Dialectical Behaviour Therapy: A Critique and Evaluation

Malcolm Huxter- PSY509-April 1999

The term “ borderline” first appeared in psychoanalytic literature earlier this century. It
tended to refer to patients who were neither completely neurotic or psychotic but were
still very disturbed (Goldstein, 1995). This term has evolved and presently
“ borderline” generally refers to a severely disturbed personality (Ryle, 1997). The
core features of the Borderline Personality Disorder are instability of mood, interpersonal
relationships and identity (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Suicide attempts
are a common behavioural feature of this disorder.

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) patients with a history repeated suicide attempts
are renown as a group of individuals who are difficult to treat (Miller, Eisner and Allport,
1994). Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is a treatment designed for individuals who
meet criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). It is specifically oriented to those
borderline individuals, who as part of their disorder, also participate in para-suicidal
behaviours. DBT is considered as one of the few therapeutic approaches that are
considered as successful in treating these individuals (Roth & Fonagy, 1996). DBT may
be the only cognitive and behavioural treatment procedures that is supported by
controlled clinical evidence for reducing, long term, repeat suicidal behaviour in BPD
clients (Roth & Fonagy, 1996; Van Der Sande, Van Rooijen, Buskens, Allart, Hawton,
Van Der Graaf, & Van Engeland, 1997).

DBT was primarily developed by a clinician called Marsha Linehan in the late 1980’ s
and early 1990’ s . Based only upon a review of the literature, the following critique will
evaluate the use of DBT as a viable therapeutic intervention. It will begin by describing
the historical context from which DBT developed. Then, a treatment overview will
explain its goals, strategies and various treatment approaches such as individual and
group. Derived from a bio-social theory of BPD and the integration of numerous
treatment paradigms DBT has a broad theoretical foundation. The theoretical
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perspective of DBT will be explored and discussed and supporting empirical evidence
that is based upon controlled studies as well as anecdotal reports will be reviewed.
Finally the limitations and assets of DBT both as a program package as well as model
of treatment will be commented upon.

Historical Developments
Linehan (1993) ascribed the beginning developments of DBT to the early 1980s when
she was working with para-suicidal clients and attemptng to apply Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy (CBT) to their behaviours. She stated that during weekly sessions
her treatment sessions were observed by a team. It was verified that she was
sometimes applying CBT with these clients but in addition to this she was also applying
a number of other techniques and strategies that could be aligned to other therapeutic
approaches or paradigms. These techniques included the use of validation, warm
acceptance and empathetic reflection. However, these validating communication styles
would often switch to blunt irreverent confronting comments. Her techniques also
included paradoxical treatment strategies found in some systemic and paradoxical
approaches. In addition, she found herself being influenced by Zen Buddhist meditation
practices where there is an emphasis on acceptance of feelings rather than changing
them.

The emphasis of CBT is on rational thoughts and changing cognitive distortions which
are seen as the root of an individual’ s mental suffering (eg Beck, 1961). Linehan, on
the other hand found herself drawing attention to intuitive non-rational thoughts as
equally advantageous to rational thoughts and emphasising acceptance of painful
emotional states and problematic environments rather than trying to change or modify
them as with CBT.

Linehan’ s clinical experience formed the inspiration to develop an approach different

from traditional CBT and she chose the term “ dialectical” because it’ s meaning
seemed best to describe her approach. Published in 1993 Linehan wrote a text book
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(1993) and skills manual (1993b) both of which give elaborate details about the theory
and practice of DBT. Despite the misleading title of her text (“ Cognitive Behavioral
Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorders,” ) Linehan (1993) noted that DBT had
a number of aspects that were different from traditional CBT. These were: 1/a focus on
acceptance and validation of behaviour as noted above, 2/an emphasis on treatment-
interfering behaviours, 3/an emphasis on the therapeutic relationship as a primary
therapeutic factor and 4/the importance of dialectical processes as a focus for treatment.

Treatment overview
The main goals of DBT are:
1. to reduce life threatening and suicidal behaviours
2. reduce therapy interfering behaviours especially non-compliance and dropping out of
treatment
3. increase quality of life and decrease behaviours that may have a severe effect on an
individuals quality of life, and
4. increase general coping skills.

The DBT treatment package involves one to one individual psychotherapy, a group
based skills training program, case consultations for therapists and phone contact with
clients.

“ In a nut shell DBT is very simple. The therapist creates a context of validation rather
than blaming the patient, and within that context the therapist blocks or extinguishes bad
behaviors, drags good behaviors out of the patient, and figures out a way to make the
good behaviors so reinforcing that the patient continues the good ones and stops the
bad ones” (Linehan, 1993, p.97)

At its most rudimentary level DBT endeavours to reduce the suffering experienced by
the DBT client by altering maladaptive behaviours. From the clients view maladaptive
behaviours (such as suicide attempts) are often seen as solutions for distress or
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suffering that these clients may be experiencing. For the therapist view however, the
maladaptive behaviours are often seen as the problems to be solved.

Strategies
“ Strategies” have described as “ Co-ordinated activities, tactics, and procedures
that therapist employs to acheive treatment goals” (Linehan, 1993b, p27).

With DBT there are:

· core strategies,
· stylistic strategies,
· case management strategies,
· integrative strategies, and
· structural strategies.

The core strategies are the basic strategies used with treatment. The stylistic strategies
are related to interpersonal and communication styles compatible with the general
approach. Case management strategies relate to how the therapist relates to the social
network within which the client is enmeshed. Integrative strategies relate to specific
strategies about how to deal with specific problem situations such as suicidal behaviour
or therapy interfering behaviour. Structural strategies have to do with how to structure
therapy time.

In order to give a simple overview of DBT only the core strategies and the stylistic
strategies will be elaborated.

Core Strategies
The core strategies of DBT are validation, problem solving and dialectical strategies.

Validation strategies: Invalidation is considered as a primary causative factor in the

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development of BPD. Invalidation is also considered as an ongoing maladaptive
behavioural response in a BPD client. Validation, as an antidote to these experiences
is therefore judged to be a key therapeutic approach. Two types of validation are
utilised in therapy.
The first type of validation comes from the therapist finding the “ wisdom” or
“ correctness” in the client’ s emotional, behavioural, or cognitive response. The
therapist comprehends that problems arise in an interdependent context. Thus therapist
expresses that it is understandable that particular responses arise given the nature of
environmental and other factors. Blame is not directed to the client and the variety of
emotional and behavioural responses are acknowledged.

The second type of validation occurs when the therapist expresses the belief and the
confidence in the client’ s inherent ability to resolve their problems and lead a
worthwhile life.

Problem Solving strategies: These strategies involve the therapist helping the client to
firstly define their problems and related contingencies. Then the therapist encourages
the client to consider alternative solutions for their problems, apply solutions and finally
evaluate the results. Depending upon the nature of the problem one of four types of
change strategies may be needed.

1. If the client does not have the skills to deal with the problem these skills are taught.
Usually the skills required are one of the types of skills taught in the skills training
(group) modules. These are skills of mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness,
emotional regulation an distress tolerance.
2. If a problem is reinforced by a contingency factor, then this factor is altered. Here,
positive behaviours are reinforced and the maladaptive behaviours are not reinforced
and extinguished.
3. If a problem is related to excessive fear or guilt then it may be an anxiety type
response. If so, this may be dealt with by utilising exposure-based treatments. Here
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it is considered that talking about particular issues becomes a way to facilitate
exposure. Acceptance and tolerance with mindfulness is considered as an exposure
technique.
4. If a problem-solving behaviour is related to faulty beliefs and assumptions then
cognitive modification or restructuring may be utilised.

Dialectical strategies: The aim of dialectical strategies involve avoiding being drawn into
one side of an experience with the exclusion of the other. The aim is to balance
extremes and find a synthesis. The reality and validity of both sides of an experience
are emphasised. Here the primary dialectical approach is balancing change (problem
focused strategies) with acceptance (validation strategies).

Dialectical strategies may also be directed at developing a dialectical perspective on

phenomena. Paradoxical situations may be highlighted emphasising that a position is
neither right or wrong, and that within any situation there are no absolutes. This may be
confusing for the client but it is expected that this confusion will resolve or change by
itself. These strategies may involve telling stories, metaphors or philosophising.

Stylistic strategies and the therapeutic relationship:

The therapeutic relationship is thought as paramount to DBT. In fact, in DBT it is
considered that an intense caring relationship can bring about change. Similar to the
benefits of transference in psycho-dynamic therapies a therapeutic relationship is
considered as beneficial because it “ allows the client to heal developmental
deficiencies, stimulates innate potential for growth and fosters client autonomy”
(Linehan, 1993, p.449)

Communication styles are the essence a therapeutic relationship. Stylistic strategies are
related to the style and form of communication rather than the content. There are two
basic communication styles with DBT. One is described as reciprocal and the other as
irreverent. Consistent with strategies of validation the reciprocal style utilises warmth,
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open responsiveness, appropriate personal disclosure and modeling. The irreverent
style, on the other hand, is more direct, may use confrontation and may be abrupt. The
therapist is never indifferent to a client’ s suffering, but they may express indifference to
suicidal, therapy interfering and avoidance behaviours in a “ matter of fact or ‘ off- the
– wall’ way” (Linehan, 1993, p.449). Such communication may be paradoxical and
serve to not reinforce such behaviours. Like reciprocal communications and irreverent
style and help the client to view these behaviours as understandable given the life
circumstances of the client.

Types of treatment
The different types of treatment may involve individual treatment, telephone contact,
case consultations for therapists and groups. Clients are contracted to participate in all
aspects of the treatment for at least one year. DBT has some non-negotiable goals with
which the client must agree. These are:
1. a commitment to decrease suicidal behaviour
2. a commitment to decrease behaviours that may interfere with therapy and quality of
life (such as substance abuse, financial problems and other inappropriate life style
behaviours)
3. a commitment to increase behavioural skills. (Linehan, 1987)

The groups and the individual psychotherapy support one another and are separately
directed to the inter-related but specific needs of the BPD client group. The groups are
primarily psycho-educational and are directed at developing skills. They also become a
forum to practice, through interpersonal interaction, skills learnt. The individual
sessions are directed at promoting change and provide an opportunity to process, and
manage ongoing person specific issues (including crises) that commonly arise for these
individual.

Individual Therapy (IT)

IT focuses upon motivational issues including the motivation to stay alive. IT occurs on a
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weekly basis and may last anywhere from 50 to 90 minutes. Clients are required to
complete daily behavioural diaries and bring these to the sessions. The agenda for the
IT sessions is open and is contingent upon behaviours since the last session. Managing
self harm behaviours are always the priority. The therapist is collaborative and is seen
as “ an educator, coach, cheerleader and consultant to the patient” (Koerner &
Linehan, 1992, p446). The therapists assesses the client’ s problems session by
session and applies the problem solving, validation and dialectical strategies outlined
above accordingly.

Telephone contact is an extension of the support given in individual therapy. It has a

number of functions. For those who find it difficult to ask for help it becomes a way that
clients can ask for help without feeling shame or guilt. For those who have no difficulty
asking for help it may become, (according to Linehan, 1993) a way to practice altering
dysfunctional behaviour such as being demanding or abusive. At times when a client is
suicidal phone contact can support between sessions. Phone contact also help
generalise skills learnt to daily life and give an opportunity to clarify misunderstandings
or conflicts.

Case consultations are directed at the therapist so that they can maintain a dialectical
perspective on their clients. This could be seen as a way of reducing “ burn out” and
is primarily “ therapy” for the therapists. Having therapists engage in case discussion
ensures that they do not develop pejorative attitudes about their clients and maintain
positive regard.

Group skills programs

The groups are directed at developing specific skills that are thought to be deficient with
the suicidal BPD population. The groups are psycho-educational in nature and the IT
therapist may or may not attend these groups. However, unlike the IT sessions the skills
sessions follow a set agenda and have strict rules. For example personal individual
issues such as suicidal impulses, that may be discussed at the IT sessions are not
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discussed in the skills group. If these issues arise the group co-ordinator refers the client
to the IT therapist. Thus the group leader and IT therapist work in concert. Linehan
(1993b) published a skills manual which elaborately details session by session outline,
structure, format, content, and practical issues related to running these groups. These
details will not be elaborated here suffice giving an very brief overview of the skills
taught.

Mindfulness skills: are seen as central to DBT. They are over riding in the development
of all the other skills. One of the rationales for practicing mindfulness is to develop a
“ wise mind” . Here the “ wise” mind is emphasised as a balance between a
“ reasonable” intellectual, cold or rational mind and a reactive, hot, engaged
“ emotional” mind (Linehan, 1993b). The “ wise” mind adds intuitive knowing to
logical analysis and emotional experience. Mindfulness is explained as observing,
describing and participating with experience. Thus it helps clients validate their
emotional experience. Mindfulness is done in a manner that is non-judgmental, focused
(or one thing at a time) and skilful. Present centred awareness or focusing on the
present moment is an element of mindfulness. Linehan borrowed the rationale and the
practice of this skill directly from Buddhist practices (specifically Hahn, 1976).

Interpersonal effectiveness skills: are rationalised as skills for dealing with interpersonal
problems. The processes of training these skill are similar to the processes involved in
teaching assertiveness skills.

Emotional Regulation skills: are directed at understanding emotions, reducing

emotional vulnerability and decreasing emotional suffering. This involves learning to
identify and label emotions, increase positive emotional events, create the opposite to
negative emotions and manage distressing emotions with tolerance.

Distress tolerance skills: are skills directed at tolerating unavoidable painful events and
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emotions. They involve learning skills of distraction, “ self soothing” (comforting and
nurturing) skills, “ improving the moment” (relaxing and calming) skills and
rationalising (“ thinking about the pros and cons of a difficult situation” ) skills.

There are three types of skills training procedures: Skill acquisition, skill strengthening
and skill generalisation. These procedures occur through instruction, modelling,
behavioural rehearsal, feedback, homework and discussion. Like IT clients are asked
to maintain a diary card. The content of the group skills dairy card involves noting the
days particular skills were practiced.
Homework is checked at the beginning of each session. If homework is avoided then
this is considered as a “ therapy interfering” behaviour. Clients are permitted to miss
up to three consecutive sessions but after this they are not permitted to rejoin the
group. They are however permitted to renegotiate attending another group in the
following six months (this flexibility is thought to enhance compliance).

The interpersonal effectiveness, emotional regulation, and distress tolerance modules

each can be covered in 8 weeks and the mindfulness module can be covered in two or
three sessions and is reviewed before the beginning of each other module. Thus, in the
one year contracted, participants are able to attend each module two times.

Theoretical Perspectives.
DBT was developed from clinical experience. DBT has been described as an integrative
or a hybrid therapeutic model (Albeinz & Holmes, 1996; Koerner & Linehan, 1992). DBT
borrowed and integrated both its philosophical guiding principles and its treatment
strategies from a variety of popular psychological theoretical views as well as a number
contemplative spiritual traditions. Linehan argues, however, that DBT is not
“ atheoretical eclecticism” because it is guided by empirical support and dialectical
and bio-social theories (Koerner & Linehan, 1992, p440).

Bio-social Models of BPD

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The criteria for BPD can be found in the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association,
1994). Linehan does not disagree with the criteria found in the DSM-IV, but she
considers that there may be a subset of BPD. This subset includes individuals who
attempt to injure, mutilate, or kill themselves. Linehan considers that emotional dys-
regulation is the primary dysfunction of BPD (Linehan, 1993).

Secondary and interrelated to this Affect instability is:

· Behavioural instability with impulsive and suicidal behaviour,
· Interpersonal instability with chaotic and problematic relationships,
· Cognitive instability with occasional psychosis, dissociation and delusions, and
· Instability with the sense of self with a chronic sense of emptiness.

Linehan (1993) acknowledges that there are a number of models and proposed
etiologies for the development of BPD. However, like Millon (1981) who was influential
in developing the personality disorder criteria for the DSM systems, she emphasises
bio-social theories and social learning influences in the aetiology of BPD. Linehan’ s
bio-social model of BPD (1993) considered BPD results from an interactive and
interdependent combination of biological predisposition and dysfunctional
environments. Linehan’ s bio-social model “ assumes that individual functioning and
environmental conditions are mutually and continuously interactive, reciprocal and
interdependent.” (Linehan, 1993, p.39).

In Linehan’ s view, invalidating experiences and environments were crucial in the

development of BPD. Predominate was the tendency for primary carers to respond
inconsistently, erratically or inappropriately to private experience (such as emotions).
Child sexual assault, which is a common experience for those suffering with BPD, is an
example of one very powerful invalidating experience. As a result of invalidation, BPD
individuals may have learnt to not be able to recognise, trust or modulate their emotions.
Linehan (1993) claims that self invalidation continues to be a tendency with BPD clients.
To counter this tendency DBT emphasises validation as a primary strategy.
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According to the bio-social theory of BPD para-suicide it is a way of coping with
psychic distress that has arisen due to negative environmental events, individual
temperamental characteristics and other dysfunctional behaviours. Suicide attempts, as
a dysfunctional coping strategy, has empirical support (Linehan, Camper, Chiles,
Strosahl & Shearin 1987) . According to Linehan’ s (1987) model , suicide attempts
continue to be a coping strategy for the BPD as long as they are unable to tolerate
distress, and they have poor skills in emotional regulation, interpersonal problem
solving and self management. Thus, teaching and developing these skills along with
being able to identify, understand and modulate emotions form a major component of
DBT.

Popular treatment approaches

Treatment strategies found in Humanist and Psycho-dynamic paradigms are
represented in DBT. Emphasising present centred (here now) awareness, balancing
polarities, accepting oneself, and finding the inherent wisdom in each client are also
found in Gestalt therapy (Fagan & Sepherd, 1971). Similarly therapeutic power of
validation with genuiness, unconditional positive regard empathy are the primary factors
of Carl Roger’ s client centred therapy (eg Rogers, 1961). In addition, corrective
experiences, found with transference in the therapeutic relationship, have a history with
psycho-dynamic therapies and can also be found in DBT

Behaviour Therapy is particularly utilised in DBT. With the BPD patient Linehan (1993)
has organised a number of behavioural patterns that could be the target of treatments.
These patterns include:

· Emotional vulnerability or a pervasive difficulty in regulating emotions;

· Self invalidation or a tendency to fail to recognise one’ s own emotional
responses, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviours often resulting in secondary
emotions such as shame, guilt, self hatred and self directed anger;
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· Unrelenting crises often resulting from dysfunctional lifestyles;
· Inhibited grieving and a tendency to over control negative emotional responses;
· Active passivity which includes helplessness and hopelessness;
· Apparent competence or the tendency to appear more competent than they
actually are thus failing to “ display adequate nonverbal cues of emotional
distress” (Linehan, 1993,p.10).

In accordance with Behaviour Therapy, DBT focuses upon current behaviours,

emphasises overt behaviour change, specifies treatment in objective terms and is
specific about defining, treating and measuring target problems (Koerner & Linehan,
1992).

Dialectical Philosophies and theories.

The term Dialectical was incorporated in the name of the treatment because its meaning
seemed, to Linehan (1993) to best describe her approach. Dialectics has two basic
meanings. The first is where it involves reasoning and argument aimed at the
clarification of the meaning of concepts. The second is where it involves the philosophy
that reality is based upon and integration of opposites(Reber, 1995). Both these
meanings are utilised with DBT. Persuasive dialogue in a relationship are strategies
used to affect change. However, more importantly a dialectic world view is fundamental
to the theoretical under-pinning and practice of DBT.

According to Linehan (1993) every theory of personality and its treatment is based
upon a fundamental world view. The dialectical philosophical stance or world view and
its concept of the “ self” permeates every aspect of DBT and directs how DBT
therapists utilise therapeutic strategies and generally interact with the therapeutic
process.

Lineham (1993) described a “ dialectical world view” which has three general
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principles. The principles that Linehan utilised for the Dialectical view of reality and
human behaviour are:

1. Humans (and in fact all conditions) are “ interdependent” or essentially

interrelated and part of a systemic whole,
2. Reality is not static but in a process of transformation “ comprised of internal
opposing forces (thesis and antithesis) of whose synthesis evolves a new set of
opposing forces” (Linehan, 1993, p.33). Here it is considered that with in each
aspect of nature there is part of its opposite.
3. Reality, as a whole, is in constant process of change. Here the “ process” of
change rather than the content or structure is considered as “ the essential nature
of life” (Linehan, 1993, p.33).
The above three principles of life guide DBT treatment practices. Each principle is
interdependent with each other. However, in order to elucidate DBT’ s theoretical
underpinning and its connection with other paradigms these three principles will be
considered separately .
1/Interdependence and Systems theories
It is generally considered that most western psychology has been based upon
independent self concepts and world views (Gergen, Gulerce & Misra, 1996).

The self described as independent is an autonomous entity that consists of unique

internal attributes, such as values, abilities and motives. This self is characterised by
clear and distinct boundaries between self and other. Treatment strategies incorporating
independent self concepts value control, competition and achievement (Perloff, 1987;
Spence, 1985; Weisz, Rothbaum, & Blackburn, 1984).

The interdependent self is described contextually and socially. Behaviour is determined

contingent upon contextual factors such as environmental conditions and the thoughts
feeling and actions of others. In contrast to approaches that incorporate independent
self concept those that involve interdependent self concept value co-operation,
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interdependence and accommodation. With this self concept the self’ s boundaries are
fluid, indistinct and interactive (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

Treatments that are based on independent self construals such as CBT generally adopt
linear causality to explain pathology and the treatment of pathology. CBT, for example,
adopts the “ ABC of thinking” to rationalise how distorted thinking pattens (B) may
mediate negative emotional consequences (C). With treatment modalities that adopt
linear causality “ A” leads to “ B” leads to “ C” . If “ C” is a problem then it can
be resolved by changing “ B” or “ A” . With interdependent notions of causality “ A,
B, and C” are interdependent. If there is no “ B” then “ C “ does not arise.
However, as “ C” is part of system that cannot be separated from the whole, the
arising or nature of “ A” is dependent upon the nature of “ C” or “ B” . In other
words, the interdependent co-arising of self and the world (represented by A B and C)
are reciprocally modified by their interaction.

Popular theoretical views such as Symbolic Interactionism (Mahoney, 1992), Feminism

(Steen, 1991), or General Systems Theory (Nichols & Everett, 1986) could be
described as interdependent. Spiritual traditions such as Buddhism and Taoism could
also be described as being based upon interdependent world views and notions of the
self (Macy, 1991).

In Buddhism “ emptiness” is considered as a characteristic of existence. In Buddhism

“ emptiness” means that conditions are “ empty” of self existence. According to
systemic Buddhist principles, phenomena or “ things” cannot be seen as “ things”
in and of themselves. They are in fact “ empty” of self existence because they depend
on other factors for their arising and passing.

Emptiness or interdependence of existence is reflected in the practice of DBT by the

way it does not encourage blame or finding original causes for suffering. Instead, clients
are encouraged to be aware of the interdependent nature of their experience. By
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directing mindfulness to the interdependent nature of their condition, highly emotional
borderlines may begin to not identify with their extreme emotions. Rather, they may
begin to be aware of contingencies or cause effect relationships between conditions and
possibly develop acceptance and tolerance.

2/Principles of polarity and Transformations

Dialectical philosophies are based upon principles of polarities and transformation.
Though Linehan (1993) does not acknowledge Taoism it is perhaps the oldest
dialectical philosophy dating over 5000 years. An explanation of Taoism may help
explain the dialectical basis of DBT. Taoism is founded upon the theory of Yin and
Yang. Yin Yang theory has been popularised in modern culture and the Yin Yang
symbol which represents its meanings can be found in most parts of our modern
community.

Yin/yang sign here

The circle is symbolic of the interconnected wholeness of phenomena. Within this circle
the two symbolic opposites (here black and white) are defined by their nature, their
position and their relationship to each other. One thing cannot exist separately from its
opposite and within each extreme there is part of its opposite (black within white and
vice versa). The movement shown in the symbol represents that the opposite aspects of
Yin and Yang are always subtly transforming to each other. Yin and Yang can
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represent any aspect of life including mental and physical conditions.

Yin Yang theory forms the basis of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Health in this system
is considered as a harmonious balance between the Yin and Yang where regular
transformations occur smoothly. Ill health is considered when the Yin and Yang aspects
are unbalanced. With ill health transformations will eventually occur but when they do
they are extreme and drastic (Kaptchuk, 1983). Linehan (1993) has adopted this
practical philosophical perspective to help explain the nature of and treatment of a BPD
client’ s suffering.

Extremes of emotions, instability, and dramatic transformations are characteristic of a

BPD client. They may have dramatic mood swings often resulting in unhealthy
maladaptive behaviours. In addition, according to Linehan, (1993) the BPD client is
often caught in dialectical dilemmas, confused about what orientation to adopt to
rationalise their suffering and explain the world. They may travel between two extreme
positions related to their behaviour such as the extremes of vulnerability and
invalidation. For example, at one extreme they may feel that they are bad, weak,
useless etc and passionately invalidate themselves. At another extreme they may
validate their vulnerability, not seeing the cause effect relationship between conditions
but feel that whatever negative things that may happen to them are totally unfair and
should not be happening.

Some of the targets for DBT are to help the BPD client develop the skills to regulate
their emotions and stabilise their behaviours so that the natural transformations of
emotions and actions may be “ healthy” . Linehan (1993) also suggests that patience,
acceptance, self compassion, life style management and self soothing are ingredients
and the outcome of the synthesis of vulnerability and invalidation.

Yin Yang theory has a principle of polarity. DBT has adopted this principle. This
means for a BPD client that within chaos there is clarity, within dysfunction there is
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function, and within distortion accuracy. Like “ emptiness” in Buddhism, things cannot
be defined with out there opposites. For example, the term “ hate” is meaning less
unless “ love” helps to define it, and there is no “ good” without “ bad” . To extend
this further DBT clients are encouraged to understand that there are no absolutes as
conditions will always change. Even in the most bleak and desperate experiences the
opposite of hope is always possible. The DBT therapist reflects this “ theoretical”
understanding by never expressing disregard and hopelessness about their clients.
Rather, the therapist expresses confidence that their clients can understand and
resolve their own problems.

3/The process of Change

All things that arise due to interdependent conditions are also subject to decay as these
conditions in-evadibly change. The impermanent nature of existence is the third
principle of DBT. Change seems an obvious condition of reality yet accepting this reality
can be difficult and fraught with struggle and suffering. One sub-goal of DBT is to help
clients understand the nature of change with acceptance and tolerance.

Change is also one of the three characteristics of existence found in Buddhist

philosophies (the other two being being “ emptiness” and “ unsatisfactoriness” ). For
Buddhists the antidote for struggle is acceptance of the way things are or the truth. It
seems that of all the spiritual traditions DBT has borrowed and adapted most heavily
from Buddhism. In fact, there are so many parallels between DBT and the meditative
practice of Buddhism that a brief explanation of Buddhist theories and its relationship to
DBT may help elucidate the driving philosophical underpinning of DBT where
“ change” is an important principle. This explanation may also help clarify why
acceptance and distress tolerance are two very importance strategies employed with
DBT.

Buddhism and DBT

The four noble truths drive Buddhist theory and practice. These truths are:
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1. that there is unsatisfactoriness or suffering ,
2. there is an interdependent causality for suffering,
3. there is the possibility for freedom from suffering and
4. there is a way or a path to freedom.

Buddhist’ s believe, through their observations and experience, that all conditioned
phenomena is impermanent, there is no “ soul” and there is not part of mind or body
that lasts. If all conditions are impermanent fulfilment and satisfaction based upon these
changing conditions cannot be found (the 1 st noble truth). Sometimes conditions are
pleasant, sometimes they are unpleasant and sometimes they are neutral. According to
Budhists the more one is attached, adverse or ignorant about the nature of changing
conditions the more one will suffer. Thus struggling and resistance to inevitable change
and wanting things to be other than “ the way things are” are interdependent factors
(the 2nd noble truth) leading to suffering. Freedom from this suffering is possible (the 3rd
noble truth) but paradoxically this is a frame of mind that is content with the things as the
are. This “ contentment” occurs by developing understanding or “ wisdom” and
practicing according to this understanding (the 4th noble truth). Thus, non-attachment is
developed when conditions are pleasant and acceptance and tolerance when they are
unpleasant .

The first noble truth of suffering can include all dimensions of mental distress that a BPD
individual may experience. Consistent with popular systemic theories, the cause of this
suffering, in Buddhism is seen as an interdependent relationship between environmental
conditions and “ unhealthy” mental and physical factors. Release, or resolution of
suffering is possible but this also seen to arise from an interdependent relationship
between environmental conditions and “ healthy” mental and physical factors. The
generation of the environmental conditions and the mental and physical factors
necessary for liberation from mental suffering is called the noble eight fold path. The
noble eight fold path is the essential practice of Buddhism.
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The eight factors on the Buddhist path can be divided into three basic components
being ethics or lifestyle (“ right” or skilful action, speech, livelihood,), mental
development (right effort mindfulness and concentration) and wisdom (right
understanding and thought or intention).

The main DBT therapeutic factor that Linehan attributes to Buddhism is

“ mindfulness” . However, other factors on the eight fold path including skilful lifestyle,
concentration, and wisdom are also part of DBT’ s therapeutic factors. Linehan (1993)
places mindfulness central in regulating, managing, tolerating, distressing emotions as
well as processing past trauma. She considers mindfulness practice this similar to
exposure where the acceptance of a difficult situation can lead to extinction of reactions
and change.

The function of mindfulness in Buddhism is multifaceted. In addition to being as a tool

for exposure, mindfulness is considered as a mental factor that can reciprocally inhibit
unhealthy mental factors. The core unhealthy mental factors are attachment, aversion
and ignorance (ignoring the way things are) ( Goleman, 1989). According to Buddhists
Mindfulness helps to bring perceptions in line with the “ truth” . Acceptance and
tolerance often result from mindfulness. Acceptance and tolerance allow conditions to
change according to nature and they do not reinforce the factors of attachment or
aversion. Like DBT distress tolerance, acceptance or “ accommodating” difficult
situations are core features of Buddhist practice.

Both Buddhism and DBT have an insight or “ wisdom” component, but

“ understanding” supports and is supported by changes in overt behaviours. In order
decrease the unwholesome mental factors and reduce maladaptive behaviours simple
behavioural principles found in Behaviour Therapy are also applied in Buddhist practices
(De Silva, 1986). Thus like DBT, Buddhism also balances the dialectic of acceptance
and change.
20
Other practices found in both Buddhism and DBT include the therapeutic utilisation of
loving kindness and compassion and the communication styles (both reciprocal and
irreverent) that may express this (personal experience with meditation teachers). In fact,
it seems that with DBT Linehan (1993) has adapted many of the practices and
philosophical principles found in Buddhism to the unique problems found with BPD.

Empirical Evidence and Support

The term “ empirical” has a number of meanings. At its most basic level empirical
evidence is evidence that is based upon experience as opposed to theory (Reber,
1995). Empirical support for an intervention procedure can have a number of levels.
Psychologists generally consider that evidence derived from controlled studies has a
higher level of validity than evidence from uncontrolled studies. Nevertheless, the latter
in the form of, for example, anecdotal reports is still relevant.

There is a paucity of controlled empirical evidence related to successful treatments for

BPD (Roth & Fonagy, 1991). This is possibly because BPD’ s difficult treatment
targets and if treatment is undertaken it is usually very timely.

As mentioned previously the target goals of DBT are:

1/ reduction of suicidal behaviours
2/reduction of therapy interfering behaviour
3/increase in quality of life
4/increase in coping skills in clients with a BPD diagnosis.

There is empirical support for the use of DBT as a program to influence these target
goals. Empirical support can also be considered when the separate components of
DBT are analysed independently.

The components of DBT considered separately .

21
The components of DBT basically consist of problem focused strategies, validation
strategies and strategies based upon dialectical philosophies. If the variety of
therapeutic components that have come together to create DBT are analysed separately
there is an abundance of empirical evidence to support their use for some of DBT’ s
the target goals.

The strategies utilised for the problem focused cognitive and behavioural therapies has
a history of both higher and lower level evidence that supports their use with
maladaptive behaviours including cognition. “ The core treatment procedures of
problem solving, exposure techniques, skills training contingency management and
cognitive modification have been prominent in cognitive and behavioural therapy for
years. Each set of procedures has an enormous empirical and theoretical literature”
(Linehan, 1993, p19).

The validating components of Roger’ s (1961) Client Centred Therapy that include the
personal attributes of the therapist also have a history of empirical evaluation. Though
Roger’ s phenomenological approach to research has been criticised it is generally
accepted that the therapist qualities of genuineness, congruence and empathy have
therapeutic value and empirical support (Davison & Neale, 1982).

Linehan emphasised that the dialectical world view that permeates the practice of DBT
“ Can be neither proved nor disproved” (Linehan, 1993, p.64) because it is a
philosophical position. However, empirical support for this view could analysed by
considering the impact of systems of practice that are aligned with it. The meditative
practices of Taoism and Buddhism to promote mental health, for example, have
survived thousands of years and continue to grow in popularity. It is claimed that the the
Buddha (founder of Buddhism) said that the practice that one chooses to reduce
suffering must be based upon personal experience and not theory (Rahula, 1987). The
continued popularity and support of systems such as Buddhism could, to a large degree,
22
be based upon individuals’ personal experience and the experiential validation that
strategies incorporated may improve a practitioner’ s quality of life.

DBT as an integrated program

It seems that the empirical support for DBT as a program comes primarily from one
controlled clinical trail in 1991 (Linehan, Armstrong, , Suarez, Allmon, and Heard,
1991). Most subjects from this trial were also followed up 18 and 24 months later
(Linehan, Armstrong, & Heard, 1993).

Most of the other evidence supporting the use of DBT comes from related studies and
anecdotal reports from clinicians and patients. It should be noted that all the studies
related to DBT have only occurred with female subjects.

In the first clinical trail 47 suicidal women who fulfilled criteria for BPD and had been
suicidal were randomly assigned to either, DBT or treatment as usual (TAU) groups
(Linehan et al., 1991). The treatment period lasted one year and at the end of the year
41 subjects remained (DBT=20, TUA=21). Subjects were assessed at 4, 8 and 12
month (post treatment) intervals.

Results on measures for the DBT group were significantly different than the TAU group.
The DBT group were less likely to perform a parasuicidal attempt. They were
significantly more likely to stay in therapy (ie not drop out of treatment), and the DBT
group had significantly less presentations to hospital. However, the results for self
reports of hopelessness, suicidal ideations and reasons for living were not significantly
different between the two groups.

At 18 month follow up Linehan et al., (1993) assessed 37 subjects and at 24 months

follow up they only found and assessed 35 subjects. These subjects were given scales
and interviews that assessed para-suicidal behaviour, psychiatric in-patient days, anger,
global functioning and social adjustment At the 18 month follow up the DBT subjects
23
reported significantly less anger and better social adjustment than the non-DBT
subjects. At the 24 month follow up the DBT subjects rated significantly higher on overall
social adjustment.

In a related study Linehan, Tutek, Heard and Armstrong (1994) examined the effects of
DBT on interpersonal variables with subjects diagnosed with BPD. In a similar manner
to the Linehan et al., (1991) study 26 subjects who were suicidal and fulfilled criteria for
BPD were randomly allocated to either to DBT or TAU and were assessed at 4, 8 and
12 month (post treatment) intervals. The DBT subjects rated themselves significantly
better on trait anger scores and overall social adjustment. Interviewers also rated the
DBT subjects significantly better on a Global Assessment Scale and global social
adjustment. There were, however, no significant differences in general patient
satisfaction at the one year assessment.

The three studies outlined above indicate that DBT may be effective in changing target
behaviours but the lack of difference in depressive symptoms and levels of satisfaction
indicate that despite DBT all subjects still felt miserable at the end of treatment.

One very small study (therapists = 4 and patients = 4) investigated the influence of the
patient therapist relationship with DBT in reducing suicidal behaviour (Shearin &
Linehan, 1992). The results indicated that dialectical techniques that balanced change
and acceptance were more effective than an emphasis on change or acceptance alone.
Less suicidal behaviour was also more consistent with the therapist being non-
pejorative.

In another very small study the effects of the skills group was considered (Linehan,
Heard, & Armstrong 1993 in Linehan, 1993). In this study BPD with suicidality who were
receiving non DBT treatment in the community were randomly chosen to also attend a
DBT skills group (N=11) or not attend a group (N=8). The results suggested that the
addition of the skills group added little to the non-DBT individual sessions.
24
All of the studies outlined above give empirical support for the use of DBT for some
target behaviours. The major criticisms of these studies, are:

· that there are only a few controlled studies,

· the studies that have occurred were only very small and therefore lacked statistical
power

25
· there are no known independent controlled studies. All the controlled studies have
been conducted by Linehan and her associates.

In defence of these criticisms it should be noted that controlled studies related cognitive
and behavioural approaches to the treatment of BPD are very small in number. Ver
Der Sande et al., (1997) claimed that there were only four. Of these four studies the
Linehan et al., (1991) was the only study that indicated a treatment package could
result in a reduction suicide behaviour that was maintained at follow up assessment
times.

Adaptations of DBT
There are no known independent controlled trials of the DBT program. However, there
has been a number of documented adaptations of the DBT program. DBT seems to be
adaptable to a variety of settings and run by different professionals. Simpson ,
Pistorello, Begin, Costello, Levinson, Mulberry, Perlstein, Rosen, and Stevens (1998)
claimed that DBT could be effectively modified for a partial hospital setting and
diverse population. They based their statement on two years of utilising aspects of DBT
to a setting that received female BPD patients as well as other women who experienced
a number of co-morbid disorders. They claimed that anecdotal evidence from staff and
patients was “ promising” and they planned to conduct controlled research.

Simpson et al., (1998) cited one study where DBT had been adapted to an inpatient
settings (Barely et al., 1993 in Simpson et al., 1998). Details of this study were lacking
nevertheless they claim that in it a psycho-dynamic inpatient unit emphasised the
substitution of DBT skills for dysfunctional emotional dyregulation. The program noted a
decrease in the incidence of para-suicide. In another other inpatient setting (Miller,
Eisner & Allport, 1994; Silk et al., in Simpson et al., 1998), BPD patients were allocated
to a control group or a “ creative coping” group based upon DBT. The group based
on DBT demonstrated confidence that the skills learnt would be effective to cope with
self destructive urges and emotional pain. In this setting it was also noted that

26
previously frustrated nurses felt empowered because they no longer felt in a reactive
position. Rather, they felt that they were able to offer the development of helpful skills
and were more willing to engage the patient.

Evaluating Comments and Conclusion.

The following comments about DBT a based only upon reviewing the literature. They
are limited by having not done a training (which is presently available in Australia) or
practiced DBT as a program.

The paradoxical and dialectical nature of DBT can be extended to its evaluation.
Evaluating statements of an absolute nature cannot be made as they are relative and
dependent upon the standards and position from which the evaluation is made. It
seems that as an empirically supported package for use with suicidal BPD clients, DBT
has possibilities but there are limitations. However, when DBT is considered as a model
of intervention from which therapists can adapt to a variety of settings and presentations
the possibilities are many.

DBT as a progam
Linehan (1993) boasts that DBT is evidence based and review articles referring to DBT
consider it in a positive manner because it is supported “ empirically” (eg Holmes,
1995; Roth & Fonagy, 1996; Scott, 1995). However, when the empirical evidence is
analysed (as above) it is meagre. It is acknowledged that BDP and its treatment are not
easy targets for controlled independent studies. However, perhaps more studies are
needed before therapists become too excited.

One limitation of DBT as a package is that it seems exclusive. Linehan (1993)

emphasised throughout her manual that therapists need to be aligned with the
dialectical philosophy to successfully practice DBT. To this end the therapist
consultations are mandatory. In addition, in reference to the Buddhist practice of

27
mindfulness she states “ it is not possible to conduct DBT without an inner
understanding of this practice” (Linehan, 1993, p.525). Even though mindfulness is a
non-religious skill and an interdependent view is not limited to Buddhism it seems that
therapists who have an independent self concept or a theistic view of the world may
feel excluded from DBT practice

The same sense of exclusion could be extended to the BPD clients. With respect to
cultural relativism, treatment strategies need to adapt to a client’ s worldview (Ivey,
Ivey, & Simek-Morgan, 1993). The practice of DBT includes “ educating” the client
about the dialectical world view. For many clients this process could be difficult and
inappropriate because it may oppose their fundamental world view. Clients may resist,
for example, being open to concepts such as a “ non-judgmental” attitude about
emotions or the development of a “ wise” mind. Such concepts may be culturally alien
regardless of the rigid mind sets that may be found with BPD.

Another limitation of DBT as a program is its possible complexity. Many strategies

found in DBT have been particularly inspired by Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhism is one of
the many different Buddhist traditions and is renown for its simplicity. Often instructions
from Zen masters may be as simple as “ Just This, Here Now” because proliferation is
considered as suffering (personal experience with Zen master Hogan Yamahata).
Ironically, Linehan’ s (1993) DBT is prolific with concepts, rationales, targets, tasks,
requirements and strategies. This complexity may confuse and discourage clinicians as
well as clients from attempting to understand and apply DBT. In addition, the
proliferation of concepts may make dialectical philosophies and their practices, which in
their essence are very simple, seem more complex than they actually are. The skills
training manual contains over eighty pages of handouts and homework tasks. A level of
intellectual sophistication may be required to integrate and synthesis the bulk of
complex information involved. For many clients this process may be baffling. In
reference to Linehan’ s text (1993) and Skills manual (1993b) that explain the theory
and practice of DBT Scott, (1995) thought that text exemplified Linehan and her

28
team’ s rich clinical experience and wisdom but that the inexperienced clinician should
not attempt to implement the package without training.

DBT as a model to adapt from.

Paradoxically, the complexity that could be an obstacle for some therapists and clients
could, for others, be source of inspiration. Despite the need for training Scott (1995,
p.650 ) thought that these volumes were a valuable resource with a “ wealth of useful
information” about the concept of BPD and how it could be successfully treated.
Similarly, Hampton (1997) like Simpson et al. (1998) considered that DBT can be
empowering for therapists because it offers treatment approach that seems to work.
The BPD client is often considered as incorrigible and have “ been stigmatised as
‘ problem patients’ ….” (Hampton, 1997, p.100). DBT can give a sense of direction
and empirically validated hope.

DBT can be adapted to those situations where the full package cannot be applied. For
example, in a workshop about the management of BPD, Jillian Ball, (1996) referred to
DBT and described how behaviour diaries, activity scheduling, limited telephone
contact and strict contracting can be helpful with the suicidal BPD clients.

For therapists who may already operate from an interdependent world view, DBT is an
example of how numerous validated traditional psychological approaches can be
blended with interdependent philosophies such as Buddhism. Such an approach need
not be limited to BPD but could be adapted to other co-morbid disorders, such as
depression where validation, a cognitive and behavioural approach and dialectical
philosophies may be appropriate.

Summary
In summary, DBT is a program package that has been developed for the treatment of
suicidal BPD women. It has been based upon dialectical philosophies, a bio-social
theory of BPD and a number of popular psychological approaches especially Behaviour

29
Therapy. Empirical evidence is meagre but it is still valid and relative to other evidence
related to the treatment of suicidal BPD clients, it is substantial. DBT as a package
skilfully blends a number of approaches but from one angle it may seem exclusive and
complex. From another angle it provides hope and a model of treatment for suicidal
BPD clients in a variety of settings. From yet another angle DBT provides a resource
from which therapeutic ideas can be adapted.

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