가 낮고, 생산적이지 않으며 어근에 변화가 적은 접사
-age (leakage), -al (arrival), -ally (idiotically), -an (American), -ance (clearance), -ant
(consultant), -ary (revolutionary), -atory (confirmatory), -dom (kingdom; officialdom), -eer
(black marketeer), -en (wooden), -en (widen), -ence (emergence), -ent (absorbent), -ery
(bakery; trickery), -ese (Japanese; officialese), -esque (picturesque), -ette (usherette;
roomette), -hood (childhood), -i (Israeli), -ian (phonetician; Johnsonian), -ite (Paisleyite;
also chemical meaning), -let (coverlet), -ling (duckling), -ly (leisurely), -most (topmost),
5단계
-ory (contradictory), -ship (studentship), -ward (homeward), -ways (crossways), -wise
(endwise; discussion-wise), anti- (anti-inflation), ante- (anteroom), arch- (archbishop), bi-
(biplane), circum- (circumnavigate), counter- (counter-attack), en- (encage; enslave), ex-
(ex-president), fore- (forename), hyper- (hyperactive), inter- (inter-African, interweave),
mid- (mid-week), mis- (misfit), neo- (neo-colonialism), post- (post-date), pro-
(pro-British), semi- (semi-automatic), sub- (subclassify; subterranean), un- (untie;
unburden의 50개 접사를 포함한다.
빈도는 높으나 철자법이 규칙적이지 않은 접사
6단계
-able, -ee, -ic, -ify, -ion, -ist, -ition, -ive, -th, -y, pre-, re-의 12개 접사를 포함한다.
고전어 어근 및 접사(classical roots and affixes)
-ar(circular), -ate(compassionate, captivate, electorate), -et (packet, casket), -some
7단계
(troublesome), -ure (departure, exposure), ab-, ad-, com-, de-, dis-, ex-(’out’), in-(’in’),
ob-, per-, pro-(’in front of’), trans-
* 각 단계의 일부 중복되어 있는 접사(예, 3단계 -y와 6단계 -y 등)는 그 쓰임의 환경이 달라 구별되었다.
신동광․정다운 189
부록 2
각 등급 및 그 등급의 파생접사에 대한 세부 논의
(Bauer와 Nation, 1993)
등급 2: 복수형, 3인칭 단수 현재형, 과거형, 과거분사형, -ing형, 비교급, 최상급과 소유격의 굴절형을 포함한다.
학습자는 기본형으로부터 굴절형으로 변화를 인지하기 위해서는 규칙적인 어형의 변화를 익혀야 한다.
어말의 ‘e’ 는 모음으로 시작하는 굴절형 접사 앞에서 finer, finest, fining처럼 규칙적으로 생략된다.
비슷하게 어말의 ‘y’는 ‘i’를 제외한 다른 모든 음으로 시작하는 접사 앞에서 jollier, jollies, jollied,
jollying에서처럼 ‘i’로 바뀐다. 또한 많은 접사들 앞에서 jotted, hotter, sinned에서처럼 중복자음이
일어난다.
등급 3: 가장 빈도가 높으며, 어근의 철자와 발음, 접사의 철자와 발음이 규칙적이며 접사의 기능 또한 규칙적어서
모든 기준이 가장 엄격하게 적용되는 접사들이며 어형변화는 오직 2등급에서 허용하는 ‘e’ 탈락, 철자
‘y’의 ‘i’로의 변화, 중복 자음 등의 어형 변화만이 허용이 된다.
-able: 타동사에 더해졌을 때 매우 생산적이다. 변형인 -ible은 등급 7에 속한다. 명사 knowledge에 접사 -able이
더해진 knowledgeable과 같이 그 뜻의 예측이 어려운 경우에는 이 등급에서 제외된다. ‘e’탈락과 ‘y’가
‘i’로의 대체되는 것은 일관적이지 않으므로 주의해야 한다(예, changeable, payable).
-er: 주로 동사의 어말에 더해져 행위자(예, writer), 도구(예, blender) 혹은 간혹 장소(예, diner)를 뜻하는
접미사이다. 그러나 다른 품사의 뒤에 더해져 매우 생산적으로 ‘∼와 관계된 사람’의 의미를 갖기도 한다(예,
banker). 파생어가 아니지만 banner와 같이 -er이 어말에 오는 어휘들이 있으나 이들은 이 등급으로
분류하지 않는다. 형용사의 비교급 굴절 접사인 -er도 당연히 이 등급으로 분류하지 않는다. 접미사 -er이
어말이 -r 인 어휘에 더해지면 그 ‘r’은 발음이 된다(예, murderer). 이러한 몇몇의 주의사항에도 불구하고
접미어 -er은 높은 빈도와 매우 생산적이므로 등급 3의 접미사에 포함된다.
-ish: 이 접미어는 명사, 숫자, 형용사에 더해져 형용사를 만들어준다. 대표적인 예로 childish, selfish 등이
있다. 원래의 기본 형태를 알아볼 수 없는 국가명에 더해진 -ish를 갖은 어휘 (예, English)는 이 단계에서
제외된다. 그러나 원래의 형태를 유지하며 -ish가 더해진 어휘(예, Jewish)는 이 등급에 포함된다. 이
단계에서는 ‘y’가 ‘i’로 변하는 규칙이 적용되지 않는다(예, boyish, fortyish). 기본형 book으로부터 그
의미의 유추가 어려운 bookish와 같은 파생어는 등급 3이 아닌 등급 7로 분류한다. 파생어휘가 아닌 finish,
rubbish와 같은 -ish를 어말에 갖는 어휘는 큰 문제를 야기하지 않을 것으로 본다.
-less: 주로 명사의 뒤에 더해져 ‘∼이 없는’을 뜻한다. 간혹 명사가 아닌 다른 품사에 더해지기도 하나 명사에
더해진 것과 같이 취급할 수 있다(예, tireless, doubtless).
-ly: 이 접미사는 형용사에 더하여 부사를 이룬다. 같은 -ly의 형태이나 형용사의미를 갖는 leisurely와 같은
어휘는 이 등급이 아닌 등급 5로 분류한다.
-ness: 장 생산적인 파생접사 중의 하나인 -ness는 형용사에 더하여 상태와 성질을 나타내는 명사를 만든다.
대부분의 경우에는 그 의미 유추가 매우 규칙적이다. 그러나 간혹 의미가 예측가능하지 않은 business나
witness와 같은 어휘는 이 등급에서 제외된다.
-th: 기수를 서수로 만들어주는 접미어이다. 명사형을 만드는 -th는 등급 6으로 분류한다. Fifth와 twelfth는
어근에 변화를 주기 때문에 등급 3에서 제외하며 따로 학습 하도록 한다.
-y: -y는 명사형에 더하여 형용사를 만드는 ‘∼의 특징을 갖는’ 의 의미를 띈다. 이 접미사는 특히 어린이들의
말에서 극히 생산적으로 활용되고 반면에 과학적인 글에서는 그렇지 않다. 의미상으로 예측이 어려운 fishy,
funny, nosey 등은 이 등급에서 제외한다. 소형을 뜻하는 -y/-ie와 혼동하지 않도록 주의한다.
non-: 이 접두어는 형용사, 명사에 더하여 매우 생산적으로 파생어를 만들고 그 뜻도 일정하다.
un-: 이 접두어는 형용사의 앞에 더하여 반의어를 생성한다. 등급 5로 분류되는 접두어 un-의 쓰임도 있다.
등급 4: 빈도가 높은 편이며 철자법이 규칙적인 접사이다. 빈도가 생산성보다는 더 중요한 기준이며 철자법의
규칙성이 발음의 규칙성보다 더 중요하게 여겨진다. 이것은 음성언어보다는 문자 언어의 이해가 더
우선한다는 가정에 근거한다.
190 접사(affix)의 등급분류가 반영된 사용자 맞춤식 어휘 목록 제작
-al: 접미사 -al은 두 가지의 쓰임으로 구분하는데 이 등급의 접미사 -al은 주로 명사의 어말에 더해져 형용사를
만든다. 간혹 형용사에 더해지는 경우도 있다. -ial(예, financial)과 -ual (예, habitual)은 -al의 변형인
이형태로 간주하여 이 등급에 포함시킨다. -ical은 두 개의 접사로 이루어진 또 하나의 다른 접사로 볼
수도 있고 -al의 이형태로 간주할 수도 있다.
-ation: 접미사 -ation은 매우 일반화되어있지만 다루기가 극히 까다로운 접미사이다. 어말이 -ize인 동사의
어말에 오는 경우(예, organization)와 flirtation, interpretation의 경우도 어근에 접미사 -ation이 뒤에
와서 명사가 된 파생어이다. 하지만 접미사-ation을 기본 형태로 갖는 이 접미사는 여러 개의 이형태를
갖는다. 접미사 -ify로 끝나는 동사는 -ication의 형태를 띤다(예, justification). 어근이 -ate로 끝나는
어휘의 경우는 파생어형에 -at-를 중복하여 쓰지 않는다(예, association). Revolution의 -ution은
접미사의 형태가 -ation과는 다르다. 또한 definition, dilution, composition(기본형의 어말이 -pose로
끝나는 어휘의 경우) 등은 접미사가 -ition, -ion이다. 따라서 기본형 -ation만을 등급 4로 분류하고
이를 제외한 어근에 변화를 주는 이형태들은 등급 6으로 분류한다.
-ess: 이 접미어는 여성을 뜻하는 명사형을 만든다. 대표적인 예로는 heiress, tigress 등이 있다. 때때로는
‘∼의 부인’을 뜻하기도 한다.
-ful: 이 접미사는 어휘 full로부터 변형된 접미어이다. 대표적인 예로는 useful, successful, beautiful 등이 있다.
Armful, mouthful 등도 이 등급에 속한다. Awful은 awe의 파생어가 아니다.
-ism: 이 접미사는 주의나 체계(예, Marxism, colonialism), 병적 상태(예, alcoholism), 전형적인 것에 대한
표현(예, Irishism) 등을 뜻하는 명사를 만든다. 이 외에도 분류할 수 는 없으나 criticism, mannerism
등 의 명사형을 만들기도 한다. 이 접미어는 흔히 접미어 -ist와 밀접한 관련이 있다. 대표적인 예로
Marxism과 Marxist가 그러하다.
-ist: 이 접미사는 매우 널리 일반화 되어있지만 항상 분석이 가능한 것은 아니다(예, deist). 위에서 언급하였듯이
-ism과 연관이 있다. 체제, 학설, 주의 등의 지지자를 뜻하거나 과학자(예, economist) 혹은 예술가(예,
novelist) 등의 직업을 일컫는다. 또한 ‘∼와 관련된 사람’을 일컫기도 한다(예, cyclist, motorist). 어근이
-ology로 끝나는 어휘는 -ist 앞에서 규칙적으로 ‘y’의 탈락이 일어난다. 이를 제외하고 어근에 변화를
주는 파생어휘(예, pianist) 는 등급 4로 분류하지 않는다.
-ity: 이 접미어는 발음상의 변화는 많이 일으키지만 철자법의 변화는 그렇게 많지 않다. 어말이 -ous인 형용사에
-ity가 더해져 명사형을 이룰 때 규칙적으로 ‘u’가 탈락 한다(예, generosity).
-ize: 이 접미어는 -ize 또는 -ise로도 쓰며 형용사 혹은 명사의 어말에 더해져 주로 타동사를 만든다(예, legalize,
itemize, hospitalize, ionize). 접미사 -ize에 선행하는 ‘y’는 colonize에서처럼 규칙적으로 생략되는
것으로 본다. Hypnotize와 같이 분석이 어려운 어휘들은 등급 4에서 제외한다.
-ment: 동사를 명사화하는 접미사로 더 이상 생산적이지는 않지만 매우 규칙적이다. 다음의 어휘들은 이 등급에
포함시키지 않는다(예, basement, betterment, merriment).
-ous: 접미사는 명사로부터 형용사를 만든다. -ion으로 끝나는 명사는 규칙적으로 -ous 앞에 -on을 생략한다(예,
ambitious, contagious).
in-: 이 접두어는 라틴어원의 형용사 앞에서 부정어를 만든다. 또한 형용사로부터 파생된 것으로 보는 이에
상응하는 명사도 있다: insignificance는 significance의 반대의 뜻이기 보다는 significant의 파생으로 본다.
접두어 in-은 im-, il-, ir- 등의 이형태를 갖는다.
등급 5: 규칙적이지만 빈도가 낮은 접사들이다. 등급 5에는 많은 접사들이 추가 된다. 이 등급의 접사들은 꽤
규칙적이므로, 생산적일 수도 있으나 많은 어휘에 널리 적용되지 않아 쉽게 알아 볼 수 없다. 등급 5는
자립 형태소에 접사가 더해진 파생어들만 포함하고, 의존 형태소로부터 파생한 어휘들은 등급 7로
분류한다. 앞에서 언급한 규칙 외에 더해 새로운 원칙은 없다.
등급 6: 빈도는 높으나 규칙적이지 않은 접사들이다. 등급 6의 접사는 파생어의 분절을 어렵게 만드는데 이는
어근의 일부를 탈락시키거나 새로운 철자를 추가해야 함으로써 분절이 곤란하게 되거나 발음 때문에
분절이 곤란하게 된 경우이다. 이러한 접사들이 야기하는 문제 때문에 등급 6에서는 널리 적용할 수
있는 접사들만 다룬다.
-able: 3등급에도 속하는 접미사 -able은 permeable에서처럼 어말의 -ate는 접미사 -able의 앞에서 생략을
요하며 등급 6으로 분류한다.
신동광․정다운 191
-ee: 접미어 -ee 앞에서 오는 -ate는 보통 생략한다. 대표적인 예로는 nominee가 있다. 접사 -ee가 만드는 파생어는
대체로 동사의 목적어의 대상이 되는 사람을 의미하는 반면 사람 이외의 것에도 쓰이는 경우가 흔하다.
-ic: 접미사 -ic는 형용사를 만든다. 많은 형용사들은 실제로 프랑스어, 라틴어 또는 그리스어 등으로부터
차용되어 영어에서 보통 쓰이지 않는 다양한 어근을 갖는다: (i) 접미어 앞의 -ia의 생략(예, dyslexic);
(ii) 접미어 앞의 -y 생략(예, geographic, heretic ‘s’ → ‘t’); (iii) n이 추가(예, embryonic); (iv) 접미어
앞에 ‘t’를 삽입(예, dramatic); (v) 접미어 앞에 ‘at’를 삽입(예, diagrammatic). 이 외의 접미사 -ic는
생략 혹은 추가가 아닌 다른 파생 접사를 대체함으로써 형성 된다(예, alcoholic, alcoholism).
-ify: 접미사 -ify는 동사를 만든다. 어말이 ‘y’ 혹은 ‘e’로 끝나는 어휘는 -ify 앞에서 이 철자들이 탈락한다.
그러나 때때로 ‘y’가 유지 되고(특히 ‘ey’로 끝나는 어휘) 대신 -ify의 ‘i’가 탈락한다. 접미사 -ify 앞에서는
다양한 어근의 마지막 음절이 생략된다(예, quantify, mystify) 등이 있다. 어근으로부터 그 뜻의 예측할
수 없는 modify와 amplify는 이 등급에 포함되지 않는다.
-ion: 등급 4에서 논했듯이 접미사 -ation과는 달리 이 접미사는 어근의 변화를 초래한다. 다음은 그 예이다.
redeem redemption
perceive perception
describe description
demolish demolition
convene convention
include inclusion
concede concession
transmit transmission
decline declension
propel propulsion
unite union
-ist: 등급 4로 분류되는 접미사 -ist와는 달리 이 등급에서 접미사 -ist는 근거를 알 수 없는 자음을 선행한다(예,
tobacconist, egotist).
-ition: 접미사 -ion처럼 접미사 -ition도 어근의 변형을 초래한다(예, admonition, apparition, nutrition).
-ive: 이 접미사는 흔히 예측할 수 없이 -at-가 선행하거나(예, representative) 다른 종류의 어근 변화를 초래
한다(예, additive, persuasive, permissive, impulsive).
-th: 명사를 형성하는 접미사 -th는 warmth와 같은 어휘에서 쉽게 알아 볼 수 있지만, depth, length, dearth,
wealth 심지어는 truth와 같은 어휘들에는 어근이 변형되어 알아보기가 그리 쉽지 않다.
-y: 접미사 -y는 어말에 더하여 추상명사를 형성한다. -y를 단일의 접사로 인식한다면 꽤 많은 이형태를
포함하게 된다. 그 예는 다음과 같다.
diplomat diplomacy
pirate piracy
supreme supremacy
heretic heresy
bigot bigotry
tyrant tyranny
형용사를 형성하는 등급 3의 -y와는 구별된다.
pre-: 접두어 pre-가 갖는 문제는 어근의 변형도 의미의 일정함도 아닌 인식 자체의 여부이다. hyphen없이
접두어 pre-를 갖는 어휘를 고려한다면 precede, prelate, prepare, preposition, prescribe, present,
preside, pretext, prevent와 같이 이 접두어와 관련 없는 어휘들이 문제시 된다. 접두어 pre-는 시간적,
공간적으로 앞을 뜻하거나(예, preexist, premolar) ‘크게’/‘매우’(예, pre-eminent)를 뜻한다.
re-: 접두어 re-가 갖는 문제점도 접두어 pre-가 갖는 것과 비슷하다. 많은 re-로 시작하는 어휘들은 접두어
re-의 의미와는 관계없다. 이는 react, reagent, rebus, rebut, recap, recess, recite, recoil, recollect,
recommend, record, recover, recur, redeem, redoubt, redress 등을 포함한다.
등급 7 고전어 어근과 접사(classical roots and affixes): 이 등급은 영어어휘에 많이 있는 모든 고전어의 어근을
포함한다.
192 접사(affix)의 등급분류가 반영된 사용자 맞춤식 어휘 목록 제작
부록 3
Nation(2004)의 기본 어휘목록 오류 수정
Authors: Shin, Dongkwang (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, co-author);
[email protected]
Jeong, Dawn (Korea University, co-author); [email protected]
오주연 (이화여자대학교)
신상근 (이화여자대학교)
The present study investigated how the types of vocabulary activities affected
vocabulary learning of seventy-three Korean middle school students. The
participants were divided into three groups. Group A practiced target lexical
items using all the functions of a computer vocabulary learning program,
including creating their own word lists, testing their learning results, and
tracking their progress whereas Group B utilized the same functions except the
tracking functions. Group C practiced the target words without using the
computer program. The results of the study are as follows. First, the activity
types brought a significant difference in vocabulary learning across the three
groups. Group A performed significantly better than both Group B and Group C,
suggesting that the tracking function of the computer program facilitated the
students’ vocabulary learning. Second, the students were very positive to the
usefulness of the computer vocabulary learning program.
Ⅰ. 서 론
Ⅱ. 이론적 배경
과를 거두었음을 보여준다.
Al-Seghayer (2001)는 세 가지 주석 유형, 즉 문자, 그래픽 이미지, 그리고 동영상 주석이 30
명의 대학생 영어학습자의 어휘 습득에 미치는 영향을 비교하여 보았는데 비디오 형태의 동영상
주석이 단순한 그림이나 텍스트 주석보다 더 효과적이었다고 보고하였다. 연구자는 이러한 결과를
동영상이 머릿속에 어휘의 이미지를 생성하는데 더 효과적이며, 집중도를 높이고 호기심을 자극할
뿐만 아니라, 시각 정보와 청각 정보가 서로 영향을 미쳐 학습 효과가 극대화되기 때문이라고 해
석하였다.
De Ridder (2002)는 우연적 어휘 학습에 있어서 하이퍼링크 어휘주석이 제공된 단어가 가시적
으로 제공되었을 때와 비가시적으로 제시되었을 때 대학생 학습자의 어휘 학습과 독해과정 및 독
해 과업의 유형에 따른 차이를 연구하였다. 연구 결과에 따르면 가시적으로 강조된 하이퍼링크 어
휘주석을 제공받은 실험집단의 학생들이 비가시적인 하이퍼링크 어휘주석을 제공받은 집단보다 주
석을 더 많이 사용하였지만 그렇다고 해서 이 집단의 독해 속도가 느려지거나 내용 파악에 방해를
받지도 않았다고 보고하였다.
컴퓨터나 인터넷 사전을 활용한 어휘 학습도 최근 활발하게 이루어지고 있는 연구 분야이다
(현일선, 2008; Knight, 1994; Loucky, 2003; Peters, 2007). Knight (1994)는 112명의 중급 스페
인어 학습자를 대상으로 컴퓨터기반 사전의 효과를 연구하였는데 우연적 어휘 학습이 이루어지기
는 하지만 컴퓨터기반 사전을 사용할 경우 어휘 학습이 더욱 더 촉진되었다고 보고하였다.
Roby (1999)는 스페인어를 배우는 미국 학생을 대상으로 지면, 또는 컴퓨터 주석의 유무가 가
져오는 영향을 살펴보았다. 그는 독해 시간, 주석을 참고하는 횟수, 독해력에 초점을 맞췄는데, 독
해력에는 집단 간에 차이가 없었다. 그러나 사전만을 사용한 학생들보다 전자 주석에 접속하여 독
해를 한 학생들이 확연히 독해에 훨씬 적은 시간을 썼고 컴퓨터주석을 사용한 학생들이 지면에 제
시된 주석을 사용한 학생들보다 훨씬 더 많은 단어를 찾아보았다.
Horst, Cobb과 Nicolae (2005)는 어휘 학습에 온라인 사전, ‘Word Bank’을 어휘 학습에 활용
하여 어휘 학습에 미치는 영향을 연구하였다. 매주 학생들은 자신이 읽은 글의 요약문을 준비하고
읽는 중 모르는 단어를 사전에서 찾게 하였다. 그리고 각자 잘 모르지만 중요하다고 생각하는 단
어를 선택하여, 온라인 단어장에 매주 5개 단어를 저장하게 하였다. 단어장을 이용하는 과정에서,
학생들은 자신의 단어장과 다른 단어나 중복된 단어를 저장한 친구들과 공유할 수 있는 기회를 제
공하였다. 이러한 단어장 제작과정이 유의미한 학습결과를 가져왔다. 학습과정에서 학생들은 보다
정확하고 유용한 자료를 만들 수 있었고 어휘에 대해 보다 주의를 기울이게 되었다고 연구자들이
보고하였다.
최근 들어 코퍼스를 어휘 학습에 이용하려는 다양한 시도가 이루어지고 있다. 코퍼스를 활용한
어휘 학습의 효과를 검증한 대표적인 연구에서 Cobb (1997)은 아랍어를 모국어로 하는 대학 영어
학습자들이 크게 다섯 가지의 코퍼스를 활용한 어휘 활동을 수행한 결과 어휘 수준 시험
(Vocabulary Levels Test) 성적, 학습 활동에 대한 선호도, 그리고 어휘 퀴즈 점수에서 유의미한
향상을 보였다고 보고하였다. Kaur와 Hegelheimer (2005)는 대학에서 주관하는 ESL 프로그램의
198 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 이용한 어휘 활동이 한국 중학생들의 영어 어휘 학습에 미치는 영향
Ⅲ. 연구 방법
1. 연구문제
2. 연구 대상
본 연구는 서울시에 위치한 중학교 2학년 6학급 학생 가운데서 1학기 기말고사 성적이 50점 이
하인 학습자들로 구성된 하위 수준의 분반에서 실시되었다. 실험에 참여한 학생의 수는 73명이었
오주연․신상근 199
[표 1] 세 집단의 동질성 검사
집단 유형 인원수 평균 표준편차 F p
실험집단 A 23 4.13 4.465
실험집단 B 26 3.58 3.838 .128 .880
통제집단 24 3.63 4.261
3. 연구 자료
1) 어휘 선정
2) 어휘능력 평가지
3) 설문지
[표 2] 사후 설문지 문항
번호 문항
1 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 사용하는 일은 쉬웠다.
2 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 사용하여 영어 어휘를 배우는 것은 더욱 재미있었다.
3 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 사용하여 영어 어휘를 배우는 것은 더욱 효과가 좋았다
4 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램 중 단어 제시기능이 도움이 되었다.
5 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램 중 단어 퀴즈기능이 도움이 되었다.
6 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램 중 암기카드 기능이 도움이 되었다.
7 다음에도 어휘 학습을 할 때 이 프로그램을 사용하길 원한다.
8 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램은 나에게 자신감을 주었다.
9 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 이용하여 영어 어휘를 배우고 싶은 사람만 배워야 한다.
10 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 이용한 어휘 학습의 장점과 단점을 적어 주세요.
개방형 문항은 ‘매우 그렇다’에서 ‘전혀 그렇지 않다’까지 4단계 평정 척도(likert)로 제작되었는
데 문항 중 9번은 부정적으로 기술되었기 때문에 ‘매우 그렇다’를 1점으로, ‘전혀 그렇지 않다’를 4
점으로 계산하였다.
4. 어휘 학습 프로그램
1) 어휘 제시 기능
2) 어휘 암기 기능
3) 어휘 퀴즈 기능
4) 자동 목록화 기능
5. 실험 절차 및 분석 방법
1) 실험 절차
즈를 푸는 방식으로 학습하였다.
실험이 끝난 후 사후 어휘 평가를 실시하여, 세 집단 간의 성취도 차이를 분석하고, 컴퓨터 어
휘 학습 프로그램을 사용한 실험집단 A와 실험집단 B만을 대상으로 사후 설문 조사를 하여 컴퓨
터를 이용한 어휘 학습에 대한 반응과 태도를 조사하였다. 마지막으로 실험집단 A와 실험집단 B
에서 사전검사에서 같은 점수를 받은 한 명씩 선정하여 그 학생들이 어휘 학습하는 과정을
Camtasia Studio 프로그램으로 녹화한 다음 분석하여 어휘 학습 과정에 어떤 차이가 생기는지를
확인하여 보았다.
Ⅳ. 연구 결과 및 논의
1. 어휘 학습 프로그램의 활용 유형에 따른 어휘 학습 결과
[표 3] 집단 내 사전 ․사후 어휘 평가 점수 비교
*p < 0.05
[표 4] 세 집단 간 사후 어휘 평가 점수 비교
*p < .05
[표 5] 세 집단 간 사후 검정 결과
*p < .05
[표 6] 두 집단의 사후 설문지 점수 결과
*p < .05
장점에 대한 내용
(1) 내 점수를 스스로 확인할 수 있어서 좋았다. (2명)
편리성
(2) 지루하지 않았고 게임을 통해 쉽게 외울 수 있었다. (11명)
(1) 교실 수업처럼 딱딱하지 않고 재미있고 신선하다. (7명)
흥미 향상
(2) 더 쉽게 외울 수 있고, 영어에 흥미가 생긴다. (14명)
(1) 단어 외우기가 쉬워졌다. (8명)
학습 향상
(2) 단어가 오래 기억된다. (3명)
오주연․신상근 205
단점에 대한 내용
3. 어휘 학습 행동 비교 분석
실험집단 A 실험집단 B
1단계 10개의 어휘 중 10개의 어휘 중
새로운 어휘 5개 어휘 암기 5개의 어휘 암기
학습 (6분 30초 소요) (6분 30초 소요)
1단계에서 암기하지 못한 5개 어휘
1단계에서 암기하지 못했던 5개 어휘
2단계 +
+
암기하지 못한 이전 수업에 암기하지 못했던 2개 어휘
이전 수업에 학습한 모든 10개 어휘
어휘 학습 : 모든 어휘 완전히 암기
(10분 12초 소요)
(4분 40초 소요)
10문제의 퀴즈 문제 중
3단계 10문제의 퀴즈 문제를 모두 맞힘.
2문제 틀림.
어휘 퀴즈 (4분 소요)
(3분 5초 소요)
Ⅴ. 결론 및 제언
로그램의 기능을 모두 사용한 실험집단 A의 점수가 자동 목록화 기능을 활용하지 못했던 실험집
단 B의 점수나 전통적인 지도법으로 어휘 학습을 한 통제 집단의 점수보다 통계적으로 유의미한
수준에서 더 높았다. 이러한 결과는 학습자가 자신에게 필요한 단어만을 자동적으로 선별하여 학
습할 수 있을 때 어휘 학습의 효율성이 높아진다는 것을 보여준다.
둘째, 어휘 학습 프로그램을 통한 어휘 학습에 대해 학습자들은 대부분 긍정적인 의견을 피력
하였다. 자칫 지겨울 수 있는 어휘 학습에 학습자들이 흥미를 가지고 참여할 수 있었다고 반응하
여 학습자들의 정의적 측면에 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤음을 알 수 있었다. 개방형 설문의 응답에서는
프로그램을 이용한 어휘 학습의 장점으로 많은 학생들이 프로그램이 갖는 음성이나 반복 학습과
같은 기능의 편리성을 뽑았고, 개별적으로 학습한 결과가 자동으로 저장되어 학습의 효율성이 높
아졌다고 밝혔다. 그러나 학습 활동이 지나치게 단순하고 반복적이어서 학습 흥미가 떨어지고 다
른 사이트에 가고 싶었던 충동 때문에 학습이 방해받았다고 응답한 점은 컴퓨터를 이용한 어휘 학
습 프로그램을 설계하고 수업을 진행할 때 참고할 만한 의견이라고 판단된다.
본 실험의 결과로서 어휘 학습 프로그램을 활용한 영어 어휘 학습이 영어교육에 줄 수 있는
교육적 시사점을 몇 가지로 요약하면 다음과 같다. 먼저 어휘 학습 프로그램의 자동 목록화 기능
이 학습자의 주도적 어휘 학습을 유도할 수 있다는 점이다. 예를 들면, 자신이 학습해야 할 어휘를
개별적으로 학습할 수 있고, 신속한 피드백을 받아서 보완 학습 할 수 있게 도와주기 때문에 방대
한 양의 어휘들을 학습할 때 학습자가 자신의 학습 상태를 저장할 수 있는 자동 목록화 기능을 사
용한다면 보다 효율적으로 어휘를 학습할 수 있을 것이다. 이러한 어휘 학습을 교실 수업에 도입
하였을 때 교사 중심 교수법에서는 할 수 없는 개별화 학습이 가능하게 될 것이다. 특히 어휘 수
준에는 개인차가 많기 때문에 많은 학생들이 있는 교실 수업에서 학생 개개인의 수준에 맞는 지도
가 이뤄지기 어렵다. 본 연구는 비교적 어휘력이 낮은 학생들을 대상으로 실시되었는데, 기본적으
로 어휘력이 낮은 학생일수록 단기간에 어휘를 향상 시키는 것이 시급한 문제이다. 그러나 현 교
실 수업에서 개인차이가 많은 어휘력을 모든 학생들이 향상 시킬 수 있도록 수업 중에 연습 기회
를 충분히 제공하기 어렵기 때문에 개별화 학습 환경을 조성할 수 있는 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그
램을 활용할 수 있는 방안에 대한 연구가 이루어질 필요가 있다고 하겠다.
본 연구의 결과는 또한 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 이용한 언어 학습이라고 해서 반드시 효
과적이지는 않다는 점을 상기시켜준다. 멀티미디어를 이용하여 수업이 많이 시행되고 있으나, 무분
별하게 이용하거나 단순한 활동을 반복적으로 수행하도록 하는 것은 학습자의 학습 흥미를 오히려
저하시킬 수도 있다. 본 연구에서처럼 컴퓨터 활용 학습 프로그램의 어떤 기능이 어떤 효과가 있
는지에 대한 구체적인 연구가 이루어 질 때 학습 효과를 극대화할 수 있는 학습 프로그램을 개발
할 수 있는 여건이 마련될 것이다.
208 컴퓨터 어휘 학습 프로그램을 이용한 어휘 활동이 한국 중학생들의 영어 어휘 학습에 미치는 영향
참고문헌
조세경 (경희대학교)
This study explores how smartphones can be used for foreign language learning.
For this purpose, it stars with the definition of Mobile-Assisted Language
Learning and the review of how cell phones have been used for foreign language
learning. The transition to an information society, the need of lifelong learning,
and fast developments in mobile information and communication technology
establish the foundation of mobile learning. The ever-increasing ownership of
mobile devices such as cellphones, MP3 players, PDAs, smartphones and
wireless laptops has led teachers and learners to integrate mobile technologies
into everyday practices of education in general. Foreign language learning is one
of the promising areas that seem to benefit from these developments. Learners
can not only make good use of the mobile devices to listen to and record audio
and watch video at any time, but also be supported by the rising availability of
podcasts, mobile Web, and other services which encourage authentic and
spontaneous interactions in collaborative way. Recently, in particular,
smartphones have captured tremendous attention of foreign language teachers
and learners as an ideal tool for satisfying new needs of mobile learning era.
This is attributed to the fact that the state-of-the-art smartphone has developed
into a tool which combines audio, video, text and data files with an Internet
connection. Along with this trend, the launch of iphone service has brought in a
massive amount of educational applications to the market. Some of the most
promising applications designed for foreign language learning will be presented.
Finally, some drawbacks and challenges of smartphone-based foreign language
learning will be discussed.
212 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
Ⅰ. 머리말
1. 모바일학습의 등장과 전망
1) http://portal.lsri.nottingham.ac.uk/news/
2) http://blogger.bryanrieger.com/2007/08/
3) http://eslau.ca/
216 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
Ⅲ. 스마트폰과 외국어학습
1. 문자전달(SMS) 서비스의 활용
대폰을 이용해서 실행하는 것으로서, 이는 기존의 활동이 가지고 있는 시간적 공간적 제약에서 벗
어나 자유로이 실제적인 내용물을 문서, 듣기자료, 그리고 동화상자료로 올릴 수 있게 해줌으로서
언어사용과 협동 활동의 기회를 확대시켜줄 수 있을 것으로 기대되고 있다. 예를 들면 스마트폰을
활용한 문자 블로그(text blog) 활동은 타인과 공동의 관심사를 논하는 사회적 맥락 속에서 쓰기
능력을 향상시키는데 아주 효과적인 활동이다(Thornton & Payne, 2005; Chiao, 2006). 이를 위
한 도구로서 Wiki가 있는데 이 프로그램은 효과적으로 과정중심 쓰기(process writing)활동을 할
수 있도록 하는 도구이다. 과정중심 쓰기란 쓰기의 최종적인 산물보다는 쓰기 과정에서의 창의적
인 쓰기를 중시하는 일종의 쓰기를 통해 어떻게 쓰는가를 배우게 하는 학습법((Tompkins, 1990)
으로 미국의 펜실베니아 주립대의 국립외국어교육자료센터에서는 Wiki를 활용하여 중국어, 독일
어, 러시아어, 스페인어와 영어 등의 다양한 외국어의 창의적 쓰기활동 프로그램을 제공하여 긍정
적인 효과를 얻고 있다(Thornton & Payne, 2005).
Yee(2009)는 SMS기술을 활용한 온라인 여론조사(polling) 활동이 외국어학습에 응용되는 사
례를 소개하고 있다. Polleverywhere사4)에서는 온라인 여론조사 프로그램을 개발하여 한 구좌
(account) 당 1개 질문에 30개의 응답을 받아주는 서비스를 무료로 제공하고 있다. 이를 활용하면
외국어학습을 담당하는 교사는 쉽게 학습자들의 피드백을 받아볼 수 있고 미온적인 학습자들을 학
습과정에 자발적으로 참여하게 하는 효과가 있는 것으로 보고되고 있다.
스마트폰의 SMS기술의 외국어학습에의 활용하는데 있어 최근에 많은 주목을 받고 있는 것이
바로 SMS기술과 IM(instant messengers)의 결합이다. 인터넷 PC이용자들에게 Skype나 MSN
메신저 프로그램은 이미 널리 쓰이고 있어 친숙한 프로그램들이다. 이들 프로그램들은 스마트폰
사용자의 전화번호를 입력하면 휴대폰에 SMS 메시지를 전달해주는 서비스를 제공한다. 이는 스
마트폰 사용자들이 쉽게 MSN 메신저와 같은 프로그램에서 진행되는 활동에 참여할 수 있도록 함
으로써 스마트폰 사용자들이 고정된 장소에 위치한 PC를 사용하지 않고서도 이동 중에도 그 곳에
서 벌어지는 활동의 일원이 되어 외국어학습에 필요한 다양한 의사소통 활동과 정보취득을 가능하
게 해준다. Li와 Erben(2007)은 외국어학습자들이 메신저 활동에 참여함으로서 목표문화에 대한
문화 간 인식(intercultural awareness)을 증진시킬 수 있는 가능성을 제시하고 있다. 그들에 의하
면 외국어학습자들이 이러한 활동을 통해서 문화차이에 대한 이해와 존중심을 함양할 수 있을 뿐
만 아니라 학습자의 전반적인 자기성찰 능력, 창의적이고 비판적 사고력을 기를 수 있다고 한다.
2. 웹브라우징 서비스
4) www.polleverywhere.com
218 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
5) http://winksite.com
조세경 219
2) 팟캐스팅 서비스
3) 기타 서비스의 활용
Yee(2009)는 스마트폰의 카메라와 이메일 기능을 활용한 학습활동의 가능성도 소개하고 있다.
학습자들은 개인 혹은 모둠 학습활동의 내용을 카메라에 저장하여 이메일로 교사에게 보내면 교사
는 이 중에 중요한 점을 하이라이트 시켜 교실의 프로젝터를 통해 보여주며 토론하는 활동을 이어
갈 수 있도록 해준다. 카메라는 또한 학습자들이 주어진 과업을 좀 더 흥미롭고 효과적으로 수행
할 수 있도록 도움을 주기도 한다.
GPS서비스는 잘 알려진 것처럼 우리가 길을 찾거나 방향 인식관련 용도로 쓰는 첨단 기술이
다. 최근의 스마트폰은 이런 GPS 기술을 이용할 수 있는 서비스를 제공하고 있으며, 이 점이 외국
220 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
6) www.macromedia.com
7) www.innovativelanguage.com/ products/GengoQuiz
조세경 221
8) www.worklifestudy.com
9) www.flashmybrain.com
222 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
1. 어휘/발음학습용 응용프로그램
10) www.innovativelanguage.com
조세경 223
2. 쓰기학습용 응용프로그램
11) www.essaywritingwizard.com
224 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
3. 읽기/듣기학습용 응용프로그램
4. 기타 응용프로그램
12) www.sjclinguistics.com
13) www.lexcycle.com
14) www.ipexview.com
15) www.trantor.fi/ELT
조세경 225
Ⅴ. 결론 및 전망
16) www.vimeo.com
17) http://mac.softpedia.com
18) http://googlemobile.blogspot.com/
226 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
참고문헌
Fernstudienforchung.
Kiernan, J., & Aizawa, K. (2004). Cell phones in task-based learning: Are cell phones useful
language learning tools? ReCALL, 16(1), 71-84.
Kioskea. (2009). Smartphones drive language learning innovation. Retrieved Aug 26, 2009,
from the World Wide Web: http://en.kioskea.net/actualites/smartphones-drive-language-
learning-innovation-13542-actualite.php3
Kukulska-Humle, A., & Traxler, J. (2005). Mobile Learning: A handbook for educators and
trainers. London: Routledge.
Levy, M., & Kennedy, C. (2005). Learning Italian via mobile SMS. In A. Kukulska-Hulme
& J. Traxler (Eds.), Mobile learning: A handbook for educators and trainers. (pp.
76-83). London: Kogan Page/Taylor & Francis.
Li, J., & Erben, T. (2007). Intercultural learning via instant messenger interaction. CALICO
Journal 24(2), 291-331.
Nyiri, K. (2002). Towards a philosophy of m-learning. Proceedings of the IEEE International
Workshop on wireless and mobile technologies in education, 121-124.
Ramey, C. (2008) MILLEE: English literature through games on the third screen. Retrieved
Aug 26, 2009, from the World Wide Web: http://mobileactive.org/millee-learning
-english-through-games-small-screen
Stanley, G. (2006). Podcasting: Audio on the Internet comes of age. TESL-EJ, 9(4).
Retrieved July 26, 2009, from the World Wide Web: http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/
TESL-EJ/ej36/int.html
Tompkins, G. E. (1990). Teaching writing balancing process and product. Columbus, Ohio:
Merrill.
Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan.
Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning, 21, 217-228.
Thornton, P. & Payne, J. (2005). Evolutionary Trajectories, inter-mediated expression, and
language education. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 371-397.
Traxler, J. (2007). Defining, discussing and evaluating mobile learning. The International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8(2). Retrieved Aug. 26, 2009,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/346/
875
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.
Wikipedia (2009). Smartphone. Retrieved August 26, 2009, from the World Wide Web:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone
228 스마트폰을 활용한 외국어 학습
Yee, K. (2009). iPhones and smartphones. Turkish Online Journal of Distant Education,
10(4), 8-9.
최수영 (한국교원대학교)
고연정 (한국교원대학교)
백 호 (한국교원대학교)
Choi, Soo-Young, Ko, Yeon Jeong, Baek, Ho. (2009). The effects of differentiated
blended learning on speaking for college students. Multimedia-Assisted
Language Learning, 12(3), 229-255.
The purpose of this study is to investigate what are the effects, and their degree,
of blended learning(combining on and off-line) on the speaking proficiency and
attitude of college students of English. The on-line courseware was TALL
developed by Brigham Young University. The TALL is a blended learning
system, and provides an individualized and adaptive learning and courseware
management system. For measuring speaking proficiency “PhonePass” was used.
The blended learning positively affected the students’ speaking ability, and they
gained confidence in communicating in English. With a well organized
curriculum of on-line courseware, a teacher could lead the class more smoothly
without being overwhelmed by responsibility and having many teaching
materials to prepare. The students had more opportunities to express their ideas
being supported by the TALL and class activities. They gained much confidence
in speaking and enjoyed the blended learning.
Ⅰ. 연구의 목적 및 필요성
영어에 대한 관심과 노력에도 불구하고 실제 생활에서 영어로 말하는 능력은 기대에 미치지
못하고 있다. 여러 가지로 그 원인을 찾아볼 수 있다. 첫째, 우리나라 중‧고등학교의 영어교육은
20년 이상을 입시 위주의 교육에 치중해 왔으며 대부분 학습자들의 말하기‧쓰기 능력이 상대적으
로 부족하다(고경석, 2000; 박한기, 양승갑, 오관영, 2005). 둘째, 우리나라는 EFL 환경에 놓여 있
어 영어 사용 시간이 절대적으로 부족하다. 셋째, 초‧중‧고등학교 뿐 아니라 대학에서도 교수 한
명 당 지도해야 할 학생이 많아 개별화 된 지도가 불가능하고, 학습자의 참여 기회가 부족하여 말
하기 능력을 향상시킬 충분한 기회가 주어지지 않는다. 그 결과 초‧중등학교에서 뿐 아니라 대학
에 입학해서도 영어 학습에 막대한 시간과 자금을 투자 하지만 실제 의사소통 상황에서는 당황하
여 의사표현을 제대로 하지 못하는 것이 현실이다.
이-러닝(e-learning)은 이러한 교육 실정과 환경의 제약을 극복하고, 학생들의 의사소통 능력
을 신장시킬 수 있는 방안이 될 수 있다. 사이버 환경에서 학습이 이루어지는 이-러닝 체제가 확
산되면서, 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습(Blended learning)의 개념이 대두되고 있다(Kim, 2003; 김정
렬, 2007; 최수영, 2002, 2003; 한종임, 2002, 2006). 온라인을 통해 학습주제에 대한 개별적인 학
습이 이루어지고 오프라인에서 교실 활동을 통해 연습할 기회를 갖게 할 수 있다. 교사 1인당 학
생 수가 많은 환경에서 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습의 효과성과 효율성이 크다. 온라인 학습은 교사
가 혼자 지도하기 힘든 부분을 보완해 준다. 또한 원어민 발음을 제공해 줄 수 있으며 학습에 유
용한 다양하고 입체적인 자료들을 제공해 주기도 한다. 오프라인으로는 교사가 학생들의 말에 즉
각적이고 다양한 피드백을 제공해 주고, 학생들의 학습 여부를 관리하며 동기를 부여하고 유지할
수 있도록 격려할 수 있다.
제 7차 영어과 교육과정에서는 수준별 학습을 권장하고 있으며 우리나라에서는 학교 현장의
여러 가지 여건상 수준별 영어 학습을 실천하기가 대단히 어려운 실정이나. 그러나 수준별 학습이
가능하도록 잘 개발된 코스웨어를 활용하면 다양한 수준의 학습자들로 구성된 교실 수업에서도 수
준별로 개별화 된 학습을 가능하게 해 준다. 그리하여 본 연구는 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습 그리
고 수준별 학습이 가능하도록 제작된 온라인 코스웨어를 선정하여 이를 실현했을 때 학습자들의
말하기 능력 신장에 어떤 영향을 주며, 말하기 능력 중에서도 어떠한 영역(문장 숙달성, 어휘력,
유창성, 발음 등)에 가장 영향을 미치는지 알아보고자 한다.
이로써 첫째, 말하기 능력 신장과 영어 말하기에 대한 정의적 영역에 어떤 영향을 미치는지 알
아보도록 한다. 둘째, 학습자들이 개별적으로 온라인 학습을 한 경험에 비추어 본 실험연구에서의
온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 어떠한 면에서 도움이 되었는지를 알아보도록 한다. 셋째, 온․오프
라인 혼합형 학습을 실시하기 위해 온라인 콘텐츠를 활용할 수 있는 기준을 마련하고, 이에 부합
하는 온라인 코스웨어를 선정하여 학습자들의 소감을 설문지로 조사한다.
구체적인 연구 내용은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 본 연구의 목적에 부합하는 형태의 온라인 코스웨어
를 선정한다. 이는 교수자의 업무를 줄여주고, 같은 단계 안에서도 개별학습이 가능하며, 학습 상
황을 확인할 수 있는 것이어야 한다.
둘째, 말하기 능력을 측정할 수 있는 도구를 선정하고 사전‧사후 검사를 실시하여 말하기 능력
최수영․고연정․백호 231
Ⅱ. 이론적 배경
Ⅲ. 연구방법 및 절차
1. 연구 대상
번 호 정답률 번 호 레 벨
1번-27번 60% 미만 1
1번-27번 60% 이상 28번-49번 60% 미만 2
1번-27번 60% 이상 28번-49번 60% 이상-80 미만 3
1번-27번 60% 이상 28번-49번 80% 이상 4
[표 2] 학습 대상자의 레벨 테스트 결과
1번-27번 28번-49번
A반 평균 정답률 88.8% 66.4%
B반 평균 정답률 87.2% 65.9%
2. 연구 도구
본 연구에서는 온라인 콘텐츠 선정의 다음과 같은 네 가지의 기준을 제시한다. 첫째, 온․오프
라인 혼합형 학습이 가능하도록 설계되어 있다. 둘째, 수준별 학습이 가능하도록 설계되어 있다.
셋째, 코스웨어 관리 시스템이 있어서 학습자의 학습 정도를 교사가 확인할 수 있다. 넷째, 프로그
램이 생생하고 재미있어 학습자들의 흥미를 고취시킨다. 위의 기준을 고려하여 미국의 브리감 영
대학교(BYU)에서 연구・개발한 TALL(Murdock, 2001; Williams, 2002)을 선택하였다. [그림 1]
에서 보여 지는 바와 같이 본 연구에서는 두 개의 학습 모드가 활용된다. 한 가지는 교실 수업이
고 다른 한 가지는 온라인을 통한 개별학습이다.
Lab/Review
새로운 과를 학습자 개별적으로 미리 충분한 학습을 하도록 한다. 온라인 콘텐츠에서 제공되는
복습 활동을 모두 마치고 나면 ‘mastered’라는 문구가 뜬다. 교실 수업에서는 미리 학습 해 온 내
236 수준별 학습이 가능한 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 영어 말하기 능력 신장에 미치는 효과
용에 대한 간단한 복습을 하고, 짝 활동과 그룹 활동을 실시하도록 한다. 교사는 일대일로 인터뷰
를 할 때, 다른 학습자는 교실에 있는 컴퓨터로 복습을 하도록 한다. 인터뷰 과정에서 학습자의 개
별 학습과 짝 활동 및 그룹 활동이 제대로 이루어졌는지 확인하는 것뿐 아니라 교사와 학습자 간
친밀감을 형성시켜 더욱 적극적인 참여를 유도할 수 있다. 2~3주에 한 번 몇 개의 단원을 마치고
나면 배웠던 표현들이 쓰이는 실제와 유사한 상황을 설정하여 시뮬레이션을 실시한다. 본 실험 수
업에서는 총 두 번의 시뮬레이션을 하게 된다.
온라인 콘텐츠 활용 절차는 다음과 같다. 4월 2째 주부터 5월 둘째 주까지, 4주 동안 일주일에
한 단원씩 개별적으로 온라인 학습을 한다. 학습 진행 상황과 결과를 확인하여 부진한 부분을 이
메일로 통보하여 학습 동기를 고취시키고 긴장을 유지할 수 있도록 한다.
Ⅳ. 연구의 실제
[표 4] 혼합형 수업 단원별 지도 내용
주 단원 목표 및 의사소통 기능
온라인 콘텐츠의 4단계 중 어떤 단계가 적당하며, 대상 학습자들의 기초 실력과 학습
1주 Level test 수행 능력을 알아보기 위해 듣기 평가를 실시하고 토익 성적을 조사한다. 연구 결과를
위한 사전 설문 조사와 말하기 평가를 실시한다.
전반적인 내용을 파악할 수 있는 동영상이 제공된다. 미국 청소년의 일상을 에피소드
형식으로 제공하므로 흥미와 관심을 더할 수 있다.
본 단원의 토픽과 주요 내용:
2주 ‘About Fronk’ •Introduction: Fronk가 앞으로 겪게 될 에피소드를 개괄적으로 보여주며 학습자의
흥미를 고취시키고 이야기의 흐름을 파악하도록 한다.
•A New Home: 새로운 동네에서 친구를 사귀는 과정과, 이삿짐을 풀면서 엄마와 하는
대화를 볼 수 있다.
238 수준별 학습이 가능한 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 영어 말하기 능력 신장에 미치는 효과
[그림 7]은 대화를 듣고 전체 내용을 파악하고 있는지 여부를 확인한다. 테스트의 결과는 프로
그램에 저장되고 하나라도 오답이 있는 경우에는 같은 테스트를 반복하여 실시한다.
어휘학습과 듣기 연습 후에 말하기 활동을 하게 된다. 실제 상황에서의 대화를 듣고 본인의 목
소리를 녹음하여 비교 하여 본인의 발음을 들어보고 교정할 기회를 제공한다. 전체 대화뿐 아니라
240 수준별 학습이 가능한 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 영어 말하기 능력 신장에 미치는 효과
[그림 11]은 학습 시간을 관리해 주는 시스템이다. 학습을 시작한 날짜와 학습한 단원의 수, 총
학습 시간 및 평균 학습 시간에 대한 정보가 제공된다. 위의 도표는 학습자가 어느 영역에 치우쳐
학습하고 있는지를 나타내는 것이다. 본 프로그램은 온라인 개별 학습 시 교수자의 지도 없이 자
기 주도적 학습을 할 수 있도록 학습 과정을 모두 저장하고, 복습량과 복습 빈도, 테스트의 내용
최수영․고연정․백호 241
4. 오프라인 교실 수업 활동
Performance
Having one to one interview with T and each S
check
Accomplish
While one S is having interview, others are supposed to complete
creative
their assignment. Let them know they should present their
Wrap recording
assignment in front of class with their partners. work
up assignment
sheet
(60’)
The next lesson is to get people’s attention
Introduction T makes sure that Ss should preview lesson 4 and complete all
the next materials that this on-line content provides. And next time, there
lesson is simulation with foreigner. Therefore, Ss have to practice what
they’ve learned till now.
[표 6] 인터뷰 시나리오
Lesson 3. Apologize
1 Arriving late (easy)
Student Role The learner has arrived late for a job interview.
You are the interviewer. Have the learner apologize to you for arriving
Teacher’s Role
late
Express regret, Explain/give an excuse
subtasks
Offer to remedy, Give assurance Acknowledge responsibility
2 Forgetting to help (easy)
EASY Student Role The learner promised to take a friend home but forgot
LEVEL
You are the learner¡¯s friend and he/she forgot to take you home
Teacher’s Role after school as he/she had promised. Have the learner call you and
apologize
3 Saying something hurtful (easy)
The learner has said something that hurt the feelings of a roommate
Student Role
or family member.
You are the learner¡¯s roommate or family member, and he/she just
Teacher’s Role
said something hurtful to you. Have him/her apologize
최수영․고연정․백호 243
[표 7] 수업 중 과제
Ⅴ. 연구결과 및 논의
1. 말하기 능력 평가 영역에 대한 연구 결과
온․오프라인 혼합형 학습을 하였을 때 학습자들의 말하기 능력은 향상될 것이라는 가설을 세
웠다. 가설을 검증하기 위해 말하기 평가의 사전‧사후 검사를 비교한 결과는 다음과 같다.
244 수준별 학습이 가능한 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 영어 말하기 능력 신장에 미치는 효과
Sig
평가 영역 사전 평균 점수 사후 평균 점수 향상 점수 t
(2-tailed)
전체 49.96 54.75 4.79 12.709 .000
문장 숙달성 52.09 56.94 4.86 7.280 .000
어휘력 48.65 55.74 7.09 6.244 .000
유창성 50.55 54.52 3.97 4.038 .000
발음 47.17 50.86 3.69 4.371 .000
최고 가능 점수= 80점
살펴본다.
문장 숙달성은 사전 58.87점, 사후 64.06점으로 5.19(표준 편차 3.868)점 향상 되어 사전‧사후
평가간의 차이를 확인할 수 있다(t= 5.364, p< .05). 어휘력은 말하기 평가 영역에서 가장 큰 향상
도를 보인다. 사전 56.62에서 사후 62.81로 6.19(표준 편차 8.264)점이 향상 되었고 통계상으로도
유의미한 차이를 확인할 수 있다(t= 2.995, p< .05). 유창성에서는 사전 56.62점, 사후 60.38점으로
3.76(표준 편차 3.76)점이 향상되었고 사전‧사후 점수가 유의미한 차이를 보인다(t= 3.092, p<
.05). 발음에서는 유창성과 비슷한 양상을 보이는데 사전 52.81점, 사후 56.56으로 3.75(표준 편차
3.712)점 향상되었고 유의미한 차이를 보인다(t= 3.712, p< .05).
중위권 그룹(35-50점)도 상위권 그룹과 말하기 평가의 결과가 비슷한 양상을 보인다. 사전 전
체 점수는 43.19, 사후 48.19로 5(표준 편차 2.529)점 향상 되었고 두 평가 간 유의미한 차이를 보
인다(t=9.057, p< .05).
문장 숙달성은 사전 45.28, 사후 49.81로 4.53(표준 편차 4.202)점 향상 되어 유의미한 차이가
있다(t=4.933,p< .05). 어휘력은 상위권 그룹과 마찬가지로 가장 큰 향상도를 보이고 있다. 사전
40.71점, 사후 48.67점으로 7.96점(표준 편차 5.970)향상 되었고 사전‧사후 평가 간 유의미한 차이
가 있다(t=6.104, p< .05). 유창성은 사전 44.48점, 사후 48.24점으로 3.76 (표준 편차 6.323, t=
2.726, p< .05)점 향상 되었고, 발음은 사전 41.52점, 사후 45.19점으로 3.67(표준 편차 5.960, t=
3.712 p< .05)점 향상 되어 두 영역 모두 사전 사후 평가의 차이가 유의미하게 나타나고 있다.
상위권 그룹은 전체 점수를 제외하고 어휘력, 문장 숙달성, 유창성, 발음의 순으로 향상되었다.
중위권 그룹은 역시 전체 점수를 제외하고 어휘력, 문장 숙달성, 유창성, 발음의 순으로 향상되어
두 그룹이 똑같은 양상을 보이고 있음을 알 수 있다.
상위권 그룹과 중위권 그룹 모두 공통적으로 어휘력에 있어 가장 큰 향상도를 보인다. 실험 수
업을 하는 동안 따로 어휘를 외우도록 하거나 단어 테스트를 하지는 않았으나, 온라인 콘텐츠에서
제공되는 다양한 복습 활동과 반복되는 테스트를 통해 자연스럽게 습득되어 진 것으로 보인다. 문
장 숙달성도 그런 관점에서 이해할 수 있는데 어휘보다는 문장이 습득하는 데 다소 어려움이 있음
을 알 수 있다. 유창성과 발음은 두 그룹 모두 가장 미진한 향상도를 보이고, 향상 점수도 유사하
다. 영어 능력과 큰 상관없이 성인 학습자들이 습득에 가장 큰 어려움을 겪는 것은 발음과 유창성
인 것으로 나타났다.
3. 정의적 영역에 대한 연구 결과
설문지 조사를 통해 검증하고자 하는 정의적 영역의 구체적 연구가설 내용은 다음과 같다. 첫째,
학습자들의 말하기 학습에 대한 자신감과 흥미도에 긍정적인 변화가 있을 것이다. 둘째, 학습자들은
멀티미디어 개별학습과 비교하여 온․오프 혼합형 교육에 더욱 흥미를 느끼고 말하기 능력 향상에
도 더욱 긍정적인 영향을 미친다는 평가를 내린다. 셋째, 본 실험 연구에서 활용한 온라인 콘텐츠
TALL이 학습자들의 말하기 능력과 자신감 상승에 긍정적 영향을 미친다는 평가를 내린다.
범 주 평가 항목 응답 문항 응답자 수 %
본 연구의 온라인 콘텐츠로 선정한 TALL에 대해서는 83.2%가 긍정적인 평가를 내렸다. 가장
많은 학습자들은 특히 TALL에서 제공하는 맞춤형 충분한 복습 량에 대해 좋은 반응(40.4%)을
보였고, 본인의 학습 상태 확인(21.4%), 흥미로운 동영상(16.6%), 기타(11.9%), 개별 학습(9.5%)의
순으로 학습자의 긍정적인 반응이 나타났다. TALL의 단점은 자유 응답으로 조사하였는데 밋밋한
화면과 지루함 등 흥미적 요소의 부족, 본인의 학습 상황을 확인하는 데 번거로움, 복습량이 너무
많음, 개별 학습을 진행하는 데 혼란스러움, 교과서가 없어 학습이 부실한 느낌이 있음 등의 의견
이 있었다.
4. 전체적 논의
Ⅵ. 결론 및 제언
참고문헌
강명희. (1997). 인터넷 학습자료 개발 모델. 21세기를 향한 교육공학의 이론과 실제. 서울: 교육과학
사.
강인애. (1996). 문제중심학습과 구성주의 이론. 21세기를 향한 교육공학의 이론과 실제. 서울: 교육
과학사.
강인애. (1997). 왜 구성주의인가? : 정보화 시대의 학습자중심의 교육 환경. 서울: 문음사.
고경석. (2000). 교육대학교 교양영어교육의 목표와 방향. Primary English Education, 6(2), 5-174.
김성억. (1996) A multimedia approach to English education. 멀티미디어와 영어교육. 육군사관학
교 멀티미디어 세미나 논문집, 7-21.
김영미. (1998). 효과적인 영어교육을 위한 멀티미디어 활용의 필요성. 영어교육연구, 18, 1-18.
김정렬. (2007). Interactional Analysis in On/Off-blended Learning for a Pre-Service English
Education Course using FIAC. 한국 영어교육학회, 영어 English teaching 62(1), 55-74.
김정렬, 성유선. (2006). 중학교 영어 듣기 온․오프라인 통합 교육을 위한 교과서와 인터넷 사이트의
듣기 활동 분석. 영어교과교육, 5(1), 47-70.
김정렬, 한희정. (2003). ICT 활용 영어교육. 서울: 교문사.
나일주. (1995). 교수매체 연구의 현대적 과제: 교수 매체의 효과성 논쟁을 중심으로. 교육공학연구
11(1), 47-71.
나일주. (1998). 교수매체의 효과에 관한 심리학적 논점. 교육공학 연구의 최근 동향. 서울 : 교육과학
사.
나일주. (1999). 웹 기반 교육. 서울: 과학교육사
박한기, 양승갑, 오관영. (2005). 대학영어교육의 활성화 방안 연구. 영어어문교육 11(3), 113-137.
이충현, 윤미현. (2003). 멀티미디어 코스웨어 평가 지침및 시행에 관한 연구. 한국 외국어 교육학회.
Foreign Languages Education, 10(3) 187-217.
정태영. (2005). PhonePass SET-10을 이용한 영어 말하기 능력 평가. Foreign Languages
Education, 12(2), 241-256.
최수영. (1996). 효과적인 영어교육을 위한 컴퓨터와 보조학습 프로그램의 현장 적용 연구. 영어교육,
51(4), 177-202.
최수영. (2001). 학습자 주도적 수준별 영어 학습을 위한 멀티미디어 코스웨어 활용. 한국교원대학교
교과교육공동연구소 연구보고서, 205-227.
최수영. (2002). 멀티미디어 코스웨어를 활용한 대학생 영어 학습 지도와 효과. 한국교원대학교 교수
최수영․고연정․백호 253
논총 18(2), 194∼221.
최수영. (2003). 멀티미디어 기반 영어교육. 서울: 한국문화사.
최수영․김기섭․이철기․설양환. (1999). 효과적인 영어교육을 위한 멀티미디어 컴퓨터 코스웨어의
현장적용 연구. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning 2(1), 179~256.
한종임. (2004). 인터넷 실시간 의사소통도구를 활용한 영어구두언어능력 신장 방안. Foreign
Language Education, 11(2), 195-226.
한종임. (2006). 영어의 유창성 및 정확성 신장을 위한 ICT의 효과적 활용 방안.
Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 9(1), 211-242.
한국교육학술정보원. (2003). 원격연수 활성화 전략 시리즈 (교육자료 TM 2003-313-16). 서울: 한국
교육학술정보원.
황주혁. (2001). 멀티미디어 언어실습실을 이용한 영어 학습 사례. Multimedia-Assisted Language
Learning, 4(1), 214-234.
Bersin & Associates. (2003). Blended learning: What works? An industry study of the
strategy, implementation, and impact of blended learning: Bersin & Associates.
Brown, H. (2001). Teaching by principle and interactive approach to language pedagogy(4th
ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Driscoll, M. (2002). Blended Learning: Let’s get beyond the hype. e-learning, 54(3).
Boswood, T. (1997). New ways of using computers in language teaching. Alexandria, VA:
TESOL
Bush, M., & Terry. R. (1997). Technology-enhanced language learning. Lincolnwood, Illinois:
National Textbook Company.
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2005). The systematic design of instruction (6th ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Duffy, T., & Jonnassen, D. (1991). Constructivism : new implications for instructional
technology. Educational Technology, 31(5), 7-11.
Dryden, G., & Vos, J, (2005). The new learning revolution. Stafford, United Kingdom:
Network Educational Press.
Kim, In-Seok. (2003). Multimedia-assisted language learning: promises and challenges.
Seoul: Book Korea.
Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component Display Theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional
design theories and models (pp. 279-333). Hillsdale, NJL Lawrence Erlbaum.
Murdock, S. (2001). TALL research on ESL. Unpublished manuscript, Brigham Young
University, TALL Group, Provo, Utah.
Graham, C. R. & Allen, S. & Ure, D. (2003). Blended learning environments: A review of
254 수준별 학습이 가능한 온․오프라인 혼합형 학습이 영어 말하기 능력 신장에 미치는 효과
최인철 (고려대학교)
Ⅰ. 서 론
1. 연구 목적
2. 연구의 제한점
Ⅱ. 이론적 배경
1. 이러닝 (e-Learning)의 효과
1) 긍정적 측면
(1) 상호작용성
이러닝은 교육방송과 같은 단방향 매체 전송과는 달리, 인터넷 매체의 특성상 고도의 상호작용
적 의사소통을 가능하게 한다. 언어습득에서 가장 중요한 상호작용성이 이러닝의 내재적 장점이므
로 영어교육에 매우 적합한 교육 수단이다(Shamp, 1996; Shotsberger, 1996).
(2) 협동 학습
(5) 정의적 장점
(6) 경제성
(7) 디지털 문화 습득
2) 제약점
(1) 집중도 부족
직접 면대면 의사소통이 아니므로, 의욕이 부족한 학습자들은 집중을 못하고 중간에 포기하기
쉬울 수 있다. 이런 문제점은 선행 연구(Cornell & Martin, 1997; Harasim, 1990; Rezabak,
1999)에서는 이 문제를 학습 효과를 저해하는 매우 중요한 문제로 지적하고 있다. 그러나 이런 학
습자들의 집중도 문제는 우리나라 교사가 중간에 가교 역할을 해줌으로써 학습 동기를 어느 정도
쉽게 고치시킴으로써 해결할 수 있다.
(2) 환경 측면
2. 원격화상강의
3. 공동수업
(1) 원어민 교사 수업
Ⅲ. 연구 방법
1. 연구 방법 및 기간
2. 연구 대상
[표 1] 연구대상자 지역 현황
구분 부산 인천 광주 대전 울산 강원 충북 충남 전북 전남 경북 경남 계
화상 실시
10 19 4 13 18 37 10 10 26 126 91 43 407
초등 수
조사학교
3 4 3 3 4 7 3 3 5 10 10 9 64
수
3. 연구 변인
변인은 교육방법별 유형으로서 학생이 개별적으로 컴퓨터에 접속하여 수업이 운영이 되는 개별접
속형 및 학급 전체가 대형 화면을 보면서 원격화상 강의를 받는 교실 수업형이다. 두번째 변인은
교육시간별 유형으로서 정규수업형과 방과후 수업형이다.
Ⅳ. 연구결과 및 논의
1. 사전-사후 태도 차이
1) 동기 / 가치
동기 / 가치 사전-사후 변화
구분 실력 중요 외국인 대화
내재적 동기 비교 동기 외재적 동기
인식 동기
평균 0.149 0.091 0.172 0.211 0.188
1 초등학생 표준편차 0.535 0.615 0.780 0.620 0.688
해석 긍정 미미 긍정 긍정 긍정
평균 0.014 0.021 0.048 0.191 0.210
2 중학생 표준편차 0.927 0.899 0.855 0.833 0.966
해석 미미 미미 미미 긍정 긍정
평균 0.706 0.574 1.551 0.781 0.374
3 고등학생 표준편차 0.571 0.901 1.711 1.033 0.298
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정
(1) 영어 실력 중요 인식
대부분의 학생들이 사전보다 사후에 좀 더 긍정적인 태도를 갖게된 것으로 나타났는데, 특히,
고등학생들의 변화가 좀 더 두드러지는 것을 알 수 있다. 이는, 원어민 강사와 함께 영어로 의사소
통을 하는 경험을 통해서 얻어진 가치의 변화로 풀이된다.
(2) 내재적 동기
전반적으로 영어가 자신의 삶에 도움을 준다고 생각하는 내재적 동기면에서 미미한 차이이기
는 하지만, 긍정적 변화가 감지된다.
(3) 비교 동기
(4) 외재적 동기
대부분이 외국인과 영어로 의사소통하는 것을 좀더 원하는 태도의 변화를 보이고 있다. 원어민
강사와 영어로 수업을 진행하다 보니, 자연스럽게 그런 욕구가 생긴 것으로 해석된다.
266 웹기반 원격화상 영어교수법 효과성 분석
2) 자신감
[표 3] 자신감 분석
자신감
구분
수업 발음 표현 암기 실수관용 과제
평균 0.174 0.206 0.168 0.019 0.125
초등학생 표준편차 0.546 0.552 0.632 0.518 0.687
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 근소 근소
평균 0.201 0.317 0.072 -0.262 -0.082
중학생 표준편차 0.833 0.631 0.575 0.741 0.751
해석 긍정 긍정 근소 부정 근소
평균 -0.508 -0.317 -0.428 0.833 -0.746
고등학생 표준편차 0.832 0.615 0.017 0.445 1.488
해석 부정 부정 부정 긍정 부정
[표 4] 자신감 세부영역 분석
자신감 세부 영역
구분
듣고이해 말하기 영어노래 소리읽기 읽고이해 쓰기
평균 0.230 0.185 0.225 0.094 0.238 0.173
초등학생 표준편차 0.554 0.569 0.585 0.626 0.698 0.696
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 근소 긍정 긍정
평균 0.066 0.113 -0.070 0.083 0.099 0.107
중학생 표준편차 0.694 0.777 0.813 0.797 0.669 0.787
해석 근소 긍정 근소 근소 근소 긍정
평균 -0.232 -0.415 -0.218 -0.518 0.151 -0.545
고등학생 표준편차 0.338 0.518 1.384 0.079 1.765 1.125
해석 부정 부정 부정 부정 긍정 부정
최인철 267
(2) 발음
(3) 표현 암기
(4) 실수 관용
(5) 과제
3) 흥미/ 관심
[표 5] 흥미 및 관심측면
전반적
흥미/ 관심
태도변화
구분
영어 수업시간양 전반적
수업기대 영어 관심
사용욕구 증가 기대감
평균 0.217 0.167 0.109 0.136 0.146 0.163
초등학생 표준편차 0.766 0.558 0.657 0.701 0.646 0.450
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정
평균 0.031 0.081 0.197 -0.114 -0.168 0.055
중학생 표준편차 0.790 0.847 0.888 0.689 0.913 0.626
해석 미미 미미 긍정 부정 부정 미미
평균 -0.159 0.220 -0.381 -0.020 -0.511 0.009
고등학생 표준편차 0.703 1.024 0.016 0.156 0.661 0.312
해석 부정 긍정 부정 미미 부정 미미
(1) 수업 기대
(2) 영어 관심
(3) 외국인과 영어 사용 욕구
(4) 수업시간 증가
2. 만족도 - 학생
[표 6] 만족도 분석
정의적 만족 재미있는 활동
학년 성별
구분 영어 학습성
평균 평균 감정 집중 흥미 말하기 역할극 노래 읽기 쓰기
중요 취
평균 4.9 1.51 1.77 2.37 2.35 1.98 2.10 1.96 2.21 2.21 2.40 2.54
초등학 표준편차 0.8 0.23 0.51 0.62 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.99 1.04 1.08 1.05 1.06
생
강한긍 강한긍
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정
정 정
평균 7.9 1.45 1.74 2.49 2.57 2.37 2.53 2.35 2.67 2.60 2.70 2.75
표준편차 0.6 0.30 0.37 0.59 0.53 0.56 0.56 1.04 1.06 1.09 1.05 1.05
중학생
강한긍
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정
정
평균 10.3 1.45 1.69 2.48 2.59 2.54 2.55 2.45 2.75 2.63 2.72 2.79
고등학 표준편차 0.4 0.26 0.31 0.35 0.32 0.73 0.39 0.98 0.96 1.02 0.95 0.96
생
강한긍
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정 긍정
정
1) 정의적 만족
(1) 영어 중요성
(2) 감정적 안정
(3) 학습 집중도
(4) 학습 성취도
(5) 흥미
(6) 재미있는 활동
2) 수업/ 학습 진행
[표 7] 수업/학습 진행
학년 성별 진행 양호도 수업 진행 어려움 원인
구분 전반 빠른
평균 균형 한국교사 원어민 인터넷 음질 화면화질 의사소통 학생소음
양호 발음
평균 4.9 1.51 1.80 2.16 2.20 3.15 3.78 4.17 3.52 3.99 3.13
초등
표준편차 0.8 0.23 0.54 0.53 0.57 0.76 0.67 0.64 0.68 0.60 0.76
학생
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 보통 부정 부정 보통 부정 보통
평균 7.9 1.45 2.12 2.36 2.42 2.94 3.44 3.94 3.33 4.03 3.33
중학
표준편차 0.6 0.30 0.55 0.50 0.52 0.73 0.51 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.64
생
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 보통 부정 부정 보통 부정 보통
평균 10.3 1.45 2.13 2.40 2.56 2.97 3.28 3.60 3.15 3.87 3.05
고등
표준편차 0.4 0.26 0.29 0.28 0.33 0.71 0.50 0.85 0.63 0.72 0.58
학생
해석 긍정 긍정 긍정 보통 부정 부정 보통 부정 보통
최인철 271
(1) 진행 양호도
한국인 교사를 원어인 교사보다 이해를 더 쉽게하는 것으로 나타났으며, 전반적으로 진행은 잘
된 것으로 평가하고 있는 것으로 나타났다.
3) 실력 향상
[표 8] 실력 향상
학년 성별 실력 향상 차기 수강
구분 전체적 만족도
평균 균형 말하기 듣기 쓰기 읽기 희망
(1) 실력 향상
(2) 차기 수강 희망
대부분 학생들은 다음에도 원격 화상 학습을 하고자 한다고 응답하고 있다. 학생들의 주관식으
로 적은 응답을 질적인 분석을 해보면 주관식 응답을 적은 학생들 중 대부분이 원격 화상 강의가
매우 재미있고 실력 배양에 도움이 되었다고 적고 있다. 이는 시작한 지 얼마되지 않은 원격 화상
강의 정착에 매우 고무적인 설문조사 결과로서, 앞으로 원격 화상 학습이 나아가야할 방향을 설정
272 웹기반 원격화상 영어교수법 효과성 분석
3. 원격화상강의 교육효과
1) 기술 통계
[표 9] ESPT 평균 점수
교육방법
유형
개별접속형 교실수업형 교실수업형 + 병행 계
교육시간
유형
정규수업형 해당없음 (4교,46명), 31.74 (4교, 42명) 52.93 (8교, 88명) 41.85
원격
화상 방과후수업 (2교, 19명) 72.16 (2교,20명), 86.4 (1교, 9명) 46.67 (5교, 46명) 73.31
강의
실시 계 (2교, 19명) 72.16 (6교,66명) 48.30 (5교, 51명), 51.82 (13교,136명) 52.96
2) 교육 방법의 효과 차이
95%신뢰
표준 표준 최소값
구분 N 평균 구간 최대값
편차 오차
하한값 상한값
(2) 분산분석
[표 11] 분산분석 결과
(3) 사후검정
[표 12] 다중비교
구분 95% 신뢰구간
평균차 표준 유의
(I)MET (I-J) 오차 확률
(J) METHNUM 하한값 상한값
HOD
주) * : p < .05
최인철 275
3) 교수시간 유형 효과 차이
(1) 기술통계
[표 13] 교수 시간 유형 효과 차이
95%신뢰
최소값
표준 표준 구간
구분 N 평균 최소값 최대값
편차 오차
하한값 상한값
(2) 분산분석
[표 14] 분산분석
(3) 사후검정
[표 15] 다중비교
구분 95% 신뢰구간
평균차 표준 유의
(I) (I-J) 오차 확률
(J) Time 하한값 상한값
Time
정규수업 31.46* 11.64 .028 2.71 60.21
방과후수업
미실시 57.43* 13.71 .000 23.58 91.28
방과후수업 -31.46* 11.64 .028 -60.21 -2.71
Scheffe 정규수업
미실시 25.97 12.17 .106 -4.07 56.02
방과후수업 -57.43* 13.71 .000 -91.28 -23.58
미실시
정규수업 -25.97 12.17 .106 -56.02 4.07
주) * : p < .05
4. 교사 설문 분석
1) 교과과정 적합성
교과과정의 난이도 부적합 하다고 생각하는 경우에 언어적인 난이도와 인지적 난이도 모두 중
간정도 의견으로서, 교과과정의 난이도는 큰 문제가 없는 것으로 나타났다.
2) 학생 실력 향상
[표 17] 학생실력 향상
a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11
학생 실력 향상 정도 적응 기간
흥미도 자신감 듣기실력 말하기 읽기 쓰기 학생 교사
2.35 2.38 2.32 2.42 2.69 3.06 2.91 2.43
0.91 0.86 0.77 0.76 0.77 0.80 0.80 0.84
278 웹기반 원격화상 영어교수법 효과성 분석
(2) 실력의 향상 정도
(3) 적응기간
원격화상 교육에 적응하는 기간을 학생들은 2-4주 정도 걸렸으며, 교사는 2-3정도 걸렸다고
응답하고 있다.
3) 원어민 교사 및 한국인 교사
원어민 교사과 한국인 교사에 대하여 조사한 결과는 아래의 [표 18]와 같다.
a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18_1 a18_2 a18_3 a18_4
원어민 교사 한국인 교사 심리 부담 원인
영어실력
공동수업 교수능력 준비성실 흥미도 부담 노력시간 의사소통 두려움 작동불량
향상
2.43 2.52 2.24 2.58 2.44 2.96 2.93 3.10 3.35 2.71
0.77 0.85 0.82 0.70 0.78 1.03 0.96 0.98 0.94 1.09
(1) 원어민 화상 강의 평가
(2) 한국인 교사
한국인 교사의 영어실력 향상도 다소간 이루어 질수 있음을 알 수 있고, 교사의 영어에 대한
흥미도도 향상되는 것을 알 수 있다.
(3) 교사 부담
소통이나 두려움에 대해서는 부정적으로 응답하고 있다. 이런 점에서 교사들의 원격화상 교육에
대한 참여도가 긍정적인 것으로 풀이된다.
4) 성공요소
[표 19] 성공요소
Ⅴ. 결론 및 제언
1. 결 론
1) 원격화상강의의 학습 효과
2) 태도 변화
3) 학생 만족도
대부분의 학생들이 편하고 즐거운 수업, 새로운 내용 많이 배웠음, 다양하고 재미있게 진행되
었다고 설문조사에 응답하고 있다. 전반적으로 고학년 학생보다 초등학생이 정의적 만족도가 높게
나타나고 있으며, 대부분의 초등학생은 차기에도 기회가 되면 수강을 하고 싶다는 의견을 피력하
고 있다. 이런 점에서, 3개월 정도의 짧은 교육기간이었지만, 학생들, 특히 초등학생들의 만족도 면
에서 서술형 응답을 쓴 학생들 대부분이 매우 재미있다고 응답하고 있고, 구술 의사소통 능력 향
상도도 매우 긍정인 결과를 보이는 점은 매우 고무적인 연구 결과라고 본다.
4) 교사 만족도
2. 제언
1) 온라인 컨텐츠 개발 및 활동
자기주도적 학습을 유도하는 온라인 컨텐츠 개발이 필요하다고 본다. 현재는 개별접속형이나
교실수업형의 원격화상강의를 하기전이나 하고난 후에 교사가 개별적으로 예습과 복습을 하도록
유도하고 있으나, 보다 체계적으로 원격화상강의 시스템이 도입되고 개별 학습자가 온라인으로 컨
텐츠 학습을 통해서 예습과 복습을 하도록 하면 보다 나은 학습효과를 얻을 수 있을 것이다, 즉,
원어민 교사와 대화하기 전에 연습을 통해서 두려움을 없애고, 또한 기억효과를 높임으로써, 학습
효과는 배가 이상이 될 것으로 예상된다. 더욱이 교사의 심리적 부담도 경감시켜서 일선 수업 현
장에서 성공할 확률이 매우 높을 것이다.
최인철 281
2) 개별접속형을 통한 상호 작용 극대화
3) 원격화상강의 운영측면의 변수 영향 분석
4) 체계적인 교수요목(syllabus)및 교재 개발
5) 말하기 능력 평가도구 개발
참고문헌
김소연. (2000). 웹기반 가상교육에서 학습자의 접속횟수와 참여도에 영향을 미치는 요인. 미출간 석
사학위 논문. 이화여자대학교, 서울.
김정렬, 김혜숙. (2004). 웹 게시판을 활용한 초등 학생의 영어 피드백에 미치는 정의적 효과. 영어교
육연구, 16(1), 159-180.
이동심. (2001). 웹 기반 가상대학 원격교육의 효과 영향요인. 미출간 석사학위 논문. 공주대학교 대
학원, 충남.
정양수. (2002). 다양한 상호작용의 유형이 영어학습에 미치는 영향: CMC 기반의 학습 환경을 중심
으로. 영어교육연구, 14(1), 229-251.
282 웹기반 원격화상 영어교수법 효과성 분석
<부록 1> 설 문 지
최희경 (경인교육대학교)
윤귀양 (성저초등학교)
Choi, Heekyong & Yoon, Kwi Yang. (2009). A study on the utilization of a Cyber
Home Work site for elementary English education through peer tutoring.
Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 12(3), 287-322.
Ⅰ. 서 론
Ⅱ. 이론적 배경
1. 사이버 가정학습
2. 동료 교수
3. 선행 연구
Ⅲ. 연구 방법
1. 연구 대상
학생들의 영어 수준은 원어민 교사와 일상적인 대화가 가능한 학생들도 있었고, 알파벳도 제대
로 쓰지 못하는 학생들도 있는 등 차이가 많이 나는 편이었다. 동료 교수 활동을 위한 짝을 구성
하기 위하여 학생들의 영어 능력 평가를 실시하였으며, 영어에 대한 정의적 태도 및 자기 주도적
학습 능력도 조사하여 학생들의 수준을 상․중․하로 판별하는데 참고하였다. 수준 판별 후에는
상급수준과 하급수준 학생끼리 짝지은 팀을 8팀, 중급수준과 중급수준 학생끼리 짝지은 팀을 9팀
으로 구성하여 전체 학생들을 대상으로 연구하였고, 좀 더 구체적인 질적 분석을 하기 위하여 상
급수준-하급수준 학생 두 팀, 중급수준-중급수준 학생 두 팀 총 8명의 학생들을 실험 초부터 주의
깊게 관찰하였다.
2. 자료 수집 및 분석 방법
1) 자료 수집
(1) 영어 능력 평가지
(2) 설문지
(2006)의 검사지를 참고하여 각 영역별로 5개씩 15개의 문항을 제작하였다. 5단계 리커트 척도법
을 사용하였으며 검사 결과는 ‘매우 그렇다’는 5점, ‘그런 편이다’는 4점, ‘보통이다’는 3점, ‘아닌 편
이다’는 2점, ‘전혀 아니다’는 1점으로 하여 각 영역별로 점수화하여 사전․사후를 비교하였다.
셋째, 학생들의 자기 주도적 학습 능력이 어떻게 변화되는 지를 조사하기위해 지상익(2006)이
제작한 자기 주도적 학습 능력 검사지를 참고하여 본 연구에 맞게 10문항을 제작하였고, 정의적영
역의 경우와 같게 5단계 리커트 척도법을 사용하고 점수화 한 후 사전․사후 비교하여 학생들의
변화 정도를 살펴보았다.
(3) 개인 학습 기록장
(5) 교수일지
(6) 면담
2) 자료 분석
(1) 양적 자료
(2) 질적 자료
사이버 학급의 설계 절차를 간략히 살펴보면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 본 연구에서는 담임교사가 언
제라도 학급을 개설하여 학급 학생들과 함께 쉽게 공부할 수 있는 담임 선택형 학급으로 가입하여
활용하였다. 둘째, 학생들이 활용할 수 있는 강좌로 ‘초 5 영어 2학기 기본’, ‘초 5 영어 2학기 동영
상’, ‘초 공통 초등영어 단어 급수제’ 총 세 개의 과정을 등록하였으나, 학생들에게 너무 많은 강좌
를 강요하면 부담을 느낄 것 같아 ‘초 5 영어 2학기 기본’ 강좌만을 중심 강좌로 활용하였고, 나머
지 두 강좌는 학생들의 자율에 따라 공부할 수 있도록 하였다. 셋째, 사이버 가정학습 사이트는 사
이트 자체에서 기본적으로 제공하는 강좌 외에 교사가 학급 실정에 맞도록 게시판을 추가하여 활
용할 수 있는데, 본 연구에서는 기본과정 외에 필수과정, 선택과정, 전자게시판, 기타게시판 총 4
종, 17개의 게시판을 추가하여 사이트를 설계하였고, 학급의 학생들만 사용할 수 있도록 회원권한
도 지정하여 외부인의 접근을 단절하였다. 넷째, 학급의 모든 학생들이 사이버 학급에 가입하고 기
본 강좌를 수강 신청하게 한 후 사이버 학급에 대해 학생들이 주인 의식을 갖게 하기 위하여 사이
버 학급 명을 공모하였다.
(1) 강좌 관리
(2) 학급 관리
① 동료 교수 활동의 활용
동료 교수를 위한 팀 구성은 사전 영어능력 평가와 영어에 대한 흥미도․참여도․자신감 및
자기 주도적 학습 능력을 검사를 바탕으로 하여 34명의 학생을 상그룹 8명․중그룹 18명․하그룹
8명으로 선별하였는데, 특히 하급수준의 학생을 선별할 때에는 검사결과 뿐만 아니라 Ehly와
Larsen(1980)이 언급한 대로 개인지도(tutoring)를 받아 긍정적으로 변화할 가능성이 있으며, 평
소 영어에 자신감이 없는 학생들을 우선하여 선발하였다. 상․중․하그룹이라는 용어 대신 상그룹
은 ‘학습 도우미’, 중그룹은 ‘학습 협동이’, 하그룹은 ‘학습 배우미’라 칭하여 하그룹의 학생들이 ‘하
그룹’이라는 용어로 인해 상처받지 않도록 하기 위해 노력하였다.
팀 구성 후 동료 교수 활동을 위한 사전 교육이 한 차례 그룹별로 이루어 졌으며, 사이트 활용
이 시작된 후 처음 5주 동안은 동료 교수 활동과 관련하여 미흡한 부분에 대한 교육이 있었다. 우
선 ‘학습 도우미’에 대해서는 ‘학습 배우미’의 영어 학습과 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용을 최대한
도와줄 수 있도록 인지적인 측면에서는 학습 내용 안내 및 권장하고 싶은 학습 내용을 추천하고
학습 내용을 평가하도록 하였으며, 정의적인 측면에서는 상대에게 관심을 표현하는 등의 친밀감을
최희경․윤귀양 299
형성하고, 상대가 겪는 문제를 파악하고 상대의 제안이나 의견을 수용하는 등 상대방을 존중하고
잘하는 점은 칭찬하도록 하였으며, 자기 주도성을 위해서는 개인학습 기록장에 학습 계획 수립 안
내 및 학습 과정을 점검하도록 인지시켰다. 한편, ‘학습 협동이’들은 한 명이 다른 한 명을 관리한
다는 개념보다는 둘이 서로 도움을 주고받으며 선의의 경쟁을 통해 학습 하는 것을 목표로 하였
다. ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들을 위한 사전 교육 내용은 ‘학습 도우미’의 사전 교육 내용과 유사하다.
사이버 가정학습 사이트는 가정에서 자발적으로 활용하는 것이기 때문에 학생들의 흥미를 계
속적으로 유지하기 위해서는 적절한 보상 활동이 필요하다. 교사는 한 달에 한 번씩 모범이되는
‘학습 배우미’, ‘학습 도우미’, ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들에게 선물과 포인트 점수를 줌으로써 학생들이
꾸준히 사이버 가정학습 사이트를 활용할 수 있도록 동기를 부여하였다. 또한 학생들의 짝 활동에
서 생기는 과도한 행동이나 문제를 중재하고 해결해 주려고 노력하였다.
② 개인 학습 기록장 활용
교사는 학생들에게 개인 학습 기록장을 제공하여 학생들이 사이버 가정학습 사이트를 활용하
는데 있어 공부할 내용을 미리 계획하고, 자신의 계획에 맞추어 공부해 가며 자기 주도적 학습 능
력을 향상시키고, 한 주 동안 파트너와 공부하면서 느낀 점을 자유롭게 적도록 하였다. ‘학습 도우
미’ 학생은 매주 월요일 아침마다 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들이 진도표 짜는 것을 도와주고 재미있는 학
습은 권해주는 등 전반적인 학습계획 과정을 도와주었으며, ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들이 계획에 따라
열심히 학습하고 있는지 개인 학습 기록장을 점검해 주었으며, 점검 횟수는 점차 줄여 나갔다. ‘학
습 협동이’ 학생들은 서로가 진도표 짠 것을 점검해 주며 학습에 대한 정보를 교환하였고, 개인 학
습 기록장 점검은 자신들이 편한 날로 협의하여 주 2-3회씩 하였다. 한편 교사는 학생들이 한 번
에 진도를 많이 나가지 못하도록 진도표에 이 주의 진도율을 제시하여 줌으로써 학생들이 천천히
학습할 수 있도록 학습 내용을 조절하여 주었고, ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들의 개인 학습 기록장 점검을
해 주었다.
③ 쪽지 활용의 활성화
학생들은 서로 자기들끼리 쪽지를 보내며 진도율을 체크하거나 재미있는 선택학습을 권해 주
는 등 정보교환 및 친밀감 형성을 위해 사이트의 쪽지 기능을 활발히 활용하였고, 교사도 학생들
의 학습 현황 퍼센트를 보고 활용이 부족한 학생들에게 개인적으로 쪽지를 보냄으로써 학생들이
사이트에 지속적인 관심을 가질 수 있도록 격려하였다. 또한, 학생들은 문제나 질문이 있을 경우
교사에게 쪽지를 보내 문제를 해결함으로써 쪽지를 학생과 교사 사이의 대화의 창으로 사용하였으
며, 매주 제공하는 퀴즈의 정답도 교사에게 쪽지로 보냄으로써 쪽지를 학습의 도구로도 활용하였
다.
④ 전자게시판의 세분화
전자게시판의 기능을 활성화하여 학생들이 공부하면서 느끼는 점이나 의문점, 또는 동료 교수
활동을 하면서 느끼는 점을 적을 수 있도록 하였다. 학생들은 게시판을 통해 자기 파트너의 생각
이나 어려움을 파악하고 자신의 행동을 반성할 수 있는 기회를 얻었고, 교사는 학생들의 학습 상
300 초등영어 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용 방안 연구: 동료교수 활동을 중심으로
Ⅳ. 연구 결과 및 논의
1. 영어 능력
1) 전체 학생
다음은 말하기, 듣기, 읽기, 쓰기 영역에서의 변화 정도를 살펴보기 위하여 실시한 사전․사후
평가 점수를 대응표본 t-검정한 결과이다.
[표 1] 영어 능력 사전․사후 평가 결과
2) 그룹별 영어 능력의 변화
[표 3] 그룹별 영어 능력 사전․사후 평가 결과
영역별 점수 그룹별
구분 총점
말하기 듣기 읽기 쓰기 향상도
사전 25 25 25 20 95
H1
학습 사후 25 25 25 20 95 (0)
0
도우미 사전 25 25 25 25 100
H2
사후 25 25 25 25 100 (0)
사전 15 20 20 15 70
M1
사후 20 25 20 25 90 (+20)
사전 25 25 25 25 100
M2
학습 사후 25 25 25 20 95 (-5)
12.50
협동이 사전 10 25 25 15 75
M3
사후 15 25 25 20 85 (+10)
사전 5 15 10 15 45
M4
사후 10 20 20 20 70 (+25)
사전 0 20 0 0 20
L1
학습 사후 0 15 20 10 45 (+25)
25.00
배우미 사전 5 25 5 5 40
L2
사후 10 25 20 10 65 (+25)
먼저 그룹별 총점의 변화를 비교해 보면, ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들의 평균 점수는 변화가 없었지만,
‘학습 협동이’ 학생들의 평균점수는 12.5점이, ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들의 평균점수는 25점이 향상되어
세 그룹 중 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들의 점수 향상이 가장 컸다. 이것은 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 사이
버 가정학습 사이트 활용이 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들에게 가장 효과적이었다는 것을 보여주는 것이다.
물론 M2의 쓰기 점수와 L1의 듣기 점수가 5점씩 하향되었지만, 1문제의 배점이 5점인 점을 생각
한다면 그리 큰 문제는 아닌 듯 보인다.
학생들의 소감문과 면담자료를 보면 그룹에 따라 ‘다높이’에 대한 반응 및 학습 방법은 조금씩
달랐다. 우선 ‘학습 도우미’들은 ‘다높이’의 기존 내용이 너무 쉽다고 느끼고 있었고, 교사가 제공하
는 선택학습, 특히 동화와 노래를 선호하였고 학습할 때 대부분 따라 읽어 보는 활동을 통해 말하
기와 읽기를 연습하였다는 것을 알 수 있었다.
교사 : 수업 시간에 좋은 점은 없어?
L1 : ‘다높이’의 ‘학습하기’로 예습을 하면요, 수업 시간에 뭘 할 지 아니까..
(3차면담, 11.21)
304 초등영어 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용 방안 연구: 동료교수 활동을 중심으로
‘학습 협동이’ 그룹은 서로 수준이 비슷한 학생들끼리 구성되어 있어서 학습 내용을 안내해 주
는 것 보다는 서로 권장해 주고 싶은 내용을 추천해주며 선의의 경쟁을 통해 학습을 할 수 있도록
하였다. 처음에는 교사가 사전 교육을 통해 제안하지 않았음에도 불구하고 파트너와 함께 서로 단
어를 외워 점검해 주거나, 숙제를 내주는 방법을 사용하여 학습하려고 하였다. 그러나 이러한 방법
은 처음의 의도와는 다르게 잘 안 되어서 금방 포기했다고 하였다.
M1 : 저도 안 생겨요.
교사 : M4가 스티커가 적어서 좀 그렇겠네.
M4 : 별로요. 공부만 잘하면 되지 스티커는 별로... 적어도 걱정 안 해요.
(3차면담, 11.22)
2. 정의적 태도
1) 전체 학생
* p<.01, ** p<.05
90-100% 10 29.5%
80-90% 8 23.5%
영역별 점수 그룹별
구분 총점
흥미도 참여도 자신감 향상도
사전 20 19 18 57
H1
학습 사후 20 23 22 65(+8)
6.50
도우미 사전 23 21 22 66
H2
사후 23 24 24 71(+5)
사전 17 14 16 47
M1
사후 19 15 15 49(+2)
사전 18 8 21 47
M2
학습 사후 19 20 19 58(+11)
8.00
협동이 사전 10 10 7 27
M3
사후 14 11 11 36(+9)
사전 17 19 16 52
M4
사후 22 20 20 62(+10)
사전 11 13 11 35
L1
학습 사후 18 16 13 47(+12)
8.00
배우미 사전 14 20 12 46
L2
사후 15 19 16 50(+4)
먼저 ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들의 반응부터 살펴보면, ‘학습 도우미’들은 처음의 긍정적인 반응과 달
리 시간이 지날수록 ‘다높이’ 영어 학습이 쉬워서인지 점차 공부를 한다는 마음보다는 의무감에 학
습을 하는 경향이 생겼다. 물론, 모두 100%의 진도율을 마쳤지만, 점차 학습이 진행될수록 대충한
다는 반응도 나타났다. 그러나 실험이 끝나갈 때에는 후회하며 앞으로 영어 공부를 더욱 열심히
해야겠다고 다짐하는 모습을 보니, 학습 도우미 학생들은 ‘다높이’를 통해 영어에 대한 흥미가 상
승한 것은 아니지만 영어에 대한 흥미를 꾸준히 지니게 되었다는 것을 알 수 있었다.
‘학습 협동이’ 학생들은 처음에 ‘다높이’ 영어 학습에 대해 긍정적으로 반응하며 공부를 시작한
후 몇 주 동안은 일주일에 4-5번씩 접속하여 열심히 공부하였지만, 몇몇 학생들은 시간이 지날수
록 쉽다며 접속 횟수를 줄여 나갔다. 하지만, 실험이 끝나갈 때에는 6학년 때도 자율적으로 접속하
여 공부하고 싶다거나 앞으로 영어 공부를 더욱 열심히 해야겠다고 결심하는 모습을 보여 준 점으
로 보아 영어에 대한 흥미는 꾸준히 가지게 되었음을 보여주었다.
‘학습 배우미’ 학생인 L1과 L2은 초기에는 수업에 잘 참여하지도 않고, 책상에 엎드려 있거나
시계를 자주 보며 수업에 매우 방관적인 자세로 가만히 앉아만 있었다. 그러나 시간이 지날수록
교사가 나눠 주는 학습지에 관심을 보이고 게임에도 참여하였으며, 잘 모르는 것은 교사나 친구에
게 물어보며 조금씩 참여하는 모습을 보여 주었다. 물론 실험이 끝날 때까지도 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생
최희경․윤귀양 311
“오늘 스티커 10개를 모아서 과자, 초콜릿 받았는데, 다음에는 더 열심히 해서 20개까
지 모을 꺼다. 이제는 숙제를 더 잘 해와야겠다.” (L1, 9.20)
(3차면담, 11.22)
3. 자기 주도적 학습 능력
1) 전체 학생
** p<.05
30분 이하 10 29.4%
30분-1시간 21 61.8%
여러분은 한 번 ‘다높이’에 접속하면 평균 몇 시간
1시간-2시간 3 8.8%
정도 공부를 했나요?
2시간-3시간 0 0.0%
3시간 이상 0 0.0%
학생들의 응답을 보면, 일주일 동안 ‘다높이’에 접속하는 횟수가 3회 이상인 학생이 21명
(61.8%)이고, 한 번 접속할 때마다 30분-1시간 정도 학습하는 학생이 21명(61.8%)으로 과반수가
넘는 학생들이 ‘다높이’를 적절히 활용하며 꾸준히 영어 학습을 하였다는 것을 볼 수 있다. 또한
혼자 공부하는 것보다 동료 교수 활동을 도입하여 공부하는 것이 스스로 공부하는데 도움이 되었
다고 한 학생이 34명 중 28명(82.4%)을 차지함으로써 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 학습이 대다수 학
생들의 자기 주도적 학습 능력 향상에 많은 도움을 주었다는 것을 알 수 있었다.
위와 같은 결과는 이러닝이 학생들로 하여금 자신의 학습을 스스로 컨트롤 할 수 있도록 허용
함으로써 자기 주도적 탐구력을 신장시키는데 효과적이라고 한 김정렬 외(2006)의 연구와 사이버
가정학습에 대한 활용경험이 있는 학생이 활용 경험이 없는 학생보다 자기 주도적 학습 능력 측정
검사에서 더 높은 점수를 얻었다는 권유경(2007)의 연구 결과와도 일치한다.
사전 32
M1 -2
사후 30
사전 32
M2 +13
사후 45
학습 협동이 3.5
사전 23
M3 0
사후 23
사전 38
M4 +3
사후 41
사전 23
L1 +8
학습 사후 31
8
배우미 사전 26
L2 +8
사후 34
‘학습 협동이’ 결과를 살펴보면, 네 명의 학습 협동이 학생들 중에서 M1과 M3는 점수가 낮아
졌거나 향상이 없었지만, M2와 M4는 검사 결과에 향상이 있었다. 학생들의 소감문을 보면 M1과
M3는 학습하면서 특별히 계획을 세워 한다거나 자신에게 어떤 부분의 학습이 더 필요한지를 고려
하지 않고 그냥 학습하는 경향이 있었던 반면, M2와 M4는 예습과 복습을 하려 했고, 학습하면서
자신이 어떤 부분을 학습해야 하는지 생각하였으며, 부족할 경우에는 보충도 하려고 하는 등의 노
력을 하였음을 알 수 있으며, 이는 검사 결과를 뒷받침 한다.
316 초등영어 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용 방안 연구: 동료교수 활동을 중심으로
‘학습 배우미’ 학생들의 소감문을 살펴보면, 시간이 지날수록 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들은 자신의 수
준을 파악해서 자신에게 필요한 학습 내용을 선택했고, 그날 해야 할 공부를 하지 못하면 그 다음
날에 다시 하였으며, 스스로 학습 내용을 복습하기도 하였음을 알 수 있다. 또한, 매주 교사가 제
시하는 진도율을 꾸준히 따라하며 목표 달성을 위해 힘들어도 열심히 하는 표 을 보여 주었다. 특
히, L1 학생의 경우에는 평소 과제를 거의 해오지 않는 학생이었는데 ‘다높이’를 통해 영어 학습을
하는 과정에서 스스로 학습하며 자기 주도적 학습 능력을 갖추어 가는 모습을 볼 수 있었다.
‘학습 도우미’ 학생들은 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들이 자신의 계획대로 학습을 이행하고 있는지 점검
해 주었고, 점검하는 횟수를 시간이 지남에 따라 점차 줄여 줌으로써 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들이 스스
로 학습을 하는 습관을 가질 수 있도록 도와주었다.
‘학습 협동이’ 학생들은 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들과 다르게 자기 스스로 학습할 수 있는 능력이 어
느 정도는 갖추어져 있는 학생들이기 때문에, 자신의 학습 계획은 스스로 세우고 계획에 따라 학
습했는지의 여부를 자신의 파트너획은점검할 수 있도록 사전 교육 시켰다. 학습 여부를 확인하는
횟수는 처음에는 자신들이 서로 협의하여 주 2-3회씩 검사하도록 하였고, 시간이 지남에 따라 점
차 줄여 나가도록 하였다.
M1과 M2 학생의 소감문을 살펴보면, 두 학생은 서로 매일매일 점검을 하였고 교사가 지시를
하지 않아도 자신들이 스스로 점검 횟수를 줄여가며 스스로 학습을 조절하여 가는 것처럼 보였다.
그러나 이것은 M2가 적극적으로 M1을 독려하며 이끌어 나갔기 때문이며, M1은 M2의 지시에 따
라 다소 수동적으로 행동하였다는 것을 알 수 있었다.
반면, M3와 M4 학생의 경우에는 처음에 열심히 하는 모습을 보였고 시간이 지날수록 점검하
는 횟수를 줄여나가긴 했지만, 그 횟수가 매우 불규칙적이었고, 자주 공책을 가져오지 않아 점검을
못하는 날도 많았다고 하였다.
위의 내용을 비교해 보면, 스스로 계획을 세우고 계획에 따라 학습하며 자신의 파트너와 점검
하는 습관을 기른 것이 자기 주도적 학습 능력의 향상에 도움이 되었지만, ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들
사이에 나타나는 상호 작용의 양상은 팀에 따라 달랐으며 얼마나 주도적으로 동료 교수 활동을 이
끌었느냐에 따라 자기 주도적 학습 능력의 향상 폭은 다양하였다. 이것은 M2가 사후 검사에서 나
머지 세 명 학생들의 점수보다 많이 향상되었다는 것에 의해 뒷받침 될 수 있다.
최희경․윤귀양 319
Ⅵ. 요약 및 제언
본 연구의 결과를 요약해보면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 사이버 가정학습
사이트 활용은 학생들의 말하기․읽기․쓰기 능력의 향상에는 도움이 되었으나, 듣기 능력의 향상
에는 통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 보여주지 않았다. 특히, 동료 교수 활동을 도입 한 것은 다른 그
룹의 학생들보다 영어 수준이 낮은 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들의 영어 능력 향상에 가장 많은 영향을 미
쳤는데, 이것은 ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들이 학습 내용을 안내하고, 학습 정도를 평가하며 ‘학습 배우미’
학생들의 실력 향상을 위해 적극 노력하였기 때문이었다. 이러한 활동은 ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들도
더욱 열심히 하게 하는 동기를 부여했지만, 사이트의 수준이 ‘학습 도우미’ 학생들에게는 너무 쉬
운 것으로 드러났다. 한편, 중급수준의 학생들끼리 짝을 맺은 ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들은 처음에 영어
능력 향상과 관련된 동료 교수 활동을 열심히 하려 했지만 점차 소홀하였다. 따라서 ‘학습 협동이’
학생들의 영어 능력 향상은 서로 도움을 주고받기 보다는 각자 스스로 사이트를 학습한 것으로 인
해 이루어졌다고 볼 수 있다.
둘째, 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용은 학생들의 영어에 대한 정의적
태도를 긍정적으로 변화시켜 주었다. 이것은 세 그룹 대부분의 학생들이 쪽지나 게시판을 의사소
통의 창구로 활용하여 친밀감을 형성하였고, 자신들의 의견이나 제안을 교환하며 사이트 활용을
권장하였고, 스티커 판이나 선물 등의 보상 제도를 이용하여 자신의 파트너 학생들이 꾸준히 영어
학습을 하도록 함으로써 가능하였다. 그 중 몇 명의 ‘학습 도우미’와 ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들은 점차
사이트를 활용하는 것이 지겹다고 반응하기도 하였지만, 6학년이 되어서도 영어 학습을 열심히 하
고 싶다고 결심한 것을 보면 대부분의 학생들은 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 사이버 가정학습 사이트
활용으로 인해 영어에 대한 긍정적인 태도를 형성하게 되었다는 것을 알 수 있다.
셋째, 동료 교수 활동을 도입한 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용은 학생들의 자기 주도적 학습 능
력 향상에 도움을 주었다. 특히, ‘학습 도우미’의 도움을 받아 미리 진도표를 짜고, 계획에 맞추어
학습하려고 노력하였던 ‘학습 배우미’ 학생들의 자기 주도적 학습 능력이 많이 향상되었다. ‘학습
도우미’ 또한 자신이 도우미라는 생각 때문에 더욱 열심히 하게 되어 스스로 자기 주도적 학습 능
력을 향상시켰지만, ‘학습 협동이’ 학생들의 경우에는 자신의 파트너와 얼마나 체계적으로 상호 작
용 하였느냐에 따라 자기 주도적 학습 능력의 향상 폭이 다양하게 나타났다.
이상의 연구 결과를 바탕으로 초등학교 학생들의 영어 학습을 위해서 어떻게 사이버 가정학습
사이트 활용할 지와 관련하여 제언을 하면 다음과 같다.
첫째, 사이버 가정학습은 그 특성상 학생들이 혼자 집에서 스스로 학습해야하므로 학생들의 자
기주도성이 많이 요구된다. 특히 아직 인지적, 정서적으로 많은 안내를 필요로 하는 초등학생들의
경우 꾸준히 사이트를 활용하여 영어를 학습하는 것은 어려워 보인다. 이러한 사이버 가정학습의
단점을 보완하여 학생들이 사이버 가정학습 사이트를 활용하여 꾸준히 영어 학습을 할 수 있게 하
기 위하여 동료 교수 활동 도입은 그 하나의 방안이 될 수 있다. 특히 동료 교수 활동을 통한 사
320 초등영어 사이버 가정학습 사이트 활용 방안 연구: 동료교수 활동을 중심으로
참고문헌
Key words : elementary school English, Cyber Home Work, peer tutoring
Applicable level: elementary education
편집위원회 규정
제정 1997년 4월 23일
개정 2000년 9월 5일
개정 2003년 9월 10일
개정 2008년 2월 20일
제1장 총 칙
제2장 구 성
제1조 편집위원회는 전공 분야별로 안배하여 20명 내외로 구성하고, 위원장과 이사, 위원 및 간사를
둔다.
제2조 편집위원장은 수석 부회장이 겸임하고, 임기는 부회장의 임기와 같다.
제3조 편집위원은 투고 논문을 세부 전공별로 심사할 수 있도록 각 영역 전문가를 고루 선정하며,
학술 연구 실적이 뛰어난 회원 중에서 학회 회장이 추천하여 이사회의 인준을 얻어 임명한다.
임기는 학회 임원의 임기와 같다.
제3장 기 능
제4장 논문 심사 기준
제5장 심사 절차
논문 투고 규정
제정 1997년 4월 23일
개정 2000년 9월 5일
개정 2003년 9월 10일
개정 2008년 2월 20일
개정 2008년 12월 10일
1조 논문의 내용
2조 원고 제출
3조 논문의 체제
논문 제목
<견명조, 16, 가운데 정렬, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자, 줄 간격 130%, 장평 95%,
자간 -8%>
<1줄 띄움: 줄 간격 110%>
Jerry W. Larson (Brigham Young University)
<성명: 견명조, 소속: 신명조, 10, 오른쪽 정렬, 줄 간격 140%, 장평 95%, 자간 -2%>
<신명조, 10, 양쪽 혼합, 줄 간격 160%, 여백-왼쪽 및 오른쪽: 5 ch, 쪽 번호는 출판사에서 입력함.>
<1줄 띄움: 줄 간격 160%>
This article begins by exploring benefits associated with using computers
in language testing in such areas as test preparation and test delivery, ...
<신명조, 10, 양쪽 혼합, 줄 간격 160%, 여백-왼쪽 및 오른쪽: 5 ch>
<1줄 띄움: 줄 간격 160%>
Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION(혹은 서론)
<견명조, 영문일 경우 대문자, 13, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 아래 4mm, 장평 95%, 자간 -8%>
Over the years various techniques and innovations in language testing....
<본문: 신명조, 10, 양쪽 혼합, 줄 간격 160%, 들여 쓰기: 국문 2자, 영문 3자>
Ⅱ. 장 제목
<견명조, 영문일 경우 대문자, 13, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 위 한 행, 아래 4mm, 장평 95%, 자간
-8%>
1. 절 제목
<중고딕, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자, 11, 줄간격 160%, 문단 간격: 위 0, 아래 3mm, 장평
95%, 자간 -10%>
Certain features of the computer ...
<본문: 신명조, 10, 줄 간격 160%, 들여 쓰기: 국문 2자, 영문 3자>
1) 소제목
<중고딕, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자, 10.5, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 위 3, 아래 3, 장평
95%, 자간 -10%>
328 Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
⑴ 세부 제목
<중고딕, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자로 나머지는 전부 소문자, 10.5, 줄 간격 160%, 문단
간격: 위 3, 아래 2, 장평 95%, 자간 -10%>
① 미세 제목
<신명조, 영문일 경우 첫 자만 대문자로 나머지는 전부 소문자, 10.5, 줄 간격 160%, 장평 95%, 자간
-10%>
2. 절 제목
<중고딕, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자, 11, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 위 5, 아래 3mm,
장평 95%, 자간 -10%>
____________________________________
각주
<신명조, 9, 양쪽 혼합, 줄 간격 145%>
<1줄 띄움>
REFERENCES (혹은 참고 문헌)
<견명조, 영문일 경우 대문자, 가운데 정렬, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 아래 4mm, 장평 95%, 자간
-8%>
<1줄 띄움>
APPENDIX 혹은 APPENDICES (혹은 부록)
<견명조, 영문일 경우 대문자, 13, 가운데 정렬, 줄 간격 160%, 문단 간격: 아래 4mm, 장평 95%,
자간 -8%>
1. 부록 소제목
<중고딕, 영문일 경우 각 단어의 첫 자만 대문자, 11, 문단 간격: 위 5mm, 아래 3mm, 장평 95%,
자간 -10%>
<1줄 띄움>
Key words: CALL, Internet-based language learning, text-chat
Applicable levels: secondary education
<신명조, 10, 줄 간격 160%: 주제어 및 적용 수준은 영어로 표기한다.>
<1줄 띄움>
Author(s): Kim, Cheolsu (Hankuk University, 1st author); [email protected]
Park, Jinju (Gyounggi University, 2nd author); [email protected]
<신명조, 10, 줄 간격 160%: 단독저자인 경우에는 명시할 필요가 없으며, 공동 저작의 경우 제1저자,
제2저자 혹은 교신저자(corresponding author) 혹은 공동저자(co-author) 등으로 위의 보기와 같이
구별한다.>
<1줄 띄움>
Received: February 15, 2005
Reviewed: March 20, 2005
<신명조, 10, 줄 간격 160%>
논문 투고 규정 329
4조 기 타
Purpose
General
Submission of Manuscripts
연구 윤리에 관한 규정
제정 2007년 6월 22일
개정 2009년 2월 28일
제1장 총칙
제2장 논문 저자 윤리규정
제1조 (표절) 논문 저자는 자신이 수행하지 않은 연구의 일부분을 자신의 연구 결과인 것처럼
논문에 제시하지 않는다. 타인의 연구 결과를 참조할 경우에는 반드시 출처를 명시해야 하
며, 그 일부분을 자신의 연구 결과이거나 주장인 것처럼 제시하는 것은 표절이 된다.
제2조 (연구업적) 저자는 자신이 실제로 수행하거나 공헌한 연구에 대해서만 저자로서 책임을
지며 업적으로 인정받는다. 논문 저자의 순서는 연구에 기여한 정도에 따라 정확하게 반영
한다. 직책상 이유로 제1저자로서 업적을 인정받거나, 연구에 기여했음에도 공동저자에서
배제되는 것은 정당화될 수 없다.
제3조 (중복 게재) 저자는 국내외를 막론하고 이전에 출판된 자신의 연구물이나 또는 게재 예정
이거나 심사 중인 연구물을 새로운 연구물인 것처럼 투고하지 않는다. 이미 발표한 연구
결과를 다른 언어나 다른 독자를 대상으로 다시 출판하기 원하는 저자는 논문을 게재한 학
술지와 앞으로 논문이 게재될 학술지의 편집인 모두에게 중복 게재 여부를 확인한 후 양측
의 동의를 구해 이차 출판 형식으로 논문을 게재하도록 한다.
제4조 (인용 및 참고 표시) 공개된 학술 자료를 인용할 경우에는 정확하게 기술하고 상식에
속하는 자료가 아닌한 반드시 그 출처를 명확하게 밝힌다. 논문 및 연구계획 심사 시 또는
개인적인 접촉을 통해 얻은 자료의 경우에도 그 정보를 제공한 연구자의 동의를 얻은 후에
만 인용해야 한다. 타인의 글을 인용하거나 타인의 아이디어를 차용할 경우에는 반드시 인
용 여부 및 참고 여부를 밝히며, 어디까지가 선행연구의 결과이고 어디서부터 본인의 독창
적인 생각이나 해석인지를 독자가 알 수 있도록 해야 한다.
제5조 (연구 자료의 진실성) 논문 저자는 연구 결과에 중대한 영향을 미칠 수 있는 데이터 및
분석 결과를 왜곡 또는 조작하지 않고, 연구 결과를 진실하고 공정하게 제시한다.
제6조 (논문의 수정) 저자는 논문 심사 과정에서 제안된 편집위원과 심사위원의 의견을 가능한
332 Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
제5장 윤리규정 시행 지침
한 것으로 간주한다.
제2조 (윤리규정 위반의 보고) Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning 발행 학술지 게재논문
에서 이중출판, 이중게재, 표절, 조작, 모방 등과 같이 연구 윤리 규정 위반 사례가 드러날
경우 즉시 학회 임원회에 보고하여 사실 여부를 확인한다.
제3조 (학회 임원회의 권한) 임원회는 윤리규정 위반으로 보고된 연구 논문에 대하여 충분한
검토와 철저한 조사를 실시한 후, 윤리 규정 위반이 사실로 판명된 경우에는 회장에게 적절
한 제재 조치를 건의할 수 있다.
제4조 (임원회의 조사 및 심의) 윤리규정 위반으로 보고된 논문 저자는 임원회에서 행하는 조사
에 협조해야 한다. 또한 윤리규정 위반으로 보고된 논문 저자에게 충분한 소명의 기회가
주어져야 한다. 학회의 최종적인 징계 결정이 내려질 때까지 임원회는 해당 논문 저자의
신원을 외부에 공개해서는 안 된다.
제5조 (징계의 절차 및 내용) 회장은 임원회를 소집하여 징계 여부 및 징계 내용을 최종적으로
결정한다. 연구 윤리 규정을 위반했다고 판정된 논문 저자에 대해서는 경고, 해당 논문 게재
취소 (내용 첨가), 회원자격 정지 내지 박탈 등의 징계를 할 수 있으며 이 조처를 다른 기관
이나 개인에게 알릴 수 있다.
제6조 (윤리규정의 수정) 윤리규정의 수정 절차는 본 학회 회칙 개정 절차에 준한다.
제7조 (윤리규정의 공포) 모든 윤리규정은 학회 회원들에게 정기적으로 공포한다. 비정기적으
로도 윤리규정의 개정 및 필요에 따라 학회 회원들에게 공포한다.
334 Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
한국멀티미디어언어교육학회지 중요 양식 안내
1. 본문 속에서의 인용이나 괄호 안의 문헌 표기
2) 직접 인용 2: Kirsch and Roen (1990) pointed out that “The meanings of ‘audience’...
tend to diverge in two general directions: one toward actual people external to a text,
the audience whom the writer must accommodate; the other... listeners” (p. 14).
3) 직접 인용 3:
According to Kirsch and Roen (1990):
The meanings of ‘audience’... tend to diverge in two general directions: one
toward actual people external to a text, the audience whom the writer must
accommodate; the other... listeners (p. 14).
4) 간접 인용:
⑴ 한글 논문: 조세경과 이충현(1998)은 멀티미디어는 ...
멀티미디어는 외국어 교수 및 학습에서 ... (조세경, 이충현, 1998).
⑵ 영어 논문: Ellington (1998) stated that multimedia is defined as ...
Multimedia is defined as ... (Ellington, 1998)
5) 1명의 저자: Ellington (1998) stated that multimedia is defined as ...
6) 2명의 저자: 본문이 영어이면 “and”로, 한글이면 “과/와”로 연결하고, 영어는 괄호속에서
“&”를 사용한다.
한국멀티미디어언어교육학회지 중요 양식 안내 335
Experimental Control
Cognitive strategies
N % N %
Word level strategies 61 38.36 26 52
Comprehension level strategies 98 61.63 24 48
3. 참고 문헌 목록(References) 표기
2) 책(Book)
최수영. (2000). 멀티미디어 영어교육. 서울: 박문각.
백영균, 설양환. (1997). 인터넷과 교육. 서울: 양서원.
Pelgrum, W. J., & T. Plomp. (1991). The use of computers in education worldwide.
Oxford: Pergamon.
Mitchell, T. R., & Larson, J. R., Jr. (1987). People in organization: An introduction to
organizational behavior (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Geddes, M., & Sturtridge, G. (Eds). (1982). Video in the language classroom. London:
Heinemann.
American Psychological Association. (1994). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
번역서(Translation)
Brown, H. D. (2000). Teaching by Principles (2nd ed.) (권오량, 김영숙, 한문섭, 번역.).
서울: Pearson Education Korea.
4) 잡지(Magazine Article)
김진영. (1999, 7월). 멀티미디어를 활용한 외국어교육의 현주소. 에듀피아, 7, 23-41.
Posner, M. T. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674.
5) 뉴스레터(Newsletter)
이현진, (2000, 1월). 언어와 진화론. 한국언어학회 소식, 제99호, 5.
Morrisroe, S., & Barker, D. (1984, August). Using film in a multi-level class.
CATESOL News, 5, 13.
6) 신문기사(Newspaper Article)
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The
Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
7) 연구 보고서(Report)
박성익. (1989). 코스웨어의 이해와 설계 전략. 한국교육개발원(편), 코스웨어 설계에 관한 기
초연구 (연구보고 KR89-1, pp. 35-48). 서울: 편저자.
최연희, 권오남, 성태제. (1998). 열린 교육을 위한 중학교 영어․수학 수행평가의 적용과 효
과에 대한 분석 연구 (교육부 초등교육정책과 열린 교육 연구 결과 보고서). 서울: 이화
여자대학교 사범대학.
Broadhurst, R. G., & Maller, R. A. (1991). Sex offending and recidivism (Tech. Rep.
No. 3). Nedlands, Western Australia: University of Western Australia, Crime
Research Centre.
Mead, J. V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that
novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-PR-92-4). East Lansing,
MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 346 082)
ar_view.asp?pid=46&isid=27300&arid=581973&topMenu=2&topMenu1=2에서 2007
년 2월 5일에 검색했음.
Egbert, I., & Jessup, L. (1996). Analytic and systemic analyses of computer-supported
language learning environments. TESL-EJ, 2(1). Retrieved October 14, 1998,
from the World Wide Web: http://violet.berkeley.edu/~cwp/TESL-EJ/ej06/
al.html
Berge, Z., & Collins, M. (1995). Computer-mediated communication and the on-line
classroom: Overview and perspectives. Computer-Mediated Communication
Magazine, 2(2), 6-17. Retrieved June 12, 1998, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/1995/feb/berge.html
⑵ 전자우편(E-mail)
Lunn, F. (1996, June 18). Summary of reponses to request for CALL lab info.
TESLCA-L [Discussion list]. Retrieved December 18, 1996, by e-mail:
[email protected]
⑶ 웹사이트(Website)
이충현. (2004). 멀티미디어 학습 자료 제작 및 활용. 월드와이드웹: http://hufsee.new21.net/
pds/eepds/MALL/study1.html에서 2007년 10월 5일에 검색했음.
Kids Club. (1997-2007). Learning resources for kids. 월드와이드웹:
http://www.kizclub.com/에서 2006년 5월 5일에 검색했음.
Hammersmith, L. (1997). EnglishNet: Writing for the Web. University of Illinois at
Chicago, Tutorium in Intensive English. Retrieved May 2, 1998, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.uic.edu/depts/tie/net/
Business English and academic writing. (1997). The Comenius Group. Retrieved May
2, 1998, from the World Wide Web: http://www.comenius.com/writing/
Higgins, J. (1994). Sequitur [Computer software]. Stony Brook, NY: RDA Mind
Builders. Demo version retrieved April 30, 1998, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.stir.ac.uk/epd/celt/staff/higdox/software.htm
한국멀티미디어언어교육학회
The Korea Association of Multimedia Assisted Language Learning(KAMALL)
회원 입회 원서
성 명 漢字 英文
주민등록번호
근 무 처 직위
□□□-□□□ 전화
직장
FAX
주소
□□□-□□□ 전화
자택
FAX
Email 휴대폰
최종 학력 국 내 국 외
연구/관심분야
학회활동 참여 희망 분야에 ○표
⑴활 용 ⑴활 용
멀티미디어 교수용
인터넷 ⑵ 연구 개발 ⑵ 연구 개발
자료제작기법
⑶ 교육 Workshop ⑶ 교육 Workshop
⑴활 용 ⑴활 용
CD-ROM
⑵ 연구 개발 기 타 ⑵ 연구 개발
Titles
⑶ 교육 Workshop ⑶ 교육 Workshop
200 년 월 일
신청인 :
한국멀티미디어언어교육학회장 귀하
회원 입회 원서 343
I hereby agree with the goals of KAMALL and submit this application.
Applicant’s Signature: ___________________ Date: _____________________
Membership Fees
* New Membership Fee: ₩40,000 ($40) including Annual Fee, ₩20,000 ($20)
* Overseas Membership Fee: ₩40,000 ($40)
* Life time Membership Fee: ₩300,000 ($250)
* Library Membership Fee: ₩100,000 ($100)
The payment should be made to Kookmin Bank account 048401-04-078958 (Choi, Inn-Chull
KAMALL), and a copy of the receipt must be mailed to the Secretary General with this
application form.
Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning
발행인: 최 인 철
발행처: 한국멀티미디어언어교육학회
연락처: 302-735
대전광역시 서구 도마2동 439-6
배재대학교 TESOL학과
총무이사 김정태
Tel: 042-520-5913, CP: 010-7239-6104
Email: [email protected]
홈페이지: http://www.kamall.or.kr
발행일: 2009. 12. 31
제작처: 북코리아
-
서울시 마포구 공덕동 115-13번지 2층
TEL: 02)704-7840, FAX: 02)704-7848
홈페이지: http://www.sunhaksa.com
이메일: [email protected]