1

CHAPTER I

The Role and Nature of Questioned Document in Police Works

The document examiner has a dual objectives in his work: First, to study

and discover the facts and second, to be able to prove them. The document

examiner plays an important role in carrying out and serving justice, especially in

cases that requires his expertise so as the truth will prevail. As quoted by no less

than the Father of Criminalistics, Dr. Hans Gross, “The Ultimate Objectives of all

investigative and detective works is nothing but search for truth and a battle

against lies”. A document examiner once accepted by court to stand as an expert

witness should be prepared to support his findings and conclusions derived from

his examination of the specimen submitted to him by giving his expert

testimony/opinion. Such testimony shall be factual, clear, understandable and

convincing so as to remove doubts in the mind of the judge. His role likewise

includes helping the court determine the facts which ordinary layman may not be

able to decipher from the evidence under questioned.

The Questioned Document Examiner as a part of the Investigative Team in

Crime Detection and Investigation.

The field of questioned document examination is one of the branches of

one of the “I’s” of Investigation i.e. Information, Interview and Instrumentation.

Under the instrumentation or also called criminalistics, the questioned document

is one of the branches.

Document is one form of evidences that is usually involved in almost all

cases, be it criminal, civil or even administrative cases. As an evidence, such

2

requires a critical analysis by a competent personnel of the Police Service, thus

the document is usually referred to the Laboratory for it to be subjected to the

appropriate examination. As What Albert Osborn Said----“ Physical Evidence Do

not Lie, only that man somehow fails to interpret what the Evidence is trying tell

us”, this is actually the field of expertise that a document examiner and

investigator should look upon with regard to analysis and investigation of physical

evidence. One of the necessary things to do is to know the facts and later prove

the same so as to promote justice.

In the Philippine Setting, the usual scenario every time that a crime was

committed is for the police to respond to the scene of the crime and if the case

would seems to be a bigger one, the police who respond to the scene will call for

the assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO). The SOCO will then

be the one to take charge of everything from the recognition, collecting, packing,

preservation and transmittal of the physical evidence. Due to the fact that we lack

of personnel in the technical services, each evidences will then be referred to

different divisions of the Laboratory for proper examination. It is said that the

most ideal person who should have collected the evidence are those personnel

of the Law Enforcement Agency who are equipped with the knowledge and skills

on proper collection and preservation of such evidence but this is far from the

reality. There are cases that are dropped from the prosecutor’s office and not

even reached the court due to some technicality done by those who are in-

charged. Both the Police and Forensic Specialist should work with accuracy,

fairness and courage for it is in this foundation that this profession was built.
3

Questioned Document Examiner occupies a very significant part in various

offices and agencies both of public and private nature such as bank, SSS, GSIS,

Custom Service, Insurance Company, and others. Their role is not an easy one

for great deal of interest might be involved the moment they commit negligence

in the performance of their task. At present, almost all country throughout the

world are really in need of forensic specialist especially questioned document

examiner. As a matter of fact, very few among those who graduated from the

criminology profession take chance in undergoing training or on job training in

order to specialize in the field of questioned document. Compare with other fields

of forensic science Questioned Document Examination is one that can be

considered not that so easy task most especially in the case of Handwriting and

signature examination due to the fact that “No person can write two signatures or

handwritings exact alike”. It is somewhat Ironic to say to ordinary person that how

can you say that two specimen of writings are genuine if they have difference or

the other way around, how can you proved it is forged if it has similarity with the

standards. That is why it is not that really easy to proved identity or non-identity

of writings and signature. In the recent pictures in our government cases such as

“Jose Velarde” and “Jose Pidal”, Expert document examiners are requested to

conduct examination and their testimony means a lot for the disposition of this

two highly sensational cases but somehow the problem with these two cases is

that they are highly politically manipulated. This is only but one of the great

challenges to the Questioned Document profession.

4

2. Definition of Terms

Alteration = refers to any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the

original contents of a document.

Blank Papers = A sheet of paper which contains no visible or readily visible

writing. At times it might only contains certain depressed mark or latent writing

that can be made legible with proper treatment.

Characteristics = refers to any property or mark which serves a distinguishing

traits and in questioned document examination it is commonly referred to as

Identifying Details. There are two groups of characteristics, class and individual.

Collation = As used in this text, refers to critical comparison of two or more

specimen or side by side examination.

Comparison = Is the act of setting two or more specimen/items side by side to

weigh their identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act

in which the elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the other.

Conclusion = A scientific results from relating observed facts by logical,

common sense reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. An

expert’s conclusion is commonly referred to in legal term as his “opinion”.

Cursive Writing = specimen of writing in which the letters are for the most part

joined together.

Document Examiner = one who studies scientifically the details and elements of

documents so as to determine their source or to determine their authenticity. He

is also referred to an handwriting identification experts, although at present

questioned document examiner’s work are so varied and complex.

5

Decipherment = refers to the process of making clear or out of what is otherwise

illegible or what has been effaced.

Disguised writing = Is a specimen of writing executed deliberately by the author

in trying to alter his usual writing habits in the hope of hiding his identity.

Examination = is the act of making a close or a critical study of any material so

as to discover facts about them..

Efface = refers to the act of rubbing out or erasing or removing something from

the document. It is also called as Erasure, which can be accomplished either

mechanically or chemically.

Exemplars = refers to specimen standards or disputed document which has

been used for comparison.

Exhibit = is the term use when referring to the specimen standards or

questioned which is presented to court as evidence.

Expert Witness = It is a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of

his special technical training or experience is permitted to express an opinion

regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, that is involved in a lawsuit.

His purpose in court is to make a proper interpretation of some information so as

to assist the court in properly administering justice. Document Examiner testifies

in court as an expert witness once he/she was allowed to do so.

Forgery – It refers to the act of simulating or copying or tracing somebody’s

signature without the permission of the later, for profit. It is also defined as the act

of falsifying and counterfeiting of treasury or bank notes, paper bills or any

instruments payable to the bearer or order.

6

Graphology = The art of attempting to interpret the character or personality of an

individual from his handwriting. It is also called as grapho-analysis.

Guided writing = Specimen of writing executed while the writer’s hand is at

steadied.

Hand lettering = Any disconnected style of writing also known as Hand printing.

Holographic Document = Any document which is completely written and signed

by one person. Derived from the Latin word “holo” which means “hand” and

“graph” which means “writing”.

Model Signature = a genuine signature which has been used in preparing

simulated or traced forgery. Also known as model.

Natural writing = Any specimen of writing executed normally without any

attempt to control or alter its identifying habits.

Restoration = it refers to the process by which an erased writing is developed or

brought out again on the surface of the document itself.

Reference Collection = Material compiled and organized by the document

examiner to assist him in answering special questions comprises his reference

collections which he regularly maintained.

Safety Paper = Refers to a document which is treated in such way as to

minimize changes of forgery by erasure. A

good example of this type is a check that contains minute designs forming a

pattern.

Sample = Refers to a selected, representative portion of the whole. Is the some

or few representative of the general population.

7

Significant Writing Habits = refers to characteristics of writing which is

sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as a strong basis for the identity or non-

identity of the writing.

Slant = Refers to the degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline or the

Slope of the writing.

Standards = Are the condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which,

if adequate and proper, should contain a true cross-section of the material from a

known source. They are design to be used for comparison and identification of

document.

Writing = it is the result of a very complicated series of acts being as a whole or

a combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by

long continued painstaking effort.

Writing Condition = It includes both the circumstances under which the writing

was prepared and the factors which influence the writer’s ability to write at the

time of the execution.

Writing Habits = refers to any repeated elements or details which may serve to

individualize writing.

Wrong Handed Writing = Any writing executed with the opposite hand from that

normally used can be term “wrong-handed writing”. This is one means of

disguise.

CHAPTER 2

DOCUMENTS
8

Documents in its fullest meaning refers to any material which contains

marks, symbols or sign either visible, partly visible or invisible which may

presently or ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone. Considering

its fullest meaning, it only means that anything can possibly be considered as a

document as long as it contains any markings that are capable of imparting

information. A firearm with its serial number, jewelry box containing the name of

the owner, stones with engravings and even walls that contain marks can be

considered a document. Essentially, it is not actually the material itself that

makes it a document rather it is its markings that makes it a document.

If we are to consider a material as evidence in court, it can be considered

as either object evidence or documentary evidence. The question of what

specific form of evidence will it be will depends on the purpose for which the

material is presented to court e.g. if we present a gun as an evidence found at

the scene of the crime, the gun alone is an object evidence. But if the issue is

with regard to the serial number of the said gun that was tampered so as to

determine the owner, the serial number itself will make it a documentary proof of

its owner.
9

Two Categories of Document:

1. Standard Document

= Specimen document in which the origin is known, can be proven

and can legally be used as sample to compare with other things in

questioned. It also referred to condensed and a compact set of authentic

specimen which, if adequate and proper should contain a true correction

of the material from known source. The ultimate purpose of this type of

document is to serve as a basis for comparison and identification.

Two types of Standard Documents

a. Collected or Procured Standard = are those specimen

standards which are obtain from the records of files, these

are executed in the ordinary course of man’s activities be

it social, business, official or personal affairs.

b. Requested = Those which are given or made upon

request of an investigator or document examiner for

purposes of making a comparative examination with the

questioned specimen. It is sometimes referred to as

Dictated Standard. It is likewise term as Post Litem Motam

Standard in the Latin word.

2. Questioned Document

= Document in which an issue has been raised or which is under

scrutiny. It has a variety of classes from a simple handwritten form to a

more complex form of document which might contains a number of

10

security features such as the paper bills and other official documents.

Documents can be questioned as to its origin, its contents, or the

circumstances regarding its production every time that serious suspicion

as to its genuineness was raised.

Disputed document is another term used interchangeably with the

word questioned document. Although strictly speaking the word disputed

is relatively limited in its application for it usually suggest a condition in

which two or more persons argue with each other regarding a certain

document, various authors agree to its use when referring to any

document which is under scrutiny.

Classes of Disputed Documents

a. Document with questioned signature (common).

This class of disputed document becomes one of the most

commonly encountered cases due to the exceeding value of signature to

human affairs. Man can transfer obligations and rights from one person to

another through signing of documents such as check, business contract,

withdrawal of certain money from the bank and others.

b. Document containing alleged fraudulent alterations.

Another class of disputed signature that also captured the attention

of questioned document examiner for its has a variety of sub classes such

as erasure, addition, interlineations, insertion, obliteration, contact

11

writings, invisible writing, charred document, water-soaked documents and

others.

c. Holograph Document (document which is completely written and

signed by only one person).

Last will and testament, personal letters, anonymous letters,

ransom notes, letter of treats are some of the documents that falls under

this class of disputed document.

d. Documents questioned as to their age or date.

Documents such as birth certificate is one of the most controversial

documents that is being questioned as to age, the rest as land titles,

certificates, licenses and other government documents, which are subject

to expirations and renewal.

e. Document questioned as to the material used in their production;

Generally most of the public documents are the one being

subjected to this kind of controversy. Our Currency bills is one of the very

concrete example of documents which are being forged through use of

false materials and printing process. Passport, license and certifications

also belong to this class.

12

f. Documents involving typewriting that are investigated or

examined for the purpose of determining their:

f.1. Source;

f.2. Date; and

f.3. Contents

g. Documents which may identify a person through handwriting;

and

h. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently altered or

disputed.

Basic Points that should be considered in obtaining standards

A. Collected/Procured Standards

1. Similarity of subject matter

= As a rule only like things are to be compared, meaning

standards should always conform with the nature of the questioned or

disputed material otherwise it will be crazy on the part of a document

examiner to compare two things which are never even the same in their

generic appearance.

2. Amount of writing standards

= There is no hard or fast rule as to the fixed number of

standards necessary to constitute sufficiency or adequacy of standards.

Although experience shows that at least seven (7) standards usually

constitute sufficiency of standards, but still Ten (10) is better than seven
13

(7), fifteen (15) is better than ten (10). In short the more standard you

gathered the better.

3. Relative dates of the questioned and standard document.

= Standards for comparison should relatively contemporary

in dates. Contemporary as used in questioned document refers to

documents that are executed at least within five (5) years before or after

the questioned document. Those documents executed two years before or

after the date of the questioned document is better to be used, but if

standards will be of the same date of the questioned it will be the best

standard to be used especially if they were executed in almost under the

same condition as that of the questioned.

4. Writing instrument and paper used.

= Writing instrument and paper used in the preparation of a

document may somehow influence in certain degree the quality of the

writing. Thus, it will be strongly advice to utilize similar writing instrument

and paper as that of the questioned so as to eliminate the possible

difference brought by them to the over-all appearance of the writing.

5.  Writing Conditions

= Conditions both of the writer and the relative condition

under which the writing was prepared also affect the quality of writing.

Conditions of the writer such as his physical, mental, emotional and

psychological conditions greatly affects the momentum of his hand in

14

executing the writing. In the same manner, the position in writing, the

surface underneath the paper, and other outside factors affecting the

writer’s execution also affects the quality of the output.

B. Requested/Dictated Standard

Ordinary requested standards are obtained upon request to the

person so authorized to prepare and immediately thereafter standards are

made and obtained. But in cases of dictated standards certain pointers

should be taken into consideration so as to lessen the possibility of

obtaining the wrong standards such as:

1.  Text must be carefully be selected – do not dictate the

questioned document exactly as it is for such will give opportunity

for the subject to recall how he/she prepared the questioned if he is

the suspect to the case.

2.   Dictate the text to the writer and never allow the subject

to see the questioned document.

3.  Dictation must be repeated for at least 3 times. --- This is

to give chance for the subject to cope with the dictation and not for

him to be in a hurry in preparing the standards.

4. Dictation must be interrupted at an interval so that the

suspect will feel relax and be able to execute his natural writing.

5.  Utilized the same writing instrument and paper as that of

the questioned.
15

6. Normal writing condition should be arranged so that the

writer feels relax during the process of dictation.

Sources of Standards

Writing is a part of the daily life of practically everyone. Consequently, the

potential sources of writing standards are numerous, and those who frequently

investigate handwriting cases soon develop a comprehensive list of sources of

standards.

Among the possible sources of standards are: cancelled checks, traveler’s

checks, signature cards for savings, checking and charge accounts and safe

deposit boxes; signed receipts for telegram, special delivery or registered letters,

express and store package and cards, sales and charge slip, leases, mortgages,

agreements, bills of sale, contracts, deeds, notes, stock certificates of

partnership, and incorporation forms on file with government agencies; court

records and affidavits, such naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceeding,

divorce papers, probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, answers;

passport; marriage license affidavits; driver’s license; application for gas,

electricity, water and telephone services; loan applications for and notes and

receipts; tax returns or affidavits; insurance applications, records and

beneficiaries’ forms, employment application and records; pawnshops; voter’s

registration and I.D., petitions and poling list; hospital records; time sheets,

payrolls, pay receipts and personnel records and others.

16

Legal Classes of Documents

1. Public document = a document created, executed or issued by a public

official in response to exigencies of the public service, or in execution of which a

public official intervened;

= Refers to instrument authorized by a notary public or a

competent public official with solemnities required by law.

2. Official document = issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions

of his office; also a public document.

3. Private document = a deed or instrument executed by a private person

without the intervention of a notary public or other person legally authorized, by

which document, some disposition of agreement is proved, evidenced or set

forth.

4. Commercial document = defined and regulated by the Code of Commerce or

other commercial law.

Proof of authenticity

According to Revised rules on evidence (Rules of Court) Rule 132,

Presentation of evidence letter “B” authentication and proof of documents.

Sec. 19 Classes of documents. – For the purpose of their presentation in

evidence, documents are either public or private.

Public documents are:

(a) The written official acts, or records of the official; acts of the sovereign

authority, official bodies and tribunals, and public officers, whether of the

Philippines, or of a foreign country;

17

(b) Documents acknowledged before a notary public except last wills and

testaments; and

(c) Public records, kept in the Philippines, or private documents required

by law to be entered therein.

All other writings are private.

Sec. 20 Proof of Private Documents – before any Private document

offered as authentic is received in evidence, its due execution and authenticity

must be proved either:

(a)  By anyone who saw the document executed or        written; or

(b)  By evidence of the genuineness of the        signature or

handwriting of the maker.

Sec. 21. When evidence of authenticity of private documents not

necessary. – Where a private document is more than thirty (30) years old, is

produced from a custody in which it would naturally be found if genuine, and is

unblemished by any alterations or circumstances of suspicion, no other evidence

of its authenticity need be given.

18

Sec. 22 How genuineness of handwriting proved. – The handwriting be

proved by any witness who believes it to be the handwriting of such person

because he has seen the person write, or has seen writing purporting to be his

upon which the witness has acted or been charged, and has thus acquired

knowledge of the handwriting of such person. Evidence respecting the

handwriting may also be given by a comparison, made by the witness or the

court with writings admitted or treated as genuine by the party against whom the

evidence is offered, or proved to be genuine to the satisfaction of the judge.

19

Chapter 3

Handwritings

Handwriting is the visible effect of bodily movement which is almost a

subconscious expression of fixed mental expression of certain ideas associated

with script form.

STEPS IN DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING

The following are the different steps in the development of the person’s

handwriting:

Steps No. 1 – When a person first begins to learn the art of handwriting,

penmanship, copy-book-form or blackboard illustration of the different letters are

placed before him. His first step is one of imitation only a process of drawing,

painstaking, laborious, slow, copying of the letter occupies the focus of his

attention.

Step No. 2 – As the person progresses, the matter of form recedes and the focus

of attention is centered on the execution of various letters that is they are actually

written instead of drawn.

Step No. 3 – The manual operation in the execution of letters after more

progress is likewise soon regulated to the subjective mind and the process of

handwriting become more or less automatic. As the person attain maturity in

writing by many repetition writing becomes an unconscious coordinated

movement that produces a record. Attention is no longer given to the process of

writing itself because the subject matter to be written now occupies the focus of

attention.
20

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

The impulses to form a letter begins in the brain writing center in the

cortex, this center is in the brain areas, that control vision, hearing, talking and

walking and it guides the muscles of the hand as they weave through the

complex movements that make the words. Since writing begins in the brain,

emotions and attitudes both of the mind influence how we write just as they

influence how we talk and walk.

In writing, the pen or any other writing instrument functions as an

extension of the hand. The fingers transmitted to the pen, the directive impulse

and the variations in muscular tension according to the nature of the writers.

Nervous of organizations occur during the act of writing. Hence, as each writer

has his own way of holding his hand manipulating the pen and exerting pressure,

the same pen in different hands will produce entirely different strokes.

The brain writing center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible

for the finer movements involved in handwriting, the importance of this center is

that when it becomes deceased as in AGRAPHIA – one loses the ability to write

although he could still grasp a writing instrument thus the ability or power to hold

a pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from this

critical center.
21

All handwriting exhibits identifying characteristics. These characteristics

falls under two types, such as:

(1) Those derived from the general style to which the     handwriting

conforms and termed as Class or Style     Characteristics; and

(2) Those that have been introduced into the     handwriting, whether

consciously or unconsciously     by the writer. These refer to personal or

individual characteristics.

Class Characteristics

These are those characteristics or features that are taught to the child

when he/she is but starting to learn the system of writing. These refer to the style

of handwritings that varies from place and time. Such as for instance, in the U.S.

they have more than thirty-one (31) system of writing. In the Philippines, there

were several system of writing also but it will be observed that there were two

common systems being taught of the students in their early years of study. These

are the Angular and the Rounded System. The angular system is the one

taught in the early years of the students’ study and later as they move to the

higher level of learning, they were trained already to adopt the Rounded system.

(See fig. 1)

These systems basically evolved from the ordinary copy - book form in

which letters are designed in such a way that a child who is interested in knowing
22

the letters of the alphabet will be guided. From an ordinary small book form

illustrating the various designs of the letters to a bigger size illustration board

which a child starts to familiarize with.

The matters of styles were usually associated to one’s nationality and

even to the time at which he/she was starting to learn such system. As a basis

for identification these style sometimes creates trouble to inexperience person

since these are some similarities that are the one more obvious or creates

greater impression on an observer. Although these characteristics are not so

reliable for identification nonetheless, it serves as a way in determining more or

less the nationality of the author or shall we say the country where he was taught

how to write. Such determination may be of good help in narrowing down the

search for the possible writer of a given writing. This is especially through in U.S.

where there has been a recent influx of immigrants from many lands.

Handwriting style somehow goes with the time such as fashions. There

are certain styles used long time ago that may no longer be at of common use,

this is true for styles are being developed, adopted by others until they become

universally accepted but after certain periods their popularity will wane just like

an artist do. Knowing about this is not so important in determining the exact age

of the document but it can be of importance in determining possibilities of

considering whether a certain document had long been in existence. Example a

writing that was just established in the 19th century would seems to be doubtful if

they would exist on a document dated on the 17 th century for such style had

never existed yet on that time.

23

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO

PQRSTUVWXYZ
Angular System

Rounded System

The Two Basic Designs of Letter Forms

Fig. 1

Examples of Class Characteristics

1. Ordinary Copy Book form

2. Usual systematic Slant

24

3. Ordinary Scale and proportion

4. Conventional Spacing

Personal Characteristics

These are usually in a form of an obvious deviations from the normal

practice, which cause by either consciously or unconsciously although much

often by a conscious desire to man to give his writing a marked of uniqueness or

individuality.

It is quite obvious that almost all Filipinos have gone through with the

same system of writing with the exemptions of those who live in Mindanao

Region, where young students were being taught of Arabic style of writing. But

despite of the fact that we all fallow the same system of form, writing is never the

same in two persons. This is very true due to several factors such as person’s

own artistic ability, personality, idiosyncrasy and others. Although students might

have started with the same copy-book-form, writing in its course of its

development is starting to assume its unique form, this might also be attributed to

the degree of practice and seriousness of the child to improved his/her writing.
25

As writing improves little by little personal characteristics are being injected due

to simplication, abbreviation and even modification.

Individual characteristics are those which are highly personal or peculiar

and are unlikely to occur in other instances and they may also be acquired either

by:

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left;

2. Shapes, positions, sizes and angles of I-dots and t-crossing;

3. Idiosyncrasies;

4. Bulbs and other distinctive initial and final pressure;

5. Embellishment, added strokes, and free movement endings;

6. Abbreviation of letters;

7. Simple and compound curves;

8. Labored movements producing ragged lines;

9. Terminal shading and forceful endings; and

10. Presence of and influence of foreign handwriting.

CHAPTER IV

BASIC RULES GOVERNING THE INDIVIDUALITY OF HANDWRITING

Changes in handwriting during a person’s lifetime

26

The basic rules for the identification of handwriting have long established.

Numerous writers have discussed them over the years. It presents an attempt to

modify some of them as simple statement in the manner of the physical sciences.

Such a statement may help to clarify the fundamentals of this phase of

questioned document examination so that workers with limited experience can

better understand the basis upon which this work rest. This approach cannot

replace the excellent discussion that have already been published, but rather

serves as a summary of a certain aspect of the problem.

INDIVIDUALITY OF HANDWRITING

RULE 1. Each mature writer has a handwriting that is personal and

individual to him alone.

This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field,

who pioneered the scientific identification of handwriting, assumed that no two

writers write exactly alike. This assumption has stood the test of time.

Throughout the years, numerous problems that have been submitted to

document examiners, there has never been found an example of two writers

wrote identical handwriting.

This lack of identity between two individual writings presumes that we are

dealing with more than a few lines of writing, with some writers and only two or
27

three simple words, it maybe extremely difficult to determine definitely that the

two specimens of writing are written by one person, but expanded, the difference

become more obvious. The rule pertains to the whole of a persons writing. Thus,

the fact that occasionally with a very limited amount of writing it may not be

possible to distinguish between the works of two different writers in no way

invalidates the basic rule that each persons writing is individual to him. Nor is it

intended by this discussion to infer that normally the writer of two or three words

cannot be identified.

COROLLARY 1. Every individual’s handwriting undergoes gradual

changes in the course of his life.

Modification and changes come into an individual’s handwriting during

different periods of his life, but in most instances they are very gradual and may

not be discernible except by studying specimens written at widely separated

dates. There are certain periods in which these modifications appear more

rapidly than others. Early maturity usually is one such period. It is probably due to

the fact that the writers have completed that phase of education during which

their handwriting is under supervision. Now this skill must be put to use in

everyday affairs. With some, the changes represent personal innovation, with

others a gradual decline due to carelessness and hasty writing and with still

another group increased vigor, freedom and sureness. The long span of middle
28

life as a rule sees only slight modification by corresponding decline in the writing

ability, but this condition is far from universal.

COROLLARY 2. The gradual changes in handwriting that occur

during a person’s lifetime while following certain general patterns are

individual to each other.

Writing is an acquired art. In the initial stages of learning to write a

person carefully imitate copy-look writing as much accuracy as he can. Gradually

at the forms becomes to him, this copying procedure is planted by a writing

process. When this occurs and how it occurs varies with each person. A few

progress past the drawing state.

The periods in a writer’s life when his handwriting tends to undergo its

greatest changes have already been noted. In early maturity, a persons writing is

developing its true individuality, even though as a student his handwriting has

some distinct qualities, elderly people write vigorously, other “show their age”.

We can expect certain kinds of changes due to a particular cause, but we must

see the individual’s writing to know exactly whether and how it changes.

RULE 2. Deterioration of an individual’s writing due to any cause affects all

of the writing priorities and is not confined to change of one or two

elements.
29

Deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the

highly complicated, interrelated factors which go into the writing process. Thus,

one would not expect only one or two identifying characteristics to be altered,

while the others continue to be reproduced exactly as before. Yet, a defense or

fraudulent writing which contains obvious evidence of unnatural writing

movement is often based upon the assertion that the effect in movement and

possibly those forms which are not copied accurately due to illness. If a person’s

handwriting is influenced by poor health or infirmity of age, both its forma and

quality of execution become less precise. If weakness produced firm strokes, it is

not logic that accurate form can be maintained. Irregularity to produce the firm

strokes are going to cause the pen to follow a less accurate track in forming

letters than when the writer was more vigorous.

COROLLARY 1. An individual’s handwriting may deteriorate very

rapidly due of a sharp physical decline from either severe illness or old

age.

Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not very serious

illness, however, causes a lessening in writing unable to perform skillful

operations are most likely to effect his handwriting. Diseases such as heart-

ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally are not accompanied by a

deterioration of handwriting, although a layman may attempt to explain in a way a

30

poor forged signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the

patient is confined to bed probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse

writing conditions than the illness itself.

What applies to physical conditions brought about by severe illness also

applied to old age. There are many individuals well advanced in years whose

handwriting hardly betrays their age. But those older writers who have suffered a

general physical deterioration are very apt to write with less vigor and skill. It is

that the converse to the corollary does not hold. That is to say we cannot

conclude that illness or old age always cause deterioration in the handwriting. As

discussed above, there are some individuals who dispute illness which restrict

their physical activity, such as serious heart trouble, many still write their Normal

vigor. There are even some writers who can sign a good signature while weak or

near death.

A. TRANSITORY CHANGE

A transitory change may be injected into handwriting by temporary

physical and mental conditions such as fatigue, nervous tension, and intoxication

or severe illness, from which the writer ultimately recovers. In these cases,

handwriting reverts to its normal qualities after the causes of deterioration are

removed.
31

By transitory changes are meant to those changes which continue to

exist only while the basic cause is affecting the writer. Ultimately, his

handwriting recovers or assumes its normal qualities when the cause of

deterioration has been removed. Both physical and some mental states can

affect a writer’s penmanship. Thus, fatigue or intoxication may produce lower

than the normal quality nervous or has been subjected to a sudden shock

likewise produce abnormal writing. There are many illness which the writer

becomes weak and cannot produce his normal handwriting but in due course

completely recovers and unlike a permanently handicapping condition once

removed handwriting again assumes its normal qualities and habits.

RULE 3-A. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill

without serious effort and training applied over a period of time.

Good handwriting is developed by a combination of manual skill and

serious, continued practice and training. The skill with which it is executed

depends upon the individual and upon the extent of his formal writing training.

While writing ability is difficult to measure precisely it is one of the more stable

qualities of handwriting. Rule 2 and its corollaries set forth conditions under

which it may decline even sharply but under no conditions can there be a sudden

surge above a writer’s highest level of achievement. Improvement comes only

with practice and training.

32

This fact is of particular importance in the case of disguise or of a forged

signature. Employing a strange style of penmanship does not lead to a more

skillful writing. Thus, if the ability or skill shown in the disputed writing is

appreciably better than the capabilities of the suspected writer, he is clearly not

its author. In reaching such a conclusion in a practical problem, however, one

must constantly guard against the danger of the standard writings failing to show

the highest degree of skill the writer is really capable.

B. ATTEMPTED DISGUISED

RULE 4. Attempted disguised leads to an inferior never a better quality of

handwriting.

The preceding rule states that no writer can spontaneously exceed his

best handwriting. Disguised for the most part is completely unpracticed, and even

if it has been practiced, it is never developed into the point that the person’s

writing ability and habits are bound to bring about a less fluent and less skillful

mode of writing. Even practice disguised writing hardly enable writer to achieve

his best writing.

COROLLARY 1. A lack of uniformity in execution and form,

especially in the extended specimen of handwriting is typical of disguise.

33

COROLLARY 2. Converse. Uniformity of writing qualities in an

extended specimen of handwriting is an indication of lack of disguise.

Disguised is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its

execution the writer must concentrate his attention on eliminating his personal

identifying details at the same time devise and execute a new style of writing.

This task cannot be accomplished on the spur of the moment. We did not learn to

write the way we do now in a short time. The end result is that a page of

disguised contains inconsistencies and irregularities. In contrast uniformity

throughout the extended specimen of writing is the mark of undisguised, skillfully

executed handwriting.

A crude, unskillful, non-uniform writing may suggest disguise, but it can be

the work of a semi-literate individual, until known specimen are made available.

As a general rule, the semi-skilled writer struggles throughout the entire

specimen. While a writer disguising may occasionally insert free and skillful

strokes. In other words, disguised writing may contain writing pulsations of higher

skill.

RULE 5. Writing Variation is an essential property of everyone’s

handwriting.

Variation in writing is a natural attribute and its extent or range is an

individual quality. With some writers, successive specimens show wide

34

variations, alternate forms and lack of precision in execution. At the other

extreme are those who deviate but slightly form a fixed pattern. Two examples of

a single, short word may be so much alike that they cannot be distinguished, but

with each additional letter and word, the chance of this coincidence is rapidly

reduced with its probability of occurrences is approaching zero asymptotically.

COROLLARY 1. The degree of variation in writing tends to increase

with more rapid and less careful execution.

A precise and accurate handwriting requires care in its execution and is

generally written with a moderate to slow speed. It is based upon a well-

developed writing skill. This class of writing tends to contain the maximum

degree of variation. But with persons who write faster and take less care,

successive writings are apt to show wider divergence. A high degree of variation

is common to those who are speedy and careless writers.

COROLLARY 2. Variation in writing is related to the condition under

which it was prepared.

The writing position and surrounding condition may have sharp effect

upon the amount of variation between two specimens of handwriting. If one was

prepared under formal writing conditions and second under less favorable
35

circumstances, wider variations between them are to be expected than if both

were executed under normal circumstances.

COROLLARY 3. The purpose for which writing were intended may

govern the degree of variation in them.

In general, lack of care and undue haste are a mark of informal and

impromptu writing. On the other hand, important papers may be prepared with

greater care. A mark of the former class of writing is a lack of preciseness of the

latter, higher uniformity. Both these are measured within the framework of the

writing may of itself introduce divergences.

COROLLARY 4. In repeated specimens of writing prepared at one

time, variation tends to be less than between specimens from day-to-day.

This corollary is based upon the observed facts of comparing requested

writing from day-to-day writing specimens. A person who is asked to finish a

group of signature and does do so by writing them all at one time, seldom

incorporates as much variation between specimens as will be found in a study of

a comparable number of signature which were executed even under similar

writing conditions, but each at separated time. Actually, variation in handling

results forms a large number of causes. Some of which are at work as a person

writes page of handwriting while others are found only the individuals write at
36

different occasions under different writing conditions. Since variation is a

significant factor in handwriting identification, this corollary sets forth a definite

restriction on the value of requested specimen and identification problem.

C. TREMORS

It is a writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky or wavering stroke.

Kinds of Tremor

1. Genuine Tremor

a. Tremor of Old Age

b. Tremor of Weakness or sickness

c. Tremor of Illiteracy = tremor that is not due to

weakening of the muscle but due to lack of skills

on the part of the writer.

2. Tremor of Fraud

Refers to tremor at the wrong place or tremor that is wrongly

placed.
37

CHARACTERISTICS OF TREMOR OF FRAUD

1. Inequality in movement at any place, in any stroke or line with strokes top

strong and vigorous combined weak hesitating strokes.

2. Frequent interruption of movement.

3. Unequal distribution of ink in upward and downward strokes.

4. Varying pen pressure, due to change in speed and interruptions in

movement, which may occur in the middle of direct curves or even in

what should be straight line.

5. Too many pen-lifts and pen-lifts on wrong places.

CHARACTERISTIC: TREMORS OF AGE OR OF EXTREME WEAKNESS

1. Show unusual and erratic departure of lives from its intended course.

2. Abrupt recovery, a general indication of muscular weakness and of

movement beyond the control of writer particularly on downward strokes.

3. Show awkward digression or distortion, which may be due to imperfect

sight.

4. Characterized by abbreviations or even omissions of parts of letters or

even a whole letter.

5. In tremor of age, it often show very uneven alignment and may disregard

entirely a line near which they are written especially if the lines indistinct.

Toward the end these signature sometimes show apparent impatient and

the desire to complete disagreeable and perhaps, painful act, and the
38

concluding parts often are mere with nervous haste and careless and

may be distorted abbreviated.

6. Illiterate tremor is characterized by a general irregularity that is not due

to weakness but lack of skill and a mental uncertainty as to form and to a

general muscular closeness resulting from familiarity with the whole

writing process.

7. Illiterate writing even on ruled paper, frequently show a pronounced

irregularity in alignment, some of being above the line.

VARIATION OF WRITING DUE TO THE FOLLOWING:

1. Due to the lack of machine like precision in the human body.

2. Caused by eternal factors, such as the writing instrument and writing

position.

3. Influenced by physical and mental conditions such as fatigue, intoxication

illness, nervousness due to the age of the writer and,

4. The quality of writing prepared in the course of time introduces variation

between specimen written at widely separated dates.

Variation in genuine writing appears in the superficial parts and not

applied to the whole process of writing. The degree of care given to the act of

writing creates variations, changes of slope and the size of the handwriting

superficially affects the appearance of the writing.

39

The nature and extent of the variation of the letter design depends on the

location, initials, medical or terminal, and is the case of detached small letter “a”

when used as article. The master pattern for any letter design, which closely

resembles the copybook, must be regarded more as a class rather than

individual characteristics, and as such no significant value.

If, however, the master pattern widely differs from the ordinary copybook

or conventional forms, they can be considered as individual characteristics. No

two individuals will exhibit similar master pattern of the same combination of

letter designs.

The range of variation in letter design depends upon the complexities of

the structures. The range of the variation of the letter designs is not the same for

all letters. Small letters such as “i”, “e”, “o”, have limited variation because any

applicable modification of the design will render the letters illegible.

THE MAIN CAUSES OF VARIATION IN WRITING ARE:

1. The varying methods and degrees of thoroughness in teaching.

2. Varying personalities

3. Varying occupations

4. Amount of writing done

5. Manual skill

6. Artistic ability
40

7. Influence of other writers

8. Quality of eyesight

9. Position at desk

10. Relation of arm to line of writing

11. Character of pen ink and paper habitually used

12. Relation of the two pen ribs to paper surface

13. Extended bent finger is pen holding

14. Free lateral arm movement

15. Writing with only finger or ban muscles

16. Angle of penholder

17. Uneven pressure of the two pen ribs; and

18. Slant

19. Size

20. Proportions

21. Spacing

22. Alignment

23. Shading qualities developed in actual writes

24. The development of freakish and grotesque forms

25. Tendencies toward flour ants, or toward,

26. Abbreviations of letter as finally developed by the writers.

41

CHAPTER V

RULES ON HOW HANDWRITING IS IDENTIFIED

RULE 1. The individuality of handwriting is the basis of all identification.

RULE 2. Handwriting is identified by the combination of all its attributes

and qualities, including both those derive from the writing movement and

those related to form.

Explanation:

Despite writing individuality, there are common qualities to many writings.

These arise from a number of factors. The most common cause, of course, is the

writing system, which was taught. However, there are instance in which member

of the same family tend to write same what alike, undoubtedly due to imitation as

well as to similar writing background. Certain types of in the writing develop in a

number of persons writing for examples, the common open a: and :o: which while

helping to individualized a writing may not be absolutely unique to one writer.

Thus, the individuality in handwriting, which is peculiar to each and every person,

is actually a unique combination of forms and writing qualities rather than one or

two highly distinctive identifying elements.

Element of writing, therefore, serves as part of the ultimate identification,

and a sound scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer

cannot be based on only one or two points of agreement. Of course the writing

properties, which are most personal have the greatest identifying value, but all
42

others both personal and group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate

conclusion.

RULE 2: COROLLARY 1- Handwriting portrays through its various

attributes and writing movements by which it was formed.

Explanations:

The element of movement such as skill, rhythm, writings pressure, pen

emphasis and shading, location and quality of start and stops, pen lifts, and the

like are reflected in the finished specimen. It is combination of these and other

elements, which describes the fundamental movement.

It may be possible from a study of the writing was executed that is by the

finger movement or arm movement. But this is not always true it is possible

however, to distinguish between well developed movement an opposed to the

rugged type of execution or the writing of more primitive nature which is typical of

the near illiterate.

Line Quality- is the visible record in the written stroke of the basic movement

and manner of holding the pen of writing instrument. It is derived from a

combination of factors including writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of

movement shading and proportion.

43

A. Types of Writing Movements

Basically there are three (3) different writing movements being

employed in the writing by different writer. But because of the

existence of a more large or extended type of writing, these are no

grouped into four:

1. Finger Movement- is mostly employed in “ vertical writing” and

mainly in the formation of printed styles of writing. Letters are

formed by the actions of the Thumb, index and the middle finger.

This is the movement employed by children, or generally by those

with whom writing is an unfamiliar process, it is otherwise called as

the push and pull writing.

Characteristics of Finger Movement

a. It results to an inferior or poor quality of writing with lack

of rhythm and speed.

b. Spacing is cropped up and he dashes are usually absent.

c. Finishes are done in irregular and abrupt manner or are

varied between letters.

d. Pen usually starts resting on the paper and ends with

short and abrupt strokes due to limited and irregular

movements of the fingers.

e. Shading is pronounced.

f. Lack of clear-cut, smooth and regular lines.

44

2. Hand Movement – It involves the action of the hand as a whole

with the fingers playing but a minor role (mainly in the formation of

small letters) and the wrist is the pivotal of the lateral movement.

Characteristics of Hand Movement:

a. Affords more expensive writing

b. Connections at the top and bottom of letters narrow

c. There is a considerable speed in movements

d. More regularity of the lines

3. Forearm (or Muscular) Movement – Writing is produced by the

movement of the hand and arm and also fingers in some cases.

The elbow is the pivotal of the lateral movement.

Characteristics of Forearm Movement:

a. Shows the greatest freedom and speed

b. Smooth clear-cut as indicative of rhythm

c. Slight shading is produced

d. More even baseline

e. Lateral movements is longer, making the shifting of the

lateral movement hard fewer

f. Uniformity in size of letters

4. Whole-Arm Movement – It involves the action of the entire arm

without rest and is employed in very large writing. Ornamental

45

penmanship, blackboard writing, and by a few writers making all

the capital letters are some of the writing where this movement is

being employed.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WRITING

MOVEMENTS:

1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting

2. Hesitating and painful through weakness or disease

3. Nervous and irregular

4. Strong, heavy and forceful

5. Smooth flowing and rapid

ELEMENTS OF WRITING MOVEMENTS

1. Writing (Pen) Pressure – is the average force with which the pen

comes in contact with the paper or the usual force involves in the

writing. This is one of the most personal but somewhat hidden

characteristics in writing.
46

2. Pen Emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against

the paper surface with increase pressure or the periodic increase in

pressure of the writing.

Shading ---- writing with the use of fountain pen

Rigid/Strong Strokes ---- writing with ball-points

3. Rhythm – is the balance quality of movement or the harmonious

recurrence of strokes or impulse. As an element of writing

movements, rhythm accounts to be one of the very essential for there

is nothing in handwriting so difficult to imitate as the exact quality of a

muscular rhythm.

POINTERS CONCERNING RHYTHM:

a. Lack of rhythm, as shown by a succession of awkward,

independent, poorly directed and disconnected motion is

often a sign of forgery.

b. Perfect and continuous coordination of impulse are more

often sign of forgery.

47

4. Skill – refers to the relative degree of the writer’s proficiency. It

cannot be accurately measured although it can be grouped as to

poor, average and good. Writing skill is dependent to many factors,

manual dexterity being the most important. Its basis is either legibility

or symmetry.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH SKILL:

a. It is difficult for the average writer to improve his skill in

writing without considerable effort or long practice, as a

rule, “A person cannot write better than his usual best.”

b. That contrarily, most writers can write a poorer

handwriting than his accustomed one without much

effort.

5. Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting

but it can be interpreted in broad term as to slow and drawn,

deliberate, average and rapid. (See Fig 2)

INDICATION OF SPEED OF RAPIDNESS IN WRITING

1. Smooth, unbroken strokes

2. Misplaced and misshaped “i” dots and “t” crosses

3. Joining of initial or of words

48

4. Letters tapered illegibly towards end of words

5. Mark difference in pressure contact and down strokes

6. Wide writing and spacing

7. Simplification of letters especially in capitals

INDICATION OF SLOWNESS IN WRITING

1. Broken strokes, wavy lines

2. “i” dots and “t” crosses made and placed perfectly

3. Pauses, unnecessary marks and angles retouching

4. Carefully made final spacing

5. Little difference in pressure on up and down strokes

6. Ornamentals of flourishing letters

49

6. Pen-lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing

instrument from the paper. Disconnection between letters and letter

combination may be due to lack of movement control. Using a

ballpoint pen may cause pen lift due to failure of the ball to rotate.

7. Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the

letter strokes or the widening of the ink strokes due to the added ink

on the flexible pen point or the use of the stub pen.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING SHADING:

a. its form

b. its intensity

c. its skill

d. its frequency

e. its exact location

50

8. Pen Position (pen hold) – is the location of the pen in relation to the

paper surface, which can be determined by the presence of the

emphasis or pen shading.

9. Pen Scope – represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. It

is the average scope or limits of the pen during the process of writing

with the wrist of the hand at still.

51

10. Retracing or Retrace – is the stroke that goes back over another

writing strokes; it is slightly to occur in others handwriting.

11. Retouching or Patching – is a stroke going back to repair a

defective portion of the writing stroke. Careful patching is a common

fault in forgeries.
52

ELEMENTS OF LETTER FORMS

1. ARC = the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the upper loop of

such letters as c, h, m, n, etc.

2. BEARD = The slight up and down introductory stroke or sort of double

hitch, seen at the beginning of many capital letters.

3. Blunt = the beginning and ending strokes of letters, both small and

capital, in which the pen touch the paper without hesitation, beard. Hitch,

or knob.

4. Buckle Knot = the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to

complete such letters as A, F, f, H and D.

5. Central Part or Body = the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small

circle that usually lies on the line of writing, as the bodies of a, b, d, g, o,

p.
53

6. Dactus Broken or Junction Broken = the disconnected and non-

continuous stroke between two letters.

7. Dactus Link or Junction Connected = the continuous line that joins two

letters.

8. Eye Loop or Eyelet = the small loop formed by strokes that extend in

divergent directions as in b, c, f, k, p, q, r, s, v, w, and z.

9. Foot = the base, or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.

10. Hitch = the introductory backward stroke added to the beginning of many

capital letters; it is also occasionally found in some small letters.

11. Hook or Through = the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the

bottom loop, or curve of small letters.

54

12. Hump = the rounded outer side of the top of the bend, crook, or curve in

small letters such as h, k, m, n.

13. Initial Spur = the long initial rising stroke of a letter.

14. Knob = found either at the beginning or end of letters, both small and

capital in which the pen touched or left the paper so slowly that a tiny

pool of ink spread slightly.

15. Main Stroke or Stem or Shank of Staff = the long upright downward

stroke that is the trunk or stalk, seen especially in B. F. K. P.

16. Space Filler or Terminal Spur = an upward horizontal or downward final

stroke usually seen in small letters such as a, s, u, y.

55

17. Whirl = the upward stroke, usually on letters that have a high loops such

as h, d, and l.

COROLLARY 2. A particular writing instrument may not fully reflect

all of the qualities of writing movement.

The various elements that make up writing movement are not always

reflected in the specimen prepared with same classes of writing instrument. For

example, variation in pen emphasis appears as shading with a flexible but most

of this is lost when the writing is performed with a stiff pen. But the same token,

pencil and ball pen position which may be clearly disclosed when the writer uses

a relatively flexible nib pen. If one specimen of writing fail to show certain writing

qualities because of the instrument used and another does disclose these

qualities, this does not mean that we are dealing with two different writers. The

examiner must carefully determine the kind of writing instrument used in each

specimen and with this knowledge evaluate apparent differences of this nature.

RULE 3. Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s

normal writing habits and to show the degree of variation common to his

writing.
56

This rule actually defines adequate and proper standards. Useless they

completely fulfill these conditions their usefulness in any examination is limited.

In fact, in certain standards, which do not comply with those requirements may in

certain instances lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the examination of a

writer who actually prepared the specimen in question.

COROLLARY 1. The best standards include writing which was

prepared for a comparable purpose and under similar writing conditions to

the matter under investigation.

With standard consisting of a relatively small sample of a person’s total

writing. It is well to select them carefully. Statistical studies have shown that small

properly selected and controlled may give much more accurate picture of the

whole than the substantially larger but controlled sample. The problem is one of

selection and control. Thus, in writing standards all influencing factor should be

kept as much like those of the questioned material as possible. This means that

writing with similar instrument prepared under comparable condition at or about

the same time should be sought. It does not mean, however, that writing which

was prepared for every different purpose may not permit an accurate

identification. If the two writing contain the same identifying element, then

certainly the identification is valid. It does not mean, however, that the best

procedure is to seek writing prepared for a similar purpose, as reference has

57

shown that writing generally leads to the best identification and requires for less

interpretation by the expert.

RULE 4. A specimen of writing was written by a particular person if all its

identifying elements are a part of his handwriting and furthermore the

variation within its specimen falls within his range of writing variation.

RULE 5. (Converse) A specimen of writing was not written by a particular

person if there exist significant difference between its identifying elements

and those of the suspected writer.

In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain

all of the identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These

element includes personal writing habits, the manner of execution, and quality

and extent of variation. The unknown writing may contain elements not found in

the unknown. If those elements are rate or unusual characteristics of the

unknown writer, or it due unknown material is very limited, their occurrence does

not necessarily invalidate the identification. With no longer question specimen by

the same writer and under similar condition to the standard, not only should the

same combination of identifying characteristics to be expected but also those

personal writing attributes should occur in a somewhat frequency in both

specimens.
58

Difference between the known and unknown writing become significant

due to their clearly fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrence to the

same, all unconscious element. It is that the converse rules govern, and writing

are by different writers. Fundamental differences must be clearly distinguished

from variables, which are a part of every writer’s handwriting. Thus, the

identification of writing involves certain point of judgment as to whether an

apparent difference is really fundamental or is a variable or was introduced

purely by change. Fortunately, in the vast majority of question, Non-identity is

established by the presence of not one but a number of significant basic

difference.

These rules are basic and fundamental. No doubt could be added, but

such omissions in this paper are not many detract from or mitigate against the

significance of the anxious and corollaries set forth herein. The identification of

handwriting depends upon a consideration of each of these rules whenever

applicable.
59

Chapter VI

SIGNATURES AND FORGERY DETECTION

Signature is a name of a person signed by him on a document as a sign of

acknowledgment. Signature is said to be one important thing that a person owns.

You can be the riches among the rich or the poorest among the poor because of

your signature. Almost all documents requires signature for its complete

authenticity. When a person signed his name, he carries one of his most

common writing acts making his signature highly complex and individual. The

question of how he writes his name is dependent on a number of combined

factors. Just like for instance in a case of near-illiterate usually produces a

measurable, plodding pattern, lacks in skill and freedom of execution but still it is

individual to him alone. With those who have attained a higher level of writing

capabilities signature also assumes greater skills, its strokes flows with less

primitive effects. Some of the factors that contribute to this effect are his

muscular control and coordination, his health, age, nervous temperament, the

oftenest of being engaged to writing and even his personality. While a number of

this factors are blended in a person’s signature nonetheless, the writer is not

particularly conscious of these factors as he executes until such a time through

practice or repeated execution of which the strokes are somehow being formed

in a semi-automatic way carrying a consistent pattern with certain degree of

variation.
60

CLASSES OF SIGNATURE

a. FORMAL OR COMPLETE – class of signature used in acknowledging

important document such as will, checks, contract and business papers.

b. INFORMAL OR CURSORY – a class of signature for routinely

executed document or made for personal correspondence.

c. CARELESS SCRIBBLE – used for mail carrier, delivery of goods,

purchase of equipments and an autograph collector.

Some writers make use of all these three classes of signature especially

those working in a business or a company in order for them to have a distinction

between important and not so important documents in the company and

differentiate them with his personal document. Some even makes a distinctive or

somewhat hidden mark to their signature in awareness of possible forgery of his

signature.
61

FORGERY

Documents containing disputed signature occupies the highest level in the

hierarchy of questioned document cases. It is due to this, that a specialized

branch of questioned document examination was established ---the Signature

Verification. The identification of one’s signature calls for a greater emphasis

than in handwriting identification but the basic principles remains the same.

There are certain characteristic or features that a signature has that do not

appear in the ordinary handwriting of a person, making signature more unique,

complex and truly individualized. The way signature is written is a great factor to

its recognition. Although it contains fewer letters and even sometimes-

unrecognizable letters strokes being in a form of highly individualized signature

its identification is being accomplished. This is due to the frequent use of one’s

signature, its great importance, its value to the author somehow that makes it

more automatic than the usual handwriting. Here the skills, the momentum of the

pen and the forms of the letters plays a very important role.

To ordinary layman letter structure is the most common eye-catching part

but to the lenient person who knows the art and science of signature

identification he knows that the factors of movements or execution is the most

important aspects for accurate and effective identification.

Once a person signed his name in a form of a signature there is

automatically that desire to produce something based on pre-determined pattern

as to how his signature would look like. This pattern consists of personal designs
62

with certain touch of artistic ability and personality. Once this is done in repetition

it will turn into a form that makes it distinguishable over all others.

Basically, there are two sets of elements to be considered. Those

elements associated to the form or designs of the letters that usually gives the

general form of the signature and those properties that are relative to the motion

of the writing instrument. If the questioned and all the standard signatures show

an excellent number of similarities with none of the significant differences,

therefore, you may say that same person wrote them.

Natural variations play a very important role in ascertaining the

genuineness of a signature. Its presence or absence, its degrees or extents are

very significant in determining whether or not the questioned and the sets of

standards belong to the same person. The concept of natural variation is in line

with the truth that no two specimen of signature are completely and absolutely

identical. Therefore, the extent in which variations in the specimen signature

varies, the condition of the writers, the conditions under which the writing was

prepared and other factors that might affect the over-all appearance of the writing

should be taken into consideration. Especially in determining differences that are

part of variation as distinguished from that of significant differences.

The process by which signature was forged is also an important factor that

is to be considered in determining the true nature of the signature. It is always

said that anything done out of imitation will leads to a poorer quality of writing.

But as what was discussed in earlier a matter of form or design is only one of the

factors to be considered in signature identification. The way a fraudulent

63

signature was made is also the reason for which it is identified to be truly forged

and not a genuine one. There is no perfect process of forgery, be it done by

simple, simulated or tracing for each one of these processes leave its trade mark

of being fraudulent to whatever will be its product.

There are various classes of forged signature but how they are made are

generally categories into three Major types --- The simple, the simulated and the

traced forgery.

The Simple Forgery

Simple forgery is a forged signature made without any attempt on the part

of the forger to imitate or make a facsimile of the genuine signature of the person

purported to sign the document. As the name implies, this is one of the simplest

type for the forger need not have a genuine signature at hand in order to make

such a forgery. Using his own style of writing, the forger executes the name of

the person who supposed to sign the document. Sometimes it is done with some

modification of his own style and he takes advantage of the element of time, so

that things will be accomplished before it will be detected. This is one type of

forgeries that is very easy to be identified, even by ordinary person. There is no

hard and fast rule to its detection for at the moment a genuine signature is

obtained simple comparison will obviously show that they were not written by

only one person. It is also this type of forgery, that identification of the forger is

quite more easy than the two other processes. Its identification of the forger lies
64

on the fact that it is written in the own style of the forger, thus it reflects his writing

characteristics.

This is a common practice by check thief, criminals who steal, endorse or

passes government or corporate checks. BY utilizing fictitious signature and

pretence, the forger may successfully take things to his advantage.

There where simple instances at which this type of forgery are made. Like

for instance in school, there are students in the hope of giving favor to their

friends, might sign the name of their friend in the attendance sheet even though

the said student is actually absent, the student write his friend’s name and

opposite of which is a signature which is actually a mere creation of the one

signing it. This type of forgery is also called as Spurious Signature.

The Simulated Forgery

The simulated forgery is considered to be the most skilful type of forgery.

Although this form appears or made in various level of skills depending upon the

forger, The reason for its being branded as the most skillful type, lies on the fact

that this process is done in not just ordinary way, it takes real skill of different

degrees in order for a forger to successfully imitate the signature which he

intends to sign. Through free-hand imitation a gifted forger will make a practice

over a scratch paper for twenty-thirty times before signing it to the fraudulent

document. This is one of the reasons why at the moment the forger sign it, he

sign with certain continuity as distinguished from those of amateur forger. It is

65

also of this reason that detection of this type is relatively more difficult especially

if skillfully done.

Aside from the challenge of skills on the part of the forger, another thing

that he has to work for is to be able to understand the characteristics of the

model signature of another person, execute the same, while discarding his own

writing style. See it is not just a simple job. There are even certain instances that

the forger could not be able to avail himself of the model signature, but because

of his desire to accomplish it and with sufficient familiarization with the signature

to be imitated, simulation can still be undertaken. Simulated forgery is also called

as copied forgery.

The Traced Forgery

The traced forgery like a simulated forgery necessarily requires the aid of

a model signature. As the name implies, it is the result of an attempt of the forger

to make a close resemblance of the original by means of some tracing processes

so as to transfer it to the fraudulent document.

Most cases of traced are easy to identify than a simulated one. This is due

to the fact that a traced signature is done in a way foreign from writing or this

actually not more of writing rather a drawing. One exemption to this could be the

case of those who traced the signature with certain practice that they can trace

with a fact, free pen movement. But still the large numbers of these cases are

really drawn with a slow, measurable stroke, done with much consciousness,

hesitation and abrupt turns due to certain movement. Some of the tracing

processes used in making traced forgery are as follows:

66

1. CARBON OUTLINE PROCESS

This process is one of the most common means utilized by

forger in making a number of identical copies or records of certain

entries. A piece of carbon paper either blue or black is interleaved

between the genuine signature and the fraudulent document with the

genuine document placed on top. Using a dry pen or pointed instrument

the outline of the model signature will then be traced in order to make an

offset print of the carbon on the fraudulent document. If a piece of blue

carbon was used, the signature outline will be grossly approximate the

line of a blue pen. When a black carbon was the one used, the signature

outline will grossly resemble the work of a self lead pencil. The genuine

and the carbon paper will be removed and the carbon outline will be

inked using a pen. One of the troubles that a forger has is how to put the

ink strokes on the same place where the carbon outline was. That is why

he has to be slow in doing it. Another draw back could be the dirt that the

carbon outline produced.

2. INDENTION OR CANAL-LIKE PROCESS

This is done in similar way the carbon outline process is

made, only that now a carbon paper is eliminated in the process. The

genuine document is placed above the fraudulent document, the forger

will follow the outline of the genuine signature using a pressure, enough
67

to make or leave an indented writing on the fraudulent document. The

depression or indented signature is thereafter overwritten with an ink to

finish the forgery. Just like in carbon outline process, the difficulty now

on the part of the forger is how to make the ink strokes coincide with the

depression or indented outline.

3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT OR PROJECTION PROCESS

Among the three methods being utilized by some forger, this

method has greater advantage on the part of the forger. Here the

fraudulent document is the one placed above the genuine document,

using a transmitted light, these two documents will be placed on top of

the plane glass of the transmitted light. With a strong light passing

through these two documents, the image/outline of the genuine

signature will be projected to the fraudulent document and later be

traced with ink. In this process the forger can be fast in his execution and

the problem of dirt by carbon or depression by indention process are

eliminated. With this process and with practice, forgery will be easier and

should be considered by a document examiner or signature verifier as a

challenge to their credibility in signature identification.

N.B.

Simulated and traced forgeries have something in common. Both utilized a

model signature and the objective of the forger is to affect a facsimile. They only

differ somehow on the manner of executing it or having it done.

68

There are a number of drawbacks on the part of the forger using

simulation as well as tracing and they are: (1) Giving much attention to the

conspicuous features of form and not to other details that encompasses the

execution of a genuine writing; (2) Imitation or tracing leads to disguised, and

disguised leads to a poorer result; (3) Too much consciousness of the process

leads to hesitation; (4) Failure to identify significant characteristics of the writing

of another; (5) Difficulty in eliminating or discarding his own writing habits; (6) It

needs great muscular skills to produce the writing being imitated; (7) Awareness

of criminal act, fear of discovery and anxiety to do the work well; and (8) the most

basic and fundamental defect is not on the divergent form but in the quality of the

line strokes.

Defects that a traced forgery might be evidenced by looking on one

or more of the following:

1. Quality of line strokes

2. Naturalness of movement, freedom strokes and speed of execution of the

writing;

3. Hesitation causing pen lifting, retouching and shading;

4. Selecting and dating model signatures;

5. Presence of pencil, carbon or indention outlines which point to the process

used; and

6. Identification of the questioned signature with a genuine or model

signature used such as using actual measurements with the aid of test
69

plates, superimposition with transmitted light, or taking photographs and

producing transparencies to easily superimpose one over the other,

transparent glass with uniform ruled squares or various lines to show all

parts agreeing with said squares or lines.

SEVEN (7) CLASSES OF DISPUTED SIGNATURES/

QUESTIONED SIGNATURES

1. Forged signature where no attempt has been done to make a copy

or facsimile of the genuine signature of the person purporting to

sign the document. This is commonly referred to as Simple

Forgery.

2. Forged signature of fictitious person.

3. Forged signature that closely resembles the genuine signature

since they have been produced by a tracing process referred to as

Traced Forgery.

4. Forged signature that resembles the genuine signature written in

freehand also called as Simulated or Copied Forgery.

5. Genuine signature which the writer honestly unwilling to accept as

genuine.

6. Genuine signature obtained by trickery.

7. Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual

manner to afford signatures some plausible ground for disclaiming

them should they deem it expedient.

70

IDENTIFICATION OF FORGERY

1. Hesitation and pen stops at unusual places

2. Abrupt change in direction of strokes, showing uncertainty of movements

3. Concealed joining or carefully made patching or retouching

4. Blunt initial and/or terminal strokes

5. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes

6. Misplaced shading or shading in more than one direction caused by a

false start

7. Defective line quality

8. Slow, broken strokes, or wavy lines (Tremors)

9. Unnatural pen lifting

10. Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes

EVIDENCE OF NATURALNESS IN WRITING HALLMARKS OF

SPONTANEOUS WRITING

1. A general rhythmic writing through out

2. Smooth unbroken strokes in writing

3. Finely tapered strokes both at the beginning and ending letters

4. Tendency towards illegibility especially towards end of signature or

other words indicating great speed.

71

PRIMARY SIGNS AND FORGERY

1. Slow broken strokes, way lines

2. Unnecessary retouching or patching

3. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down

4. Blunt starting and ending strokes

5. Meaningless markings and blots caused by a false start

6. Shading in more than one directed cause by a false start by an effort

to imitate line, which by twisting the pen rather than varying the

pressure or imitating pen hold.

CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. Line Quality – (Natural or Feigned)

2. Letter form – (General or Individual)

3. Proportions – (Balance or disproportionate)

4. Height Ratio – (Between different letter)

5. Skill – (lowest and highest level of dexterity and artistic or not)

6. Writing movement – (Rhythmic or varied)

7. Writing Continuity – (Joined or disjoined letters)

8. Writing Pressure – (Light, medium, heavy)

9. Pen scope – (Short, average or extended)

10. Letter spacing – (narrow or broad)

11. Speed – (Slow, average, or rapid)

12. Slant – (Controlled or extremely variable)

72

13. letter size- (Large, Medium, Small)

14. Connections – (Angular, rounded or broken)

15. Other individual idiosyncrasies such as manner crossing t-bars, split

letter, excessive underlining, bent staff and diacritical markings.

73

CHAPTER VII

CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

The improper or careless handling of a disputed document can lead to a

serious curtailment of certain technical examinations. Most frequently this

condition is brought about by ignorance of the consequences of mishandling just

the simple act of removing and replacing a letter in its envelop repeatedly can

cause noticeable deteriorate.

The care, handling and preservation of documents can be discussed

adequately by setting forth certain positive rules of action in the form of “DO’s”

and listening in several admonitions in the form of “DONT’s”.

“DO’s”

1. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelope.

Protective Envelopes

The most useful and effective protective covering of a disputed

document is a transparent plastic envelop. This kind of envelope can

easily be purchased commercially or can easily be made from sheets of

clear plastic to a size sufficient to accommodate any flat unfolded paper.

As an alternative, a large, heavy manila or craft envelope or folder

can be used. Again, the document should be laid flat, unfolded as to

prevent wear along folds. If a nontransparent envelope is used, it should

74

be carefully labeled both for convenience and to eliminate unnecessary

handling. This kind of envelope makes a poor permanent substitute for a

transparent one because the document is not easily examined but

protection by any sort of envelope preserve the documents and reduces

the chance of damage.

2. Take disputed papers to the document examiner’s laboratory at

the first opportunity.

3. If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place away

from excessive heat and strong light.

Proper Storage

Once a document is disputed, it is seldom stored or filed for long,

but important documents are often kept for years. Some of these may be

challenged long after they were prepared, the document may deteriorate

seriously. Moist or humid atmosphere, excessive heat, and strong light

accelerate the normal effects of aging, bringing about changes in a

relatively short time. Under these conditions, it is entirely possible that

even though there is no apparent effect for exposure to moisture, heat or

light, the document had undergone microscopic changes.

75

“DON’T’s”

1. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a

pocket for a long time.

Avoid Excessive Handling

Repeated handling of a document can actually wear it out. In this

way a paper becomes dirty, frayed, and stained. Folds deepened and

finally broken by repeated opening and folding.

2. Do not mark disputed documents (either by consciously writing

or by pointing at them with a writing instruments or dividers)

Do Not Mark

Interfering marks may result either from someone’s deliberately writing in

the paper or from those unconscious strokes and smudges placed there

by someone’s pointing at the document with a pen, pencil, pair of dividers,

or eraser. Both must be avoided.

3. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing,

cutting, tearing or punching for filing purposes.

4. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical

or do not treat or dust for latent fingerprints before consulting a

document examiner.
76

Do Not Allow “Amateur Testing”

Charred documents, because of their extremely fragile nature, must

be handled as little as possible. Even transporting them to the laboratory

care. When documents of this kind are discovered, much is to be gained

by discussing all aspects of the question with a qualified document

examiner before any attempt is made to move the materials to his

laboratory.

When possible, the charred documents should be moved in the

container in which they are found. If the fragments are not packed tightly,

lightweight absorbent cotton may be used as padding. Jarring of the box

must be kept to minimum if not entirely eliminated.

THE EQUIPMENT OF A DOCUMENT LABORATORY

Tools are of great importance in any discovery and providing. There are

certain things that the physical evidence would like to tell us but sometimes only

with the aid of some scientific instrument that the evidence trying to tell us. Just

like a quotation that Osborn used in his book “ Questioned Document Problems”,

regarding physical evidence -------. But human naked eye has its limitations and

these limitations leads the document examiner to the idea of needing some tools

in order to decipher if not to restore what is to be known or discover in the

document. Since Questioned Document is not an exact science exhibits are

necessary to convince the court. Such will be needing the aid of some

equipment.
77

Document examination is not very complicated in terms of the used for

equipment in as much as the instrument to be used depends on the scope of the

examination needed to perceived what is needed to be perceived. Sometimes

even an ordinary table lamp, a camera for photographing will do to discover and

prove something in the document under scrutiny. But there are some cases also

that a need for powerful equipment will be more desirable for it is the only means

to prove the authenticity or forgery of the document. Artificial light like Ultra-

violet Lamp and Infra-red gadget may sometimes be at used. There are several

equipment that can be of great significance to document examination but the

author decided to made mention of some of the most useful and commonly used

for the purpose as well as some facilities needed.

THE ROOM

It is ideal that separate room should be built for physical examination and

for photographing and processing to the extent of utilizing specialized

photography.

The room should provide a means for storage of documents, a cool, dry

and ventilated storage. Ample bench space over which a number of documents

can be placed and can be scrutinized within an easy sight and reach of the

examiner. These make the examination easier and less time consuming.

Comparison or collation can be made well and organized despite the number of

documents being examined.

78

OPTICAL EQUIPMENTS

Some equipment can be made through improvise but not when we talked

of magnifiers, microscopes and camera lenses. A job well done cannot be

attained with the use of inferior optical equipment. Mounting of exhibits is of great

significance for demonstration and proving in court, thus quality should not be

compromise with the use of cheaper equipment of poor performance.

a. Hand Magnifier

There are varieties of magnifiers that are at used at present.

What is needed? Practically, what is necessary for use is one,

which will serve the greatest purpose of the examination. A

magnifying lens that is just enough in its magnification (at least

capable of making four-times the size of the original), having a

diameter of about two inches but not more than or less than one

inch will be reasonable to cover a wider field of view.

Other forms such as Illuminated magnifier, Binocular

magnifier, adjustable lens can be of great help to document

examiner but they are rarely used especially in the country.

b. Microscopes

Microscope also appear in various forms, there are

compound microscope for biological testing, microscope with a

wide-flat form for documents to be laid and comparison

79

microscope for simultaneous viewing and matching of two

specimen at one time.

One of the most useful types is that of a stereoscopic

microscope for it gives document examiner an extensive

examination, showing great details of documents and anything

on it that our naked eye alone is impossible of being

deciphered. This microscope is of unique form for it gives an

examiner three dimensional enlargement of the specimen under

consideration making it ideal for examination of cross writings,

writing across a folds, sequence of strokes and disturb fiber

partly concealed.

Stereoscopic microscopes can be purchased with built-in

lighting systems, this type is convenient for use but sometimes a

separate illumination can be found to be of greater advantage in

some cases for such can be controlled in it intensity and angle

of illumination required. In a comprehensive laboratory one of

the most powerful and useful equipment used is that of the

Forensic Comparator microscope sometimes they called it

three-in-one microscope, an instrument that can bring together

two objects into the same field of view so that they may easily

be compared under the same degree of magnification. This is

extensively used in questioned document, fingerprint, Ballistics

and even for forensic chemistry purpose.

80

c. Camera and Lens

An S-L-R Camera has its indispensable used in

questioned document examination for discovering and

proving in court until at present. A photographic enlargement

of signature, handwritings and type prints including

alterations in documents with the use of some illuminations

are very important to show agreement or disagreement the

characteristics of the questioned and standard document.

This will not be possible with the use of the document itself

alone for such is too small and comparison will be very

difficult as to prove or disprove the claims of either party

concerned.

With S-L-R camera all it takes is to have a variety of lens

that can be used for different purposes. One type of lens that

is commonly at use especially for photographing

handwritings, signatures and type prints is that of the macro

lens or a specialized short focus lens that does not only

record image but also enlarged the same in certain degrees.

An appropriate stand is necessary to maintain parallelism

between the camera and the document. A photographic

stand with a built in stage is found to be more convenient

81

than an ordinary tripod in order to avoid distorted image of

the disputed as well as the standard documents.

MEASURING APPARATUS

In document examination, measurement plays a very significant role for in

some cases it is even become a sole basis in determining genuineness of the

document. There are various standards measuring instrument but some of which

were not available to our document examiner. In addition to the regular

photographing equipment it is necessary to have a number of measuring devices

that can be photograph with the documents when making court exhibits.

a. Handwriting Measuring Test Plates

This instrument is about a foot or fifteen inches in length

either plastic, metal or glass made, an instrument with

graduated scales in both inches and centimeters. With these

scales, measurements will be easy and direct on the document.

Handwriting measuring test plates also varies in form depending

on what is to be measured in a document. There are what we

called Handwriting slope measuring test plates, design to

measure degree of writing inclination; Handwriting comparison

test plates design to make a simultaneous comparison of two

specimen handwriting, showing their alignment, slant or scale

and proportions.
82

b. Typewriting measuring test plates

Measuring instrument design to measure the typeface pitch

of a given typewriting as well as determining alignment, scale

and proportion of the type characters. A valuable scale for use

on typescript consist of a set of parallel lines about half-inch

apart. Each line has a short intersecting lines at usual spacing

of 9,10,12 and 16 to the inch as well as one of 2.6 mm. If a type

prints does not conform to any of this thin scale it only connotes

that it was spaced on the metric system.

One such article of universal utility is accurate ruler on paper

which can be placed directly on a document and photographed

with it aid the photographer in securing the exact extent of

enlargement. For instance, if a paper ruler an inch in length is

placed on the document being photographed, the length of the

image of the ruler on the ground glass is a measure of the

degree of enlargement. Therefore, the image of the inch ruler

measures six inches; the enlargement is six-inch diameters. The

degree of enlargement can also be determined in court in the

same way by measuring the length of the ruler on the

photograph.

To show accurately the difference or identity in the slant,

spacing, alignment, curve, angle or proportion of two writings to

be compared, the document examiner must have a number of

83

special measures on colorless glass plates that can be placed

over the documents and photographed with them. This is an

approved practice. When document testimony is illustrated

photographically in this way, points of identity or dissimilarity in

different writings can be seen by anyone able to understand the

measures of the common ruler and protractors.

SPECIAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

A. The Visible Light application

1. Direct lighting

This type of light examination is generally applies for

photographing purpose. In as much as document are to be

photograph in a close distance a separate light should be

required in order to obtain a good exposure of the document

being photograph and in some case this light examination is

also useful in cases of erasures and concealment of erased

surface by addition of certain substance after erasure has been

made.

2. Oblique Lighting

This type of lighting process positioned the lamp at one side

with the source of illumination striking the surface of the paper

at a very low angle. This will cause varying angles to the light
84

incident for every uneven area on a document. This light

examination is best use in indented writings and erasures.

3. Side lighting

In this process the paper is held vertically and the light

strikes the surface of the paper from one side. This is used in

showing presence of disturb fiber due to mechanical erasure

and indention.

4. Transmitted light

One of the very useful instruments in document examination

is the transmitted light gadget. It gives a source of illumination

that would strike the back or the bottom of the paper. This

apparatus is so simple, it is essentially consisting of a plane

glass on which the document is placed and a source of light

placed beneath it. The lamp is house in a box sealed in all side

except with one with the glass or a lamp may also be backed

with a metal reflector for a more powerful source of illumination.

This lighting examination is very useful in determination of

watermarking in paper, shows fiber arrangement in paper as

well as sequence of strokes.

85

B. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT GADGET

1. The X-ray or Roentgen

This gadget is rarely at used in questioned document

examination although sometimes an X-rays of very soft radiation

or Genz rays can be of use for purpose of making a transmitted

light photograph to show up watermarking as well any thinner

surface of the paper like the site of erasures. But such activity

can likewise be best shown with the used of ordinary

transmitted light, that is only X-ray is not commonly at use or

practically it is more applied in medico-legal examination.

2. The Ultra-violet light gadget

The Ultra-violet light gadget appears in various forms, some

in a form similar to a fluorescent lamp where the glass envelope

also acts as a filter which absorbs the bulk of the visible

radiation and allowing the shorter wave lengths to pass through.

This lamp is commercially termed as the “black light” for at times

that the power is off the bulb is colored black. This lamp is found

to be very useful both for commercial and laboratory application.

One of its widest applications is in detection of counterfeit

Philippine Currency notes. Many businesses established big or

small that are directly involved in money transaction utilizes

Ultra-violet lamp for security reason.

86

This lamp makes a discharge through mercury vapor

confined in a tube of transparent fused quarts. Heat and visible

lights are generated along with the ultra-violet light. A nickel

glass independently mounted from the discharge tube absorbs

the visible light

3. Infra-red Lamp

The used of infra-red photography refers to that special type of

black and white photography whereby image are reproduced through

the action of infra-red rays on sensitized films.

The value of photography by infra-red lies on the fact that infra-

red radiation like visible light often are reflected and or transmitted

quite differently by common objects. Some objects subjects under

infra-red rays are transparent while others are opaque. Objects which

reflects the infra-red rays are said to be transparent to infra-red rays.

On the positive print the objects appear gray or as white shades.

Where the infra-red rays are not reflected but absorbed, the objects

are said to be opaque to infra-red rays. On the positive prints the

object will appear as black shades.

The word infra-red means “ below or beyond the red”. As the

wave increases to 700 milimicrons and above the radiation merges into

heat wave and finally into the radio waves. Even though the infra-red

extends far out only the region quite near the visible light, is of interest
87

photographically. Infra-red rays in the longest wavelength among the

photographic rays and it is also called the heat rays.

Infra-red radiation can be made by photoflood bulb with infra-red

transmitting filters like No. 25, 87, 80A or by black-out flash bulb.

Blackout flash lamp makes photography in almost complete darkness

without the usual visible light. Only a dull red glow from the lamp, is

visible. In such case, it is necessary for the photographer to know

where the subject is and the distance.

USES OF INFRA-RED:

1. Shows gun powder stains;

2. Deciphering altered or faded writings due to age;

3. Restoration of writing in charred documents;

4. Decipherment of Obliterated writing;

5. Differentiate paints or pigments which visually identical but of

different composition;

6. Detection and demonstration of certain secret writings or stains

ion cloth or paper;

7. Record subject in total darkness without being detected;

8. Addition, interlineations or insertion; and

9. In Surveillance Photography and night vision.

88

CHAPTER VIII

INKS AND WRITING INSTRUMENTS

IMPORTANCE

Practical knowledge about inks, their composition, resistance to moisture,

performance and absorption effects, manufacturing dates, is a valuable asset in

questioned document examinations. Ink used is usually examined when the date

or age of document is questioned or when some parts of a document are

suspected to have been corrected, added, altered and/or inserted by another

hand with the intent to defraud.

ANCIENT INKS

Pre-Christian era inks were mostly soot or carbon blacks dissolved in

water with holding solutions to attain desired fluidity. The Chinese and Indians

were expert crude ink manufacturers using pulverized stones and saps of woods.

MODERN BLACK INKS

The modern Chemist, learned from the ancient crude preparations, has

the following ink solutions in black:

1. Tanno-gallate from sulphate of iron with gum – the most durable ink

solution for records purposes

2. Lampblack with alkaline solution

3. Coal tar dyestuff with water

89

4. Iron tannate with aniline colorings

5. The ink containing tannin and iron salts takes an everlasting nature

for it resist alcohol and stays black indefinitely.

Another kind of black ink that appears blue initially but becomes black

when exposed to moisture is the logwood ink with potassium chromate.

ANILINE INK

This is made out of coal tar dissolved in acids. This was used as early as

1870. However, the ink is washable and, therefore, is not good for permanent

records.

FOUNTAIN PEN INKS

Fountain pen inks are supposed to be the best writing inks, quick

drying, waterproof and durable. So, manufacturers introduced alkali-resistant

dyes in caustic soda solutions.

INDELIBLE FLUIDS

These are used mostly when a penetrating marking is desired that will not

be erased. It is not commonly used except for special reasons. It is composed of

logwood, potassium, aniline, bi-chromate, nutgall, gum and silver nitrate.

90

INVISIBLE OR SECRET INKS

These are classified according to the mode by which can make them visible:

1. Heating Process

2. Chemical Reaction

3. Moistening or Immersing in Water

4. Crude preparations take the form of secretions, juices, saliva, gum,

milk, etc.

AGE OF WRITING

At most, modern chemistry can only approximate whether a document

written with an ink is recent or old. A recent writing is usually determined by

incomplete oxidation process but once oxidation is completed, age determination

basing solely on the ink is impossible. The best method here is not by a chemical

test but by comparison with other contemporary documents in which persons

knowledgeable of their production could establish their ages.

RESTORATION TECHNIQUES

When a writing is suspected to be erased either by optical illusion or by

chemical erasures or by removing paper fibers by rubber erasures, the following

are recommended to restore the writing:

1. Expose it under ultra-violet rays then, photograph.

2. Test ink used before erasure (thru chemical analysis). Depending on

the ink, the erased writing containing iron would appear by means of:
91

a. Iodine or Ammonium Sulfide Fuming;

b. Treatment of Tannic or Gallic Acid

SEQUENCE OF WRITING

The difference in absorption effects of inks accounts for the easy

determination of the sequence of writing where the problem is to determine which

of the two (2) writings with crossed lines was written first or last.

The following factors are considered, kind and quality of ink, pen used,

quality of paper and time. Extensions of letters above or below the baseline are

helpful especially under magnifications. Consider the following: (1) When the first

ink line is still moist, the crossing second line will not only darken the scored

portion but will have its ink on the scored portion fused through the first line

appearing as expanded. (2) When the first line is dry, the crossing line will darken

the scored portion and will appear to be overlapping or plowing the first line.

In this problem, it is a lot easier to determine ink writing versus lead

writing. When pen and ink are used to cross some lead lines, the ink flowing from

the pen will fully cover the lead. But when a pen is used first and the pencil is

used to cross some ink lines, the lead strokes scoring the ink lines will appear on

top of the ink when the ink is dried and will appear plowing the ink line if it is not

yet completely dried.

Whether it is ink versus ink or ink versus lead, ten to fourteen times

magnification is necessary to expose the crossing lines.

92

OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF INK, WITH APPROXIMATE DATES

ORIGINATING

NAME COUNTRY PERIOD MATERIALS USED

China Dawn of Fine carbon in water containing a

Egypt Civilization mucilaginous substance or

CARBON India vegetable gum

Egypt At present
Secreted by cuttlefish and exuded

SEPHIA Rome 34 B.C. when alarmed to stain the water

for protection.
Crushed galls soaked in water,

added to which are gum or salt

England 500 A.D. and sulfate of iron. At the time of

IRON- writing, such ink can hardly be

TANNIN or discerned, but in time the iron

Egypt 600 A.D.
IRON-GALL oxidizes and the writing turns

black.
Indigo added to an iron tannin

solution. Blue at time of writing,

BLUE-BLACK Germany 1760 but that fades, the iron oxidizes,

England 1835 and the writing turns black.

Nigrosine or Many compounds or salts of

black Aniline United States 1850 aniline dyes

Logwood, which gives permanent

color, usually violet or purple, to

Logwood England 1760 iron compounds, with other

ingredients.
93

Colored with aniline dyes, but

Aniline Colors United States 1860 these inks fade when exposed to

England sunlight.
At one time was made from

vegetable juices and from silver

Indelible United States 1840 compounds, but today aniline

black is used.
Usually made of aniline black with

glycerin or some oil base. Colors

Typewriter made with aniline dyes may be

used but they fade with exposure

to light.
Usually lampblack mixed with

China 1000 B.C. boiled linseed oil. Modern printing

Germany 1450 A.D.
Printing inks also contains considerable
England
dyer.
94

OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF OTHER WRITING INSTRUMENTS

NAME ORIGINATING DATE DESCRIPTION

COUNTRY
Made of metallic lead or some of the alloys of lead in

Central Europe cylindrical shape, around which was wrapped or

LEAD and Asia Minor 1000 A.D. twisted the container or holder.
Natural graphite sawed into thin sheets thicker on

one edge than on the other and then glued between

GRAPHITE England 1550 two grooved pieces of wood.

Germany and Graphite was called Flemish Stone in Central

BISMUTH Central Europe 1700 Europe.

Finely ground graphite made into cakes by

PRESSED England 1850 subjecting to great pressure. It was then sawed into

GRAPHITE strips.
Finely ground graphite mixed with sulfur and rosin or

Germany 1760 with heavy gums.

Finely ground graphite mixed with clay and forced
MODERN
through small holes issuing in long twine-like
GRAPHITE
strands, then baked and glued into a circular glove,

France 1795 between two semi-cylindrical strips of woods.

Finely ground graphite, clay and aniline dye mixed

INDELIBLE England 1875 and made into the writing center, or core, of wood

OR COPYING holders.
Wax and dyes combined so that a core is obtained

WAX Central Europe 1890 which is suitable for writing purposes.

CRAYONS
95

CHAPTER IX

PAPERS

GRADE

Quality of papers used for writing purposes vary according to materials

used, manufacturer’s technical specifications and market demand on certain

kinds. The best grades of paper now used in are those having cellulose fibers,

cotton, rags and the Philippine’s abaca fibers. What most people know are the

brands that they have used. Further, what a forger does not know is that when he

substitutes another page containing his spurious writings in a set of genuine

documents, these can be easily detected by paper grade comparison.

THICKNESS

Paper manufacturers measure thickness of papers by means of knowing

how many pounds is the weight of one ream. Document examiners measure

thickness by means of micro-calipers with thousandth of inch readings.

CONDITIONS

Written documents of whatever kind of paper used are usually suspected

because of unaccounted alterations or erasures. Most document showing altered

portions contain genuine information, which were changed and superimposed by

visible writings. When proper examination is done, these suppressed and hidden
96

physical facts would be concrete proof of unauthorized alterations, and the real

meaning is exposed.

Other conditions of papers that raise suspicion as to their validity are

physical characteristics like when an older presents a crumpled, discolored,

soiled and/or moistened document. When these cannot be satisfactorily explains,

the document must be authenticated.

Bank checks that carry designs to disguise forgery, once a genuine writing

is done can still be passed by a skill check on men. Those that are tinted would

ordinarily discourage unauthorized erasures but again, bad check manipulators,

with unknown special techniques, can still erase the tint, and rewrite the check

after a successful retinting.

SIZING

The surface of a writing paper is coated with animal or vegetable

gelatinous substance that are rolled during manufacturing processes. This is

applied to improve the absorption effect of a writing liquid to avoid blotting or

feathering. The paper of higher quality is made with finer sizing. Any technique of

erasing writing on a sized paper can easily be detected by oblique lighting to

expose the disturbed portion. Also, when a paper is folded, sizing is broken and

one writes over a folded paper, the examiner can easily determine when the

writing was done actually after folding of the paper.

Chemical test to determine the kind of sizing a paper has, by way of color,

is to apply iodine or phloroglucin reagents. Animal sizing produces a different

97

color from vegetable sizing. A disputed page of document can be checked by

chemical test or by ultra-violet ray that gives fluorescence in different papers.

WATERMARKS

Paper manufacturers place water markings in their papers to denote their

origin and production. Some use the same watermarks in all their grades of

paper but when any portion of their marker is damaged, they take note. Some

cases of questioned documents resulted to the discovery of a paper used in an

instrument dated several years before the actual manufacturing, through this

water marking of manufacturers.

98

OUTLINE OF HISTORY OF PAPER, WITH APPROXIMATE DATES

NAME ORIGINATING PERIOD MATERIALS USED

COUNTRY
Egypt 3500 B.C. to Stalks of the fibrous papyrus plant cut

276 A.D. into strips, laid at right angles on other

PAPYRUS strips placed side by side, and pressed

into a sheet.
PAPYRUS Greece and 250 B.C. to 600 The plant of Grecian origin.

Herculaneum A.D.
Central 300 A.D. to Usually of calfskin made clear and

VELLUM Northern invention of white; finer than parchment

Europe paper
PARCHMENT Europe 300 A.D. to Sheepskin or goatskin

present
PAPER China Obscurity to Cotton and linen rags

present
Egypt and 700 A.D.

Orient
Germany 1300 A.D.
LINEN PAPER England 1350 A.D. Rags
Arabia 1700 A.D.

COTTON Orient 800 A.D. Cotton and linen rags

Spain 1200 A.D.
PAPER
England Wood pulp

WOODPULP North Europe 1870 A.D.

PAPER United States

ABSORBENT Europe 1450 Rags

OR BLOTTING

PAPER
99
100

CHAPTER X

EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING

Another class of questioned documents, which requires a different

approach, is that of documents containing typewriting and typescript. With the

existence of various machine, many of the documents being submitted in the

questioned document laboratory involves typescript. Its scientific examination

may leads towards the determination of its origin, age and sometimes even the

identity of the typist. Different typewriters are now manufactured in many highly

industrialized countries with certain varieties in form and mechanical construction

and even in electronic form such as the IBM selectric typewriters. A conventional

typewriter may be look as an very simple machine with simple operation, but

looking closely on the way its pieces of mechanism works the typist will find it a

beat complex still. It takes some interlocking keys before the machine will fully

work for its purpose. Before a typist starts his work, there are certain adjustment

or pre-arrangement to be made in order to come up with the desired results. It

only means to say that in a number of words, sentence or paragraph that a typist

has typewritten in sheet of paper involves a number of motivated working parts.

At present, problems relating to typewriting and typescript becoming more

complicated due to advancement in technology such as the used of computers,

printers, scanners. In some advanced country, one of the latest crimes, which

involves machination is the spread of cyber crime. Through computers,

101

microchips, scanners and other modern machine accounts are being transferred

from one account numbers to another.

Brief Historical dates on the development of typewriter:

January 7, 1714 – is the first recorded attempt to invent a typewriter found in the

records of the British patent office, granted by her majesty Queen Anne, to Henry

Mill, an English engineer.

1827 – the first United States patent for a mechanical writing machine was

issued to William A. Burt of Detroit, Michigan

1867 – Christopher Latham Sholes developed the sholes glided and sole

typewriter patented on June 23,1568, it mechanically impressed the upper cased

letter for the alphabet into a piece of paper. It may be viewed at the Smithsonian

Institute, Washington D.C.

March 1, 1873 – Sholes entered into contract with the Remington Arms Word

Lion New York to produce the sholes Gladder and Scult typewriter.

1874 – Model no. 1 of the Remington typewriter become available to the public.

1978 – Remington model no. 2 which first wrote both upper and lower cased

letters were introduced.

102

IMPORTANT TERMS IN CONNECTION WITH TYPEWRITINGS

1. TYPEFACE – It is the printing surface of the type block.

2. TYPEFACE DEFECT – Any peculiarity of the typewriting caused be

actual damage to the typeface metal, which may be actual break in the

outline of the letters.

3. CHARACTERS – In connection with typewriting, is used to include

letters symbols, numerals or point of functions.

4. PICA TYPE FACE – Typeface impression ordinarily spaced ten (10)

characters to the horizontal pitch.

5. ELITE TYPE FACE - Typeface impression ordinarily spaced twelve

(12) characters to the horizontal pitch.

6. PROPORTIONAL SPACING MACHINE – A typewriter with type letter

spacing similar to the type spacing of conventional printed in which all

letters are allotted horizontal in conformity with their relative widths.

7. TRANSITORY DEFECTS – Is an identifying typewriter characteristic,

which can be eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the

ribbon.

8. PERMANENT DEFECTS – Any identifying typewriting characteristics

of a typeface of replacing the ribbon.

IDENTIFICATION RULE IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

Two specimens of typewriting are the works of a single typewriter if all

type – sized, design, and the spacing are same in the two documents and if there
103

is a unique combination of defective character and no significant difference in

common between the sets of specimen.

PRINCIPAL TECHNIQUES UTILIZED IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

The principal technique utilized in comparing a questioned typewriting with

a known typewriting on their proper sequence are the following:

1. Measure the type pitch

Letter spacing in majority of typewriters has been traditionally made either

in 1/12 inch ( Elite type face pitch) and 1/10 inch (pica type face pitch) In certain

countries, type sizes have been designs in various metric system such as in the

case of elite spacing it is not only limited to 1/12 inch it is likewise express in 2.12

mm, 2.00, 2.20, 2.23, 2.25, and 2.30 mm while in pica spacing includes 2.50 and

2.60 mm in addition to 2.54 mm which is the equivalent of 1/10 in. The

identification of type measurements would greatly help the investigator in search

of the probable instrument to look for. This technique would lessen the search

for the probable instrument despite the existence of modern equipments. Most of

the typewriter designed for commercial use largely in a form of manual or

conventional type, where type characters are form with the use of a type bar or

type metal bar, which carries the designs of the character. This becomes

prevalence up to the mid of the 20th century.

In 1939 a different type of typewriter mechanism was introduced by the

IBM company which was called the Proportional spacing machine and which are

known in the market as executive typewriter. This type of typewriter usually

104

designed to make typescript with 1/32, 1/36 or 1/45 in spacing. This type of

machine was largely manufacture in United States by Remington and Olivetti

(Underwood) companies. Through the combination of letter spacing and letter

designs, makes and model of typewriter can be determined.

2. Verify the size and design

The determination of the size and designs of typefaces is an accurate

means in determining the make and model of a typewriter especially in dealing

with domestic machines. Actually, in determining the make and model of a

typewriter what is necessary is to have a complete reference collection

containing the various changes in typeface designs by different manufacturer, but

a random search for a particular specimen in such a file might entail unnecessary

loss of time. Such determination of the make and model will lessen the burden

and the time element necessary in looking into the probable typewriter from

which a questioned typewriting was typewritten. This is true especially when the

make and the model were properly identified.

VERFICATION OF TYPEFACE DESIGN AND SIZE

(Primary type size and design)

THE FOLLOWING w,g,t, DESIGNS

W–1 The central serif the same height as the sides.

105

W – 2 The central serif without a serif, the same height on the sides.

W–3 The central junction lower than the sides.

W–4 The side diagonal strokes starts at the side above the baseline and

from a low center.

G – 1 Tangent the two (2) oval and the connecting strokes in a vertical line

which does not lean more than 20 degrees to the right and the space

between the upper oval and the lower oval is narrow less than the half the

vertical dimension of the lower oval.

G – 2 The left tangent of the two ovals ad the connecting strokes “C – 1” but

the space between the upper and the lower oval is equal or greater than the

half the vertical dimension of the lower oval.

106

G–3 The top is offset to the right by the means of gooseneck connecting

strokes.

G–4 The connecting stroke between the upper and the lower oval does

not extend to the left far enough to touch the common tangent.

G–5 The common tangent of the two ovals and the connecting stroke is

inclined to the right vertical by more than 20 degrees.

G – 1A Sub-class of G – 1 where the lower oval is no large as to almost

tough the top oval.

G – 1B Sub-class of G –1 smith in which the top oval and the bottom

strokes of the lower oval are straight lines.

107

T–1 The cross stroke extends the same distance to the right and left of

the vertical staff.

T–2 The cross bar is larger to the right of the vertical staff than to the left

extending out to at least the inner edge of the bottom curve.

3. Look for individual typeface defects

Just like any other instruments such as firearms or tools for constructions,

typewriters are also identified not on the general resemblance of their product but

on the imperfection or defects that it bears. General similarities might only serve

to determine possibilities but for more accurate identification of questioned

typewriting, a number of similarities of individual defects are necessary. After the

determination of the make and model of the typewriter the next thing for the

document examiner should look for are the individual typeface defects. Through

individual defects, typewriting in questions will finally be determined as to what

particular typewriter it was typewritten.

Listed below are the various following individual typeface defects that may

appear in solely or in combination with other defects. Similarity of type face pitch

limits the search of the examiner in determining the class of typewriter used in
108

printing the questioned typescript, letter size and designed Look for individual

typeface defects. (See Fig. 3)

1. VERTICAL MALALIGNMENT

A character printing above or below its proper position is vertical

alignment.

2. HORIZONTAL MALIGNMENT

An alignment defect in which the character prints to the right or left f

its proper position.

3. TWISTED LETTER

Letter and character is design to print at a certain sized angle to the

baseline due to the wear and damage to the type bars and the type bars

and the type block some letters become twisted so that they lean to the

right or left of their correct slant.

4. OFF – ITS – FEET

The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner

the remainder of its outline.

5. REBOUND

Typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression

with the lighter one slightly off - set to the right or left.

6. ACTUAL BREAKAGE

Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the

typeface metal which maybe actual breakage in the line of the letters.
109

7. CLOGGED

The typeface became filled with dirt and ink. Particularly in enclose

letters such a small letter o, e, p, and g.

Normal Prints
Individual Typeface Defects
1. Horizontal Mal-alignment
2. Vertical Mal-alignment
3. Twisted letter
4. Off-its Feet
5. Rebound
6. Clogged Type face
7. Actual Breakage

Fig. 3. Illustration of Typeface Defects

NINE POINTS THAT MAYBE INVOLVE IN QUESTION TYPEWRITING

1. That of ascertaining the exact date of such typewriting.

2. Whether every line of the document was written at one time.

3. Whether the various lines of the document were written at different

tine by the same machine.

4. Whether the document was written at different times several

machine.

5. Whether spurious, typewritten pages have been added to the

original document.

6. Whether interlineations have been added to the original document.

7. Whether additional words of sentences have been written at the

end of the paragraph.

110

8. Whether the entire document was written by one machine.

9. Whether the document was written by a particular suspected

typewriter.

PRINCIPAL TYPEWRITING QUESTIONS THAT MAY BE RESOLVED IN

TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION

1. To determine whether an evidence typewriting was accomplished on a

suspected typewriter.

2. To determine whether an evidential typewriting prepared as a known

typewriter was actually typewritten on its purported date.

3. To determine whether all of typewriting was prepared by a suspected

typist.

4. To determine the make or brand of typewriter on which a questioned

typewriting was prepared.

Points to be considered in preparing Standards of typewriting:

1. Include all words and characters used in the questioned documents:

a. Used the same wordings as the questioned document if possible;

b. Employ different degree of pressure and speed;

c. Utilize the same or similar quality of paper; and

d. Make no machine adjustment or ribbon change until at least several

standards are completed then prepare more.

111

2. Each sheet should contain data on make, model, serial number of

machine and initials or signature of investigators.

3. Submit typewriter’s ribbon if it has not been change since the questioned

document was typed.

Procedure in Examining Questioned Typewriting documents

1. Get a specimen from standard typewriting, measure the typeface pitch.

2. Use the Three Points of preparing standards of typewriting.

3. Examine the individual letters of the specimen.

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPIST

The points for consideration to identify the operation and who wrote a

particular piece of typewriting are:

1. Spelling;

2. Punctuations;

3. Use of Capital;

4. Division of Words;

5. Choice of Words;

6. Construction of sentences;

7. Observance or non-observance of grammatical rules; and

8. Subject matter in general as relating to specifically to the typewriting itself

the matter to consider in addition to those mention above are:

112

a. Depth of identification of paragraph (indention);

b. Spacing before and/or after punctuations;

c. Use of characters in an unusual ways as:

(1) capital “I” for figure “1”

(2) Small “l” for capital “I”

(3) Sign “” for the word “and”

d. Arrangement of conclusions;

e. Erroneous repetitions of letters or words;

f. Arrangement of heading;

g. Striking shift key letters in the wrong position;

h. Repeated heavy impressions of certain letters;

i. Uniform light impressions of certain characters;

j. Peculiar erasures or corrections;

k. Uneven margin;

l. Balanced or unbalanced placing of letter on page;

m. Length of lines; and

n. Method of writing numbers, amounts and fractions.

Identification of Age of the Typewriter:

The basis of identification is upon selected letters. Each of these letters in

turn is classified by means of various features of its designs into one of several

groups:
113

The three (3) basic letters in the system in the order of their use are “w”, “g”

and “t”, may not be always positively identify the machine.

The letters r, y, m, I, and s, serves as supplementary factors in the pica

systems and a, r, y, I, m, and comma(,) in the elite type.

114

CHAPTER XI

Scientific Handwriting Examination Process

I. Examination Process:

1. Analysis

Properties or characteristics of the disputed writing are observed,

taking into consideration its feature of form (general or individual) and line

quality (whether written in a natural manner or not). Consistency and oneness

of execution of the disputed writing is also verified.

Four important things to consider in initially analyzing the questioned and

standard writings before conducting a comparison.

a. Determine whether date of execution of questioned and known

writing are contemporary.

b. Determine age and physical condition of writer at the time of

execution of questioned and known writing.

c. Determine lowest and highest level of writing capability of the writer

thru the questioned and known writing.

d. Also, determine separately whether questioned and standard

writings were written by one person and how identifiable

(individualistic) are the writings.

115

II. Comparison

Properties or characteristics of the unknown (disputed) as

determined through analysis, are compared with the known attributes of the

standard items.

Five Elements or Examination aspects that should be considered in all

handwriting comparisons:

a. General (system of writing) characteristics against individual

features.

b. Consistency or inconsistency of individual features, i.e.,

habitual, accidental, temporary or rare.

c. Whether writing is within the demonstrated capability of the

writer.

d. Whether the individual features are hidden characteristics or

not.

e. Frequency of occurrence of a certain feature based on

experience.

III. Evaluation

Writing elements or characteristics is assigned a value based on

the following:

1. Degree of consistency with which it occurs throughout the

specimens;
116

2. Degree of speed or spontaneity with which it was made;

3. Extent to which it deviates from the prescribed or copy book

standards;

4. Frequency with which it is encountered in writings taken at

random; and

5. Degree of conspicuousness of the element in question and

others of a more or less complexity.

COMMON CAUSES OF ERRORS IN RENDERING A CONCLUSION

1.Basing opinion on inadequate amount of writing disputed or

standards.

2.Allowing outside pressure, influence, prejudice, sympathy, or

antipathy to effect a conclusion.

3.Inability to properly recognize and evaluate writing characteristics

and quality.
117

CHAPTER XII

MISCELLANEOUS DOCUMENT PROBLEMS

Documents as discussed in chapter two are questioned not only because

of the signature that it bare nor only because of the handwriting it contains but

rather on a variety of ways depending upon the issue that was raised and what it

completely made up. This chapter discussed on the miscellaneous problems that

a document examiner might encounter in relation to the genuineness of the

document such as (1) Detection of alteration, (2) Decipherment and/ or

restoration of erased writing, (3) Decipherment of obliterated writing, (4)

Examination of Indented writing, (5) developing secret writings, (6) Examination

of Charred documents, (7) Examination of Contact writings, (8) Examination of

water-soaked documents, (9) Determination of age of Documents, (10)

Developing Latent Prints in paper, etc.

I.  Alteration

Alterations in documents can either be an addition or deletion in its original

content, which is not a part of its original production.

Alterations in documents do not necessarily mean a forgery in as much as

there can be alterations that are considered a part of the genuineness of the

document. Usually an obvious alteration is a common indication of a genuine

alteration considering that the author is not bothered by its alteration for anytime

he or she can attest to its genuineness. On the other hand, documents

containing partly concealed alterations are the usual indication of forgery. This is
118

true in most cases because of the attempt of the forger to successfully passed

the document without being easily notice, for he is afraid of easily being detected.

Alterations are either addition or a deletion in the contests of the

document.

ALTERATIONS ARE MADE IN ANY OF THE FOLLOWING MEANS:

1. ERASURE

Removal of the writing from the paper. An erasure can be made by

mechanical or chemical means. Erasure by abrasions which leaves spots

and black patches too pronounced to escape detection by the alert

examiner. Eradication by means of chemicals, on the other hand, leaves

traces of some reagents in a document especially in newly bleached

document which when viewed in some instruments will often show a

yellowish discoloration.

a. ERASURE BY MECHANICAL MEANS

This process involves the use of some abrasive objects like

Indian rubber eraser, knives, razor blades and other sharp

instrument. Using a rubber eraser by rubbing off the writings usually

leaves traces of partially left inks, thinner are, roughened surface

which if over written rapidly absorbs inks and makes the writing

ragged and fuzzy and translucently under the transmitted light.

119

Some forgers in the hope of hiding traces of abrasions,

applies a solutions of rosin or glue pressed, smoothed and glazed

the erased area; other make use of wax, paraffin or starch to cover

up a thinned-out placed caused by erasure.

In the case of overwritten erased writing such as alterations

can be identified through the applications of transmitted light from

the back of the paper and supplement with photomicrograph of the

surface to show traces or erased inks or writings.

In a document pressed with rosin, hold the paper in a

reflected light and you will observe that a smoothened area

appears glossier than the rest of the paper or it looks duller than the

normal surface. If wax, paraffin or starch was used, bend the paper

in a decided arc and move it so that the bend or arc (not a break)

travels along the paper, which will stretch the surface of the erased

area and such coating will crack into place or powder.

Heavy abrasions which has eliminated all visible traces of

the original writing and seriously disturbed paper fibers of the

affected area usually defies restorative efforts but never the less

through transmitted light the area of erasure can still be identified.

Nonetheless, we should not expect impossibility when we really

desire to decipher an erased writing. Neither should we

pessimistically neglect restorative efforts because they are not

successful in all cases.

120

b. ERASURE BY CHEMICAL MEANS

This process involves the use of some chemicals or

reagents that is capable of oxidizing or bleaching an ink. They are

commonly called by document examiner as Ink Eradicator. They

are usually composed of solutions of chlorinated lime or soda. This

mixture made more active by first touching the ink mark with a fifty

percent (50%) of acetic acid, which accelerates the liberations of

the chlorine gas, the chemical which is responsible for bleaching

the ink writing. The common commercial ink eradicator which is

effective with the widest range of inks of the “two-solution” type.

The two solutions which have been mixed before being applied to

the ink line, allowed to remain in contact until bleaching is complete

and then removed by blotting. This solution is capable of bleaching

both dyestuff and iron inks although the iron inks if it is old and well-

mature, takes a longer time to decipher.

It will be observe that the smell of the bleaching powder

associated with ink eradicator disappears completely after a day or

so. The ink lines made with the washable ink will be found to have

been completely removed with no suggestion of their reappearing

with the lapse of time. A similar state of affairs will probably be

found on the cheap yellow-tinted paper with respect to the line

made by both inks, but on clear white paper, a yellow patch will

slowly develop where the eradicator is applied, and unmistakable

121

traces of the ink lines will slowly reappear as a pale-yellow marks

especially where record ink was used. This only show that it is very

difficult to detect a permanent eradication of a record ink, especially

on a white paper where the slightest trace of yellow is easily

apparent. Incidentally, the record ink lines will have also

reappeared on the yellow paper just as they did in a white paper –

the essential difference being that on the white paper the yellow

traces could have been seen, whereas on the paper of poor color

they are lost in the background color.

Iron based inks when eradicated can usually be developed

through ultra-violet light, chemical fuming or chemical staining via

aerosol on direct application. Difficulty is encountered when

subsequent overwriting lies in the same paths or pen tracks as the

erased writing. Good results may be expected provided that there

will be no appreciable disturbance to the paper.

Synthetic dye inks chemically eradicated or washed rarely

respond to development, attempts a need for sufficient impressions

produced by the pen is necessary to permit decipherment by

oblique light examination.

Erasure of ink by rubbing or by chemicals may apparently be

complete to the naked eye, but in many cases, the document

examiner is able to decipher what has been erased and in some

cases can actually restore the erased faded writing. Photographic

122

methods involving special lighting, the use of filters and specially

sensitive plates are often sufficient, but in certain cases that

document examiner can render visible the residual traces of the ink

line which lie buried in the paper by the use of liquid or gaseous

reagents. This process is one for the laboratory for amateur

examiner might only stain the document than restore the writing.

The oldest and simplest method is to sponge the document

with the solution galls [25% solutions of tannic acid, or a 50%

solution of potassium ferro-cyanide (acidulated)] so that the tannic

will combine with the iron to make a new ink compound. Other

make use of 1% solution of hydrochloric acid to form Prussian blue

which makes the writing plainly visible.

The most scientific method of restoring ink is by fuming. Hold

of stretch the document over a saucer containing ammonium

sulfide. If the writing is very dim, support the document over the

saucer and cover with glass. The ammonium sulfide fumes will

cause the iron in the ink to turn dark enough to read. For

permanent record, photograph this because the moment the

document is lifted out of the fumes the writing disappears again.

Metallic iodine crystals may also be used in fuming, but they

usually discolor the paper. Though useful in helping to bring out

latent ink lines, much care must be exercised in their use. Indelible

pencil writing can also be restored using ammonium sulfide or

123

iodine fumes and documents should be photographed by

transmitted light (throwing strong light through the paper from

behind it.)

METHODS OF EXAMINATIONS IF ERADICATIONS IS SUSPECTED:

I. PHYSICAL METHODS OR NON DESTTRUCTIVE PROCESS

a. VISUAL INSPECTION- ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, varying in

intensity and reflected at different angles is used. At

times oblique lighting is useful but later transmitted light,

if the effect of the reflected and oblique light is

unsatisfactory. DIRECT LIGHTING, it is the normal

method of looking at the document wherein the light is

arrange in a manner that it falls more or less directly on

the surface of the paper and the eyes also looks down on

to it. Transmitted light is one of the most powerful

methods in the document examiner’s armory. In

essential, it is nothing more than placing the document in

front of a powerful source of light so that the eyes

perceives only the light which has traveled through the

document. In practice, it is most convenient to have the

document supported on a sheet of opalescent glass,

which act as both support and light diffuser. The sheet of

glass is itself supported above a powerful source of light

124

by a wood or metal frame. To protect the eye from glare

a hole in a sheet of cardboard is moved over the portion

of the document, which is to be explored. This method is

also very useful in showing watermarks of the paper;

although ultra violet light is still much powerful in

detecting watermarks. Oblique light, here the source of

light is a bulb of comparatively low wattage about 40w. –

Held in a fairly close-fitting metal reflector titled so that

the effective source of illumination is not the bulb but the

narrow area at the bottom of the inside of the reflector. It

is useful in bringing out any physical faults in the nature

of the paper surface across which the light passes.

b. ULTRA VIOLET LIGHT – Viewing the document under

the ultra violet radiations is very useful especially recently

applied ink eradicators and watermarkings. The term

ultra violet light was derived from the color arrangement

of the visible light wherein the ultra violet rays where

located nearly before the visible light or that portion in the

wavelength that is occupied by the violet color of the

visible light.
125

c. PHOTOGRAPHY – Printing the paper as a negative on

the process film is found to be useful to conform any

doubtful results of the visual and ultra violet light

examinations. Photography is very essential from the

start of the process for it records the original conditions of

the document the moment the examiner receives the

document. In order to have an accurate descriptions of

the visible results of the ultraviolet light and other light

examinations, photograph is an SOP for it will come a

time that a need for presentations of proof is of out most

important. Photomicrography, thus play a special role in

the presentations of exhibits especially in showing minute

characteristics of the questioned document.

II. CHEMICAL METHODS

a. AMMONIUM SULFIDE VAPOR – a reagent capable of

coloring an erased area into black or brown if a stannous

chloride or an inorganic reducing agents were used. In

which case, photograph is necessary also because

visible results are only temporary as if the moment the

document was removed from the fumes, writings will also

disappear.
126

b. STRACH-IODINE PAPER/FUMES – When a starch-

iodine paper is moistened and touched an area on which

hypochlorite eradicator was recently used, the paper will

turn blue. This is due to the oxidation of the iodine to

iodine, which in turn reacts with starch to produce the

blue color. A control test must be made on an untouched

area of the paper.

c. PH INDICATOR PAPERS – Merely pressing a piece of

moistened pH indicator paper against the suspected area

is sufficient to show if any acid or basic substance has

been used. Many ink eradicators are acidic. A

comparison test must be made on the other part of the

paper not close to the area in question.

III. DECIPHERING OF ERASED WRITING

a. VISUAL AND MICROCOPIC EXAMINATIONS – The

document is illuminated with light of varying sources, first

reflected, then transmitted and finally oblique. Then,

observation can be made either by naked eye or with the

use of a lens or microscope.

127

b. ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT – Some colored inks are

fluorescents so that if the erasure has not removed all the

inks from the fibers of the paper, traces maybe seen in

the intersection of the paper when viewed under the ultra

violet light.

c. POLARIZED LIGHT – This is useful for developing pencil

writing, which was erased. This principle is based upon

the fact that traces of graphite which cannot be seen in

an ordinary light can be detected to polarized light

through polarized screen as is used in photography or a

document may be viewed through the low power of

polarizing microscope.

d. PHOTOGRAPHY – A photograph of the erased surface

may be made using process film, panchromatic film or

infrared film. In all cases, proper filter must be used.

e. CHEMICAL METHODS – Iodine fumes is considered to

be very useful since it reacts in almost all kinds of erased

inks and it is also the only chemical that can be used in

deciphering erased pencil writing, carbon and nigrosine

128

inks. Others are ammonium and potassium sulfide,

thiocynite or hydroxide for other types of inks.

2. OBLITERATION

It refers to the obscuring of writing by superimposing inks, pencil or

other marking materials. It is otherwise called as Smeared Over Writing. A

person may cross out or obliterate an ink writing with the same ink, with

different inks, crayon, pencil or other pigments. The intentional obliteration

of writing by overwriting or crossing out is seldom used for fraudulent

purposes because of its obviousness. Nevertheless, such cases may be

encountered in all types of documents. Success at permanently hiding the

original writing depends on the material that is used to cover the writing. If

it was done with the same ink as the original writing, recovery will be

difficult, if not impossible. However, if the two inks are of different chemical

composition, photography with infra-red sensitive film may reveal the

original writing. Infra-red radiation may pass through the paper layer of

writing while being absorbed by the underlying area. In one case, a

canvas money bag was recovered from the automobile of a suspect in a

daring $50,000 robbery. The area of the bag, which normally contained

the identifying numbers, was saturated with a heavy blue-black ink which

entirely obliterated all traces of identifying markings. The saturations was

so dense that it rendered opaque the effected area of the bag in what

seemed to have been obvious effort to prevent identification of the bag.

129

Despite of the opacity of the near black saturation to transmitted light, it

proved relatively transparent to infrared radiation. Retracing and

overwriting when one writing is made over another, the strokes made last

show clearly on top. The last writing was made at least several minutes

after the first had dried and therefore there is no fusing or spreading of the

ink on the places where the strokes or lines crossed.

In case of a writing obliterated by a blue crayon, acetone or any

inorganic solvent can be used to dissolve the crayon. If a suitable solvent

is not immediately known, the preliminary experiments on the pigments

similar to those involved in the obliteration may be made to find what

solvent will remove the covering pigments without destroying the or

leaving the original writing undisturbed. The following solvents may be

tried: water, alcohol, benzene, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, toluene,

xylene, turpentine, amyl acetat, and morpholine.

If the obliteration was accomplished by the use of paper cardboard,

or similar materials to cover the writing dry carbon tetrachloride or

benzene may be used to render the reverse side translucent by rubbing

against the surface of the paper is then made.

The following methods are offered in examination of obliteration:

1. Visual observation using transmitted light or oblique light.

2. Fuming with iodine or in some cases with ammonia,

ammonium sulfide, or thiocyanic acid, these three (3) are

very useful if iron is a constituent of the writing.

130

3. Bleaching the covering layer.

4. Photography with color filters.

Very recently, Joseph D. Nicole, Chief technician of Dade Country

Criminal Bureau of investigation laboratory develop a new method of reproducing

cancelled writing made with printing inks composed of organic dyes by

application of “Thermo Fax” duplicating machine. This machine can only

reproduce writing, which are made up of graphite or carbon black.

3. ADDITION

The validity of a document is sometimes quite naturally questioned

because it contains those parts in the form of interlineations or additions, which

may greatly change, extend, or limit its effect and value. In a case of this kind,

the question to be determined is of course whether the additions or

interlineations are fraudulent writing, which the document did not contain when it

was signed. Questions of this kind are the basis for much litigation especially in

these days of typewriters.

Changes or interlineations in a will are especially reprehensible and if at

the last moment before execution they must be made, they should be described

at the end of the will itself before execution; but this commendable practice is by

no means universal and therefore it frequently becomes necessary to determine

if possible whether these interlined or added parts are genuine or fraudulent.

Numerous of these careless practices in the drawing of wills are open temptation
131

to fraud and in many instances. It is impossible by any method to determine

whether a change was honestly or fraudulently made.

Many important wills not only contain erasures, additions and

interlineations but are written on several separate sheets of paper loosely

fastened together, and in an important recent case the attestation clause and in

the signatures of the witnesses were on a sheet separate from the will itself

bearing the signature of the testator. These careless practices render it easy to

make a fraudulent addition or interlineations or even to substitute without

authority whole pages.

If it is possible that the interlined or added part may be in a different

handwriting, then carefully study and comparison must be made, as with a

simulated forgery, but often the part in dispute is concededly written by the writer

of the remainder of the document and the order, date and continuity of the writing

are the questions to be investigated.

If an interlined part immediately precedes the signature, as often the case,

careful examination should be made to see if any parts of this writing cross or

touch any stroke of the writing of the signature itself. If there are these crossed

lines they must be examined with great care and thoroughness and with proper

instruments as outlined in a preceding chapter. It is not easily understood without

actual experiment and examination with what clearness and certainty, it can often

be shown which was the last stroke made when two (2) strokes cross. Crossed

lines may also point to unnatural order of writing of other parts of the document

and it should be carefully examined throughout with this point in mind.

132

The question whether any part of the writing followed the folding of the

paper should also be carefully consider if that fact has any bearing on the

genuineness of the document or shows anything irregular in its preparation. This

question may be entirely overlooked if a document is not systematically

examined.

The question is sometimes presented as to whether several book entries,

charges, credits or debits, were made in the regular course of business on the

dates they bear or were fraudulently made at one time at some later period to

some desired result. In an inquiry of this kind, it is highly probable that there will

be greater uniformity in the fraudulent additions than in the regular writing written

at different times and under different conditions.

This unnatural uniformity may show, (1) in the tint or condition of the ink;

(2) in the quality of line; (3) its width; (4) its smoothness or roughness; (5) in the

size of the writing; (6) in its position, especially its vertical alignment; (7) in the

size, position and arrangement of figures, ditto marks, or abbreviation; (8)

gradation of blotted lines.

Continuous writing of this kind, whether pencil or pen, will almost certainly

show less variation in numerous ways than if written at different times with the

writing instrument in various conditions and the writer necessary surrounded by

differing circumstances of time, position, light, haste, and care with variable

conditions inevitably affect the result. Some of these habits of uniformity differ

with different individuals and the basis of comparison in an inquiry of this kind

should, if obtainable, be other similar work by the same writer.

133

A part of a document that is undoubtedly genuine is sometimes carefully

retouched in order to make it conform in ink color to a fraudulent or added part.

When this retouching of a genuine or unimportant part is discovered the whole

document should be examined with the microscope.

If the task of the forger is to add thus materially change its significance the

task is, as a natural consequence, vastly more difficult than simply to write a

signature under such conditions. Even with the same materials and under the

same external conditions, it is exceedingly difficult to produce a fraudulent written

addition without making some conspicuous differences which when pointed out

and properly interpreted are perfectly apparent.

This difference can actually be shown even if it has been possible to

match the exact tint of ink, quality of line and width of strokes, which after the

lapse of a little time, is exceedingly difficult if not actually impossible.

When the task undertaken is that of adding a line or paragraph, or even a

word in typewriting, many almost in surmounting difficulties arise. As is described

and illustrated in a later chapter typewritten characters are in line both ways,

vertically as well as horizontally, and in ordinary spacing the lines are exactly

forty one-hundred-and twentieths of an inch apart and exactly parallel. It is of

course possible to get these four positions positively correct but it is a task of

very great difficulty.

Another difficulty, if the typewritten addition is made some days, weeks or

months after the original writing, is to exactly match the ribbon condition.
134

Many documents have been change by a substitution of a whole

fraudulent sheet for a genuine sheet where a document consist more than one

sheet. Wills, patent applications, and other documents have thus been altered

and no doubt have in many instances wholly escaped detection. This naturally is

a problem involving almost all the elements or phases of a document and

questions may arise regarding paper, watermarks, ink, handwriting, typewriting,

binding, contents, continuity and other questions discussed in various preceding

chapters. An investigation of this kind should give attention to all these matters.

OTHER FORMS OF ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS

A. INVISIBLE WRITING

This type of writing specifically referring to writing which

have no readily visible or legible writing for they have been

made by using a sympathetic ink or invisible ink. It is generally

used by criminals to avoid possible interception of the

information they want to transmit. The development and

detection of this is quite simple but when in a more serious

aspects of it like in cases of espionage, developing is somewhat

a difficult task. The rationale of it lies on the fact that persons

involved in espionage usually make use of no ordinary

chemicals in preparing their correspondence compare to that of

an ordinary criminals who have a limited mentally respecting the

use of sympathetic inks. Since an invisible writing is done using

135

a chemical much of its development depends on the type of

chemicals to be applied to make the writing legible.

In case of possible presence of an invisible writing, the first

step that the investigator should do is to mark and photograph

any document in order to preserve the original condition

necessary for the court presentation or other purposes. Methods

of the development can be done by physical or chemical means

but still physical means should always be the first option since it

does not give any damage to the documents.

A. PHYSICAL METHODS

The methods like the usual one involve the use of

light source of varying intensity. It includes examination by

transmitted light, oblique light, reflected light, ultraviolet light,

and infrared light. The application of heat is also one method of

which of the essence for there are invisible writing which are

developed when the document is dried and was heated. For

example, hydrated cobaltous chloride is pink but forms a

colorless solution when diluted . If writing with this substance

are heated, it losses it water of hydration and becomes blue.

B.CHEMICAL METHODS

Chemical methods of developing an invisible

writing is often accomplished using the fuming method.

136

1. Fuming with hydrogen sulfide, ammonium sulfide or

ammonium poly sulfide in the fuming chamber will commonly

develop invisible writing made up of metallic salts.

2. Fuming with Iodine, by placing a suspected document

containing an invisible writing under the fumes of an iodine

writing can be made legible by the action of the vapor to the

chemicals making the secret writing. Starch and other organic

materials are the most commonly used invisible writings that

are decipherable by iodine fumes. In restoring the original

condition of the document, treat it with a 3% solution of sodium

thiosulfate (hypo) solution and then the papers is pressed and

reglossed.

3. If acid and base solutions are the one used, fuming with

ammonia or acetic acid will develop the writing.

4. Potassium Ferricyanide or potassium ferrocyanide may be

used as developing agents if salt of copper, iron zinc and

silver were used in invisible inks.

5. Silver nitrate is also one, which can be used when an

ordinary salt has been employed in the writing.

Other than fuming, a method of swabbing can also be

employed using a colored powder, which will retain in the

rougher surfaces.
137

B. CHARRED OR BURNED DOCUMENTS

Very often you maybe asked to examine blackened or partially

burned documents. Documents or paper bills, which have been burned

either accidentally or intentionally may sometimes be deciphered in the

laboratory. The method of examination will depend on the degree of

burning and the kind of paper and ink used. Usually burned papers do not

remain intact; instead they appear in fragments, the edge of which is

frequently curled. This piece is quite brittle and great difficulty is often

encountered in setting the fragments in one plane so that they may be

photographed. The deciphering of charred documents often proves

impossible and is variably difficult inspite of the infallible methods describe

by other persons who have a little information regarding the burned

document. The principle of possible deciphering of the writing lies on the

presence of enough iron compounds on the charred papers that may be

develop using some artificial light strikes in a certain way, same is true

when graphite and indelible pencil marks. Before any attempt to examine

this type of altered document, precaution should be taken into

consideration on the fact that charred documents are often so brittle that

due care should be exercise in order not to totally destroy the paper. If the

charring is not severe, the documents may be mounted on a glass using a

2% collusion in amyl acetate, as adhesive. If the charring is severe and

the fragments are very brittle, the paper is first placed in a fuming chamber

of desiccators with a tray of water at the bottom. The paper by absorbing

138

the moisture become more flexible. Once this condition is attained, the

fragments can be placed carefully between glass plates and

photographed.

Since in many cases some of the writing is visible, a photograph

with a process film can be made first to increase the contrast and to

record the writing, which may be visible. Chemical methods may be used

to achieve contrast for photographic work other than the use of light. Using

a sensitized emulsion plates pressed interleaving the paper and leave in

contrast for about two weeks, the plates are then developed, fixed and

washed. A carbonized sheet used by Murray can also be utilized in a

piece of glass is set into the enamel tray, as percent of aqueous solution

of silver nitrate is carefully poured into the tray. A second glass plate is set

to cover the paper to protect from damage. The writing appears as black

image against a gray background. The writing is photographed in situ in

order to preserve the result of the examination and then the document is

washed several times with distilled water to remove excess of silver nitrate

and dried. The principle of its development depends largely on the

presence of certain agents in the ink that can reduce silver ions into a free

silver. This method is best to be undertaken in a room that is free from

direct sunlight.

Another method devised by Taylor and Walls employed chloral

hydrate to develop the printing or writing on charred document. This

examination is done using a solution containing 25 grams of chloral

139

hydrate in 125 of ethyl alcohol in which the document is to be immersed

and taken out immediately and dried at 60 degree Celsius. This procedure

is repeated several times until a mass of chloral hydrate crystals from the

solution of which 13cc of glycerin have been added. The document is

again dried at 60degree Celsius. Both sides are examined and

photographed using process film.

Mrs. Purisima T. Dumaul, NBI Chemist, has her own method of

producing burned money by heating the specimen in a furnace under

controlled temperature and time sufficient to convert the carbon deposit to

carbon dioxide. When this is through the original design, serial number

and denomination of the paper will be restored. Examples of this were

burned money submitted by the Central bank which was reproduced.

C. INDENTED WRITING

Indented writing usually applied to a partial depressions appearing

on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the visible writing

appears. This depressions or indentions are due to the application of

pressure on the writing instrument and would appear as a carbon copy if a

sheet of paper has been properly inserted. It can also appear on a black

sheet of paper used as the backing of the sheet while typing or writing out

certain message. Although, writing are often illegible the message so

impressed can be possibly develop or become more legible by appropriate

treatment. This kind of writing can often be found in alterations made to a

140

document consisting of two or more pages. An example of this is in a case

of a questioned will, where the husband of the diseased claimed that the

alterations found on the will was made before it was signed. Upon

examinations of the document, it was found that on the second page of

the will showed some indented writings over the typewritten words.

Common sense will tell you that the alterations were made after the

testator had signed the will.

The following are some of the physical and chemical methods in

deciphering indented writing:

A. PHYSICAL

1. SIDE LIGHTING – Letting a strong beam of nearly

parallel light almost horizontally over the surface of the

paper. The indentions will appear as a shadow as on the

untouched surface and the writing will then be outlined.

2. USE OF POWERS – This method is just same with

procedure done in developing fingerprint, which requires

a considerable skill and best choice of powder for the

best results of the examination.

3. INDENTION ON THE REVERSE SIDE – In cases of

obliterations where the writing on a sheet of paper has

been obscured by overwriting with inks, pencil or crayon,

it is sometimes possible to discern the nature of the

writing by examination of the reverse side. If the original

141

writing of typewriting was made with heavy strokes, the

paper will be pushed out on the reverse side in the

pattern of the writing, such indented writing may be

reproduced by photography with side lighting as

described above.

B. CHEMICAL

1. FUMING – Some procedure with the deciphering of

erased writing or obliterated writing. Usually these

methods leave no perceptible trace of any sort of

treatment because of the absence of the ink.

2. USE OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS – The principle

behind the use of the chemical solutions due to the fact

that the pressure applied to the paper will create a

deformation of the fiber structure of the paper beneath. If

an iodine solution (1g iodine, 8g potassium iodide in 8cc

of water and adding 20cc of glycerin) is dabbed with

cotton on the paper, the indented writing will become

readily visible and can then be photographed.

The paper can be restored to its original

condition by dabbing it with 1% solution of hypo sodium

thiosulfate. Always remember that this method does not

142

apply to all kinds of paper especially to a ruled paper for

the lines will appear slightly smudged.

3. CONTACT WRITING – WRITING OFF-SET

Partially visible writing due to the sudden contact of a

blank paper into another paper containing freshly applied

inks. Cases of this are often referred to the NBI, in one case

an envelope in which a letter was sent to one of the detained

prisoners was found to contain traces of illegible writing.

These invisible traces which nothing but constituents of the

ink used in writing the letter and placed inside the envelope

before the writing was allowed to dry, may be processed and

photographed.

The following procedure of Paul Ermel is

recommended for the processing of the contact writing.

The surface of the paper is treated in a dark room by

red light with a solution composed of 5g silver nitrate, 1g

citric acid, 0.5g tartaric acid and three (3) drops of nitric acid

in 100g of distilled water. The writing is developed in

ordinary light and fixed with ordinary fixation. Since the

process of fixation weakens the intensity of the letters, it is

advisable to photograph the writing first.

143

The principle of this method is based on the oxidation

of the ferrous ion of the ink by the silver nitrate to ferric ion

and reduction of silver, which is deposited.

Since the reaction takes place at boiling temperature, it is

necessary to add citric and tartaric acids to the reagent in

order to form complexions with the ferric ions, which are

formed. This method is applied only if the treatment is made

before the treatment is made before the lapse of thirty days

since only a negligible amount of iron is present in the inks

after this period.

If the inks involved the contact writing contains iron,

copper, and vanadium, it is possible to develop the illegible

writing by the following methods:

1. IRON – Solution of ammonium thiocyanate and

sodium sulfide may be used to develop the

cationic pictures i.e. the colored compound, which

results when the metallic cation reacts with the

reagent, forming an outline of the original writing.

2. CHROMIUM – With a capillary pipette and to the

area one(1) drop of solution containing 4g sodium

hypo chlorite and 2g barium chloride in 1200cc of

144

distilled water. After a few seconds, add a very

small amount of phenol and one (1) drop of 1%

diphenylacarbazide solution of alcohol. A red color

will appear which can be discharged by adding a

few drops of 10%sulfuric acid solution. A blue

color appears if cromate is present and an outline

of a mirror image of the original writing will be

apparent. Any result must be photographed.

3. COPPER – A drop of 2% ammonium hydroxide is

placed on the area selected. After a few seconds,

a drop of dithizone (diphenylacarbazone) is added

(10 mg of dithizone in 500cc carbon tetrachloride).

The green color of the reagent changes to brown,

if copper is present and reverse outline of the

original writing will develop. Photograph the result.

4. VANADIUM – To the area selected, add one (1)

drop of a solution of 12% nitric acid. After a few

minutes, add one (1) drop of 1% hydrogen

peroxide solution avoiding excess. If vanadium is

present, a reddish brown color will be developed

145

and reversed outline of the original writing will

appear. Photograph the result.

IDENTIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS THROUGH WATERMARKS

Every document made or manufactured contains distinctive characteristics

which makes a paper different from the other paper. Such characteristics is

called watermarks. This was placed on the paper during the time of its

manufacture through the aid of dandy roll.

Watermarks are being identified using transmitted light gadget with an

illumination, either from the back or bottom of the paper that will suit to be

identified. In some instances, it can also be used to determine the date of

manufacture of papers because sometimes they make different designs

depending upon the date of manufacture. This is true to say especially in the

most famous paper makers. Thus, in order to have an accurate determination of

papers, examiner should strive to go in contact with the different manufacturers

for their records of watermarks they are using in the manufacture of the papers.

Accidental Markings and Impressions on a Document

The preparation of a document represents a series of planned acts, but at

times important elements become part of the document purely by chance and not

through the premeditated design of either those who prepared the document or

those who subsequently handle it. In this way, latent fingerprints, writings offset

from some other document, embossing from writing strokes that are not part of
146

the page in question, and traces of foreign matter with which the document has

been in contact find their way into it. More than likely their presence is entirely

unknown the documents author, but under propitious circumstances these

chance markings and additions can play a significant role.

LATENT FINGERPRINTS

Latent (Invisible) fingerprints are place upon papers simply by handling

and remain until chemically developed. The case with which they are added to a

paper and their invisibility is definite assets, especially in criminal investigations.

If it is possible to develop an identifiable print to be compared with those of

suspect, a very positive form of evidence may be forthcoming. With some types

of criminal investigation, such as stolen checks cashed with a disguised,

fraudulent endorsement, such a print can assume significant importance.

147

CHAPTER XI

DETECTION OF COUNTERFIET CURRENCY BILLS

HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT BANK NOTES AND COINS

STUDY the workmanship of each denomination of known genuine

Central Bank notes and coins. Take note of and FAMILIARIZE yourself with the

various characteristics of the following features:

NOTES :

1. Distinctive feel; 6. Lacework design;

2. Portrait; 7. Color of each denomination;

3. Watermark; 8. Style and size of serial no.;

4. Colored fibers; 9. Vignette; and

5. Metallic thread; 10. Cleanness of print.

COINS :

1. Even flow of metallic grains;

2. High relief of letters and numerals; and

3. Regularity of readings and beadings.

148

EXAMINE each note being received and closely observe the following:

I. D i s t i n c t iv e F e e l

Genuine Counterfeit

The fingers will readily feel Generally smooth. The fingers will

The main prints on the front and back hardly feel the main prints of the

on fairy new notes. This is due to the embossed effect. This is brought about

measurable thickness of the ink by offset printing, the most common

deposited on the paper which gives the process employed by counterfeiters.

prints and embossed effect. Photocounterfeits (reproduced by

straight photographic copying)

generally feel “slimy”. The “prints” are

mere stains on the coating of sensitized

paper, which is glossy.

149

II. PORTRAIT

Genuine Counterfeit

Appears life-like. The eyes Appears “dead”. The face and/or

“sparkle”. The tiny dots and lines forehead are often unnaturally white or

forming the details of the face, hair, pale due to absence of most of the

etc., are clear, sharp and well-defined. details. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy

Each portrait stands-out distinctively and poorly printed. The eyes often do

from the background. This is very not sparkled. The concentric lines

noticeable along the shoulders. depicting the eyes often merged into

The background is composed of solid printed areas. The hair is lifeless.

multi-colored fine pattern of lines in The background often blends with the

varying tone and shades interlacing portrait and are usually “scratchy”. The

with each other. These shadings or lines are thick with rough edges,

tonings are intricately printed in such a broken and fused. The multi-colored

way that the contrast or shifting of prints on genuine notes are extremely

colors creates the impression of life difficult to duplicate and as a result,

and vividness to the notes. counterfeit notes are usually off-color

and not of the right shade or tone.

150

III. WATERMARKS

Genuine Counterfeit

The watermark underneath the This is imitated printing white ink or

security lacework on the right hand dry. Block on the finished paper.

side of the note is the same as the Sometimes wax or other oily medium is

colored portrait. This design is placed stamped to give transparency to the

by means of a dandy roll during the portion where the design appears. Or,

manufacture of the paper. a printed outline is placed on inner

Consequently, sharp details of the sheet where two sheets are used, or

outline or the “light and shadow effect” merely a paper cutout is placed inside.

are discernible when viewed with the As a result coarse or harsh and

aid of a transmitted light. The relief of occasional irregular lines and

the features can be felt by running the sometimes opaque areas are very

fingers on the design. obvious.

151

IV. METALLIC THREAD

Genuine Counterfeit

This is a special thread placed Faked by means of printing on the

vertically on the paper during back of the note, on the inner side of

manufacture. On the surface of the the paper, insertion of twine thread or

paper where this thread is located are by simply folding the note vertically

a pattern of short vertical lines. where the thread appears on the

genuine bill

V. COLOR FIBERS

Genuine Counterfeit

These fibers are scattered at the Simulated by printed lines, cannot

random on both surfaces and can be be picked off, but can be easily erased

readily picked off by means of any with ordinary rubber or by agitating with

pointed instrument. wet fingers.

VI. LACEWORK DESIGN

152

Genuine Counterfeit

The geometric pattern which looks This geometric pattern are often

like a delicate lacework along the blurred, rough on the edges and

border on both surfaces, embellishing blotched on the joints. Its continuity

the portrait, value panel and vignette could not be traced. The colored

and under the legend ANG BAGONG appears faded.

LIPUNAN, are multi-colored and

composed or sharp lines which are

continuous and traceable even at the

joints.

VII. COLOR OF EACH DOMINATION

153

Genuine Counterfeit

Genuine notes have polychrome Generally there is an irregular

background with one predominant color sputtering of white spots caused by non-

for each denomination. registry or breaks of the background tint.

100- peso Mauve Most often counterfeits of this type of

50- peso Red notes lacks the vividness of the color

20- peso Orange inherent in genuine bills.

10- peso Brown

5-peso Green

VIII. SERIAL NUMBER

Genuine Counterfeit

The prefix letter (s) and numbers six The letters (s) and numbers are

of them except on replacement a poorly printed. They are usually of

peculiar style and are uniform in size different style. Most often, they are not

and thickness. Spacing of the numbers evenly spaced and are poorly aligned,

is uniform and alignment is even. either too big or too small, too thick or

too thin; and in certain cases shaded

on the curves.
154

IX. VIGNETTE

Genuine Counterfeit

The lines and dots composing the Usually dull and poorly printed. It

vignette are fine, distinct and sharp, the appears dirty. The lines are

varying color tone gives a “ Bold Look” comparatively thicker with rough edges.

to the picture that makes it “stand out” There is no variation in color tone so

of the paper. that the picture appears flat.

X. CLEANESS OF POINT

Genuine Counterfeit

The registry of the different printed In general, a spurious note exhibits

features is perfect. The lines are very a “second hand” look. It is dirty due to

clean and sharp. There are no “burrs” the sputtering of ink on the interior

clinging to the sides. area. Over inked areas are visible

instantly. The shadings and

ornamentations of the letters and

figures are thick and usually merged.

COINS

Genuine Counterfeit

Genuine coins show an even flow of Most counterfeit coins feel greasy

metallic grains. The details of the and appear slimy. The beading
155

profile, the seal of the Republic of the composed of tiny round dots

Philippines, lettering and numerals are surrounding the genuine coin appear

of high relief, that it can be readily felt irregular and elongated depression and

distinctly by running the fingers on are not sharp and prominent as in

these features. The beadings are genuine. The letterings and numerals

regular and the readings are deep and are low and worn out due to lack of

even. sharpness of details. The readings are

uneven and show signs of filing.

Make it a HABIT to FEEL and LOOK at all currency being received so

that the FINGERS AND THE EYES WILL BECOME FAMILIAR with all

the foregoing features of genuine Central Bank notes and coins.

Compares with a known genuine currency of the same

denomination when a note or coin is suspicious.

ALWAYS REMIT all questionable currency to the CASH

DEPARTMENT, Central Bank of the Philippines, for verification.

156

Mutilated Currency (To be exchanged at the Bangko Sentral)

Scorched or burned
that the note becomes
fragile/brittle and
susceptible to
disintegration /
breaking
Split edgewise

Through ordinary wear and tear                            Accidental tearing

                                                                        

Perforated through action of insects, Damaged due to action of

chemicals, rodents, etc.         water/chemical/other elements

Fragments of Currency or torn notes joined      It has lost all the signatures
together with transparent tape/staple wire to inscribed thereon
preserve the original design and size of the note.
157

Unfit currency ( To be exchanged in any Bank)

Limp or raglike appearance

Badly soiled

Contains heavy creases which break the

fiber of the paper and indicate that
disintegration as begun

With writings even if it has proper

life or sizing

Tainted with ink or other chemicals

158

CENTRAL BANK OF THE PHILIPPINES

CASH DEPARTMENT

MANILA

GUIDELINES ON HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT UNITED STATES

CURRENCY NOTES

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY

A. TYPES

a. Federal reserve Note - with GREEN treasury seal and serial number

b. United State Note - with RED treasury seal and serial number

c. Silver Certificates - with BLUE treasury seal and serial number

(Special currency issued for emergency use during World War II still

circulates to a limited extent. This includes National Currency Notes, Series of

1929, with Brown treasury seals and serial numbers; currency with the word

“HAWAII” overprinted on face and back and Silver Certificates which bear Gold

treasury seals and Blue serial numbers.)

B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES

Each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional seal at the left of the

portrait on the face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and bears the name of

the Federal Reserve Bank of issue and the number and letter representing the

Federal Reserve District in which that Bank is located, as follows:

“1” – Boston - “A” “7” –Chicago - “G”

“2” - New York- “B” “8” -St. Louis -“H”

“3” - Philadelphia- C” “9” –Minneapolis-“I”

159

“4” - Cleveland- “D” “10”-Kansas City-“J”

“5” - Richmond- “E” “11”–Dallas- “K”

“6” - Atlanta- “F” “12”–San Francisco-L”

C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES

1. Portrait – Every denomination has the following identifying

portraits :

$1 - Washington $100 - Franklin

$2 - Jefferson $500 - Mckinley

$5 - Lincoln $1000 – Clevelan

$10 - Hamilton $5000 - Madison

$20 - Jackson $10,000 – Chase

$50 - Grant

2. Check letter and face plate number – These are located to

the lower right corner of the face of the note. An identical

check letter (without the face plate number is also found in

the upper left corner.

3. Back plate number – This is located in the lower right hand

portion of the back of the note.

4. Serial numbers – Identical numbers are found on the face

of the note, one on the top to the right of the portrait and the

other, at the bottom on the left. The figures are uniform in

size and alignment.

160

5. Series - U.S. paper currency bears a series identification

located on the upper-left or lower-right portion of the note.

6. PAPER – U. S. currency notes are printed on distinctive

paper in which RED and BLUE threads are scattered. These

threads are not always readily noticeable on bills that are

badly soiled worn.

7. Lathe or scroll work – The borders are executed in minute

detail with lathe or scroll work (commonly known as

lacework) which are continuous and evenly shaded.

161

General Characteristics of Genuine and Counterfeit U . S. NotesMain

Prints
The fingers will readily feel the main Generally smooth. The fingers will
prints on the face and back particularly hardly feel the main prints of the front
on fairly new notes. This is due to the and back even on new notes.
measurable ink deposited on the
paper, which gives the prints an
“embossed” effect.

Portrait
The portrait appears life-like. The eyes The portrait appears dead. The face
“sparkle”. The tiny dots and lines and/or forehead are often unnaturally
forming the details of the face, hair, white or pale due to absence of most of
etc., are clear, sharp and well-defined. the details. It appears blurred dull,
Each portrait stands out distinctly from smudgy and poorly printed. The eyes
the background are very fine, but clear do not sparkle and the hair is lifeless.
and distinctly visible. In cases where The background often blends with the
these lines cross each other the portrait. This is usually noticeable along
intervening white “square” are clear the shoulders. The lines are thicker
and uniform. with rough edges, broken and often
fused, such that the intervening
“squares” are merged and appear as
solid black.

Paper
The genuine notes are printed on Counterfeit notes are printed on
special quality paper which has a inferior quality paper that does not
typical “banknote crackle” when contain the colored threads. However,
agitated by the fingers. There are oftentimes, these security fibers of the
numerous red and blue threads, counterfeit notes are simulated by hand
distributed over both surfaces, which drawn or plate printed small red and
can be picked off with an ordinary pin. blue lines. These lines are very few not
of the right color; and appear only on
the surface and could easily be erased
with ordinary rubber or by agitating with
a wet fingers.
162

Lathe or scroll work

The white security lines compose a This network of white lines are often
geometric patter which looks like a blurred, rough on the edges and
delicate lacework along the borders on blotched on the joints. Its continuity
both surfaces. These white lines are could not be traced.
sharp, continuous and traceable even
at the joints.

Serial Number
The serial numbers are clearly The letters and the numbers are
printed with a peculiar style and are poorly printed. They are usually of
uniform in size and thickness. different color and style. Most often,
they are unevenly spaced and very
poorly aligned.
Treasury Seal
The saw-tooth points of the The Treasury Seal has usually
Treasury Seal are sharp and pointed. uneven and broken saw-tooth points
along the border.

List of Philippine Currency, which have ceased to be legal

tender and/or already demonetized

163

Withdrawal
Denomination Issue/Series from Demonetized
circulation
1-, 2-, 5-, 10-, 20-, Victory Treasury
50-, 100- peso Note 30-07-63 30 – 07 - 67

Half-peso, 50-, 20-, Fractional Central

10-, 5-, centavo Bank Notes 04-01-66 04 – 01 - 70

50- , 20-, 10-, 5-, Central Bank

1- peso Notes 01-07-73 28 –02 - 74
(Pilipino Series)

100-, 50-, 20-, 10-, Central Bank

5-, 2-, 1- peso Notes 01-07-73 28 – 02 – 74
(English Series)

½-, 1-, 5-, 10-, 20-, Philippine

50-centavo and Treasury 07-02-75 31 – 03 – 79
1 – peso Coins (1903 –
1944)
Central Bank
1 -, 5 -, 25 -, 50 Coins
-centavo (1958-1966) 01-09-75 31 – 08 – 79

 May be surrendered for exchange at par and without charge at

the Central Bank of the Philippines, its authorized agent banks

or government treasurers during the three-year period ending

March 31, 1979.

** May be surrendered for exchange at par and without charge at

the Central Bank of the Philippines, Its authorized agent banks or

government treasurers during the three-year period ending August

31, 1979.

CHAPTER XII

COURT PRESENTATION
164

The Documents Examiner’s Preparation

The document examiner’s preparation starts from the very

moment a case was referred to him for examination. An inquiry about

the history of the documents and a comprehensive review of the

entire problem should be made so as to know the true issue

regarding a questionable document. With the aide of his notes,

exhibits and report, he must organize all the important details that his

study has revealed into a form that would help him, as a witness, in

presenting the same in court. It is very important in any questioned

document case to prepare a clear presentation of an exhibit that

would help the document examiner in proving what the evidence

document really want to tell us. In preparing such great skill is

required in the photographing, developing, enlarging and setting up

all the specimen in such a way that they can easily be presented with

clarity and simplicity. The following can be taken into consideration:

1. Organization of the Facts

Not all the things that the examination reveals should

necessarily required to be included in the reports. It would be more

advisable to organize them in a way that it would give the message

165

directly and effectively so as not to waste the court’s time in

evaluating the facts presented. Thus, a careful review of all the facts

shown by his examination, eliminating those that have little or no

bearing on the problem, evaluating and grouping the others so that

his testimony can relate them in an orderly and convincing manner be

made.

2. Photographic Preparation

Another important aspect in the preparation of Questioned

Document Examiner is that of designing and making of photographic

court exhibits. Photography is one of the examiner’s most useful and

an indispensable tool. There are several cases in which the proof of

the document’s authenticity can easily be proved through the aid of

photography, used of certain magnification or artificial light

photographing. Photographic exhibits makes clear of what the

document examiner is actually trying to prove simply because it

makes the presentation more simpler but comprehensive. Court

exhibits, correctly made, increase the effectiveness of testimony by

bringing related elements of the disputed and admitted documents

together for easy comparison. In simpler problems well-designed

exhibits may virtually testify by themselves.

166

Photography provides a number of application in questioned

document from a mere recording to proving and discovering.

Photographs can make clear of what is otherwise illegible to the

human eye; It can make any number of reproduction thus affording

unlimited opportunity for examination without having the original be

compromised; It can be cut; it can extend man’s vision and others.

A good court exhibit does not just ornament the case; it tells a

story. By means of photography it is possible to cut out pertinent

parts of handwriting or typewriting, enlarge them, and place them

beside material from the documents with which they are to be

compared. For example, signatures from a series of documents can

be put together and enlarged to show details, or typewriting from one

document can be put next to similar combinations of letters from a

second to make differences or points of similarity more apparent.

This class of exhibits may be referred to as comparison exhibits.

A second class can be termed fact-revealing exhibits. It

includes many kinds of photographs. Skillfully made enlargement, or

photomicrographs, show detail of line crossing, patched strokes,

suspicious disturbances of paper fibers, or other pertinent details of a

document. Used of Artificial lighting as discuss in earlier chapter such

167

as Ultraviolet, reflected infrared, and infrared luminescence

photographs disclose erased materials. Color photographs are

especially useful in illustrating differences in inks and other colored

writing materials. With photographs the document examiner can

disclose facts that his eye is not trained to recognized or those that

could otherwise be shown only with instrument whose use would be

unfamiliar to many in the courtroom.

Comparison Exhibits

The factors that must be kept in mind for proper design of comparison

exhibits are as follows:

1. Selection of material;

2. Arrangement;

3. Degree of enlargement; and

4. Simplification of the exhibit.

What is made a part of the exhibit may influence its value and

establish whether it is true sample of material from which it was

taken. Arrangement must be both functional and, in some measure,

artistic. The degree of enlargement must be suitable for the problem

at hand, and in order to simplify the exhibit, extraneous and

unnecessary matter should be eliminated. Since these points are

168

fundamental to correct comparison exhibits, it is well that they be

dealt with more fully.

Selection must be made in consonance with the established

guidelines as mentioned earlier in Chapter I of this book.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
169

A. BOOKS

1. Evidential Documents by James P. Conway,

2. Forensic Chemistry by Sunico

3. Questioned Document by Albert S. Osborn

4. Questioned Document Problems by Osborn and Osborn, Second

Edition , Boyd Printing Company.

5. Scientific Examination of Questioned Document by Orway Hilton,

1993 Revised Edition , CRC Press, Inc.

6. Suspect Documents , their Scientific Examination by Wilson Harrison

B.  JOURNALS

1. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, By

Northwestern University School of Law.

2. Identification News, International Association for Identification.

Annex A
170

Direction: Match the words written on top by using their number representative.
Example : 1 – 21 21 - 1
1. 21. 41. 61.
2. 22. 42. 62.
3. 23. 43. 63.
4. 24. 44. 64.
5. 25. 45. 65.
6. 26. 46. 66.
7. 27. 47. 67.
8. 28. 48. 68.
9. 29. 49. 69.
10. 30. 50. 70.
11. 31. 51. 71.
12. 32. 52. 72.
13. 33. 53 73.
14. 34. 54. 74.
15. 35. 55. 75.
16. 36. 56. 76.
17. 37. 57. 77.
18. 38. 58. 78.
19. 39. 59. 79.
20. 40. 60. 80.
171

Annex B

Sample of Simulated and Traced Forgery

Standard Specimen

Simulated Forgery

Traced forgery / Model Signature

Annex C
172

Sample of Report in Signature Examination

REPORT ON THE EXAMINATION OF

DISPUTED “ R.I. BARREDO” SIGNATURE AND INITIAL

As requested by P/Col . Dencio Dimagulangan, Chief Investigator,

Escuela Biglang Detretso, I have made a careful examination and

comparison between the disputed and standard signatures and initials of

Regina Barredo appearing on the following described documents:

a.) Questioned :

1. Escuela Biglang Deretso Report of Grades for

computer 1, 1st Semester, 1996-97 with questioned

signature and initial of Regina Barredo, marked as

Exhs “Q-1” and Q-1a” for purposes of identification.

b.) Standards:

1. Six copies of Report of grades for computer 1 1 st

semester, 1997-98 with specimen signatures and

initials of Regina Barredo, marked Incl. “S-1” to “S-6”

and “S-1a” and S-6a” for purposes of identification.

The problem presented in this case is to determine whether

the signature and initial in question is genuine or not.

After a careful comparative examination made between the

questioned and standard signatures and initials submitted was

made I have arrived at a conclusion that the questioned signature

173

and initial above mentioned is not in the hand of Regina Barredo

herself.

The opinion expressed in this case is based on a number of

divergent handwriting identifying features between the disputed

and standard signatures particularly in the details of the letter

forms, writing pressure, speed, proportion, line quality and other

individual handwriting identifying characteristics.

The questioned and standard signatures were photographed

for illustration purposes.

June 15, 1998.

LEONARDO A. TRINIDAD, Sr.

Examiner of Questioned documents

PCCR, Criminalistics Department

ANNEX D
174

Sample of Photographic Enlargement of the Above

Case

Questioned Signature

Standard Signatures
175
176