ART

LESSON 1. The aim of the lesson is to teach you to formulate the ideas that are implied rather
than expressed in the text. You are to learn to produce arguments that are arguments or may be
considered as arguments because they are supported by facts.

1. What are the three aspects a work of art may be regarded in?
A work of art may be described as the sharing of experience. As such it stands on its own,
divorced from everything - even from the man who produced it, although it may mean more to
him than to anyone else. (It may not of course: since art is a cathartic activity, once the work of
art is produced the artist may lose all interest in it - several artists, indeed, have been known to
leave their paintings where they finished them.) The work, then, on its own stands as an object
and actually comprehends what the artist has, from his experience, been able to put into it. His
technical ability is what has enabled him to give the work the inspirational or emotive quality it
has. It is this quality that it may transmit to the observer.

2. The quality of a work of art depends upon the “quality” of the artist who produces it. It is the
result of his intelligence, his sensitivity to things that may stimulate him and his technical
competence; these derive from his character, his understanding and his temperament. The
particular form that a work of art takes arises from the direction that his interests lead him and
from his technical sympathy with one method of expression rather than the other.
What else does the quality of a work of art depend upon?

3. The artist becomes a painter or a sculptor because the visible world and the materials of his
craft - paint, colour, stone, volume - are the things that move him to express himself in art. A
painter paints not because he wants to represent what he sees and is competent to do so but
because the visible world stimulates him to satisfy his deep urge to shape his understanding of
life and nature. He paints because he cannot avoid it. It is, as a consequence, not an easy or time-
passing activity but one that demands his whole concentration and his whole personality, one
which may destroy his health and separate him from his fellows. It is apparent that not only
talent but dedication is essential and if it is fair and accurate to regard the artist’s life in this way,
it is also fair that a work of art should have the serious and careful attention of the observer.
What can a work of art transmit to the observer? What does the sensitive observer
experience when he confronts a work of art? Should he know anything about the artist to
appreciate a work of art?

4. But who is the observer? Is it a critic who professionally appreciates? Is it the fellow-artist
who may understand the problems, is it the connoisseur, is it the patron or collector, is it “the
man in the street” or is it anyone who gives the work anything from a casual glance to a careful
study? Of course, in one sense it is all these, but who among these establishes the quality of the
work of art? Is the “man in the street” to take the estimate of the critic as his yardstick, is the
collector to take “the man in the street” as an adviser? Undoubtedly a hierarchy of quality has
been established; how did it come about and on whose authority? Why should we speak of
Michaelangelo or Velasquez with bated breath, and who has imposed Picasso or Kandinsky upon
us?
Answer the given questions and try to formulate your point of view as far as the complex
subject of “appreciation” is concerned.

5. In what cases may the creative intention of the artist and the response of the observer be
identical? In what cases may they be not identical?
6. What do we mean when we speak of the problems of art appreciation?
UNDERSTANDING THE ARTS
Bernard S. Myers

OUR PERSONAL ENJOYMENT OF ART

Art may provide certain personal satisfactions, comparable to those we feel in reading
books, witnessing plays or ballets, or listening to music. These satisfactions come from physical,
intellectual and emotional responses to what the artist has expressed and what he is trying to
communicate to us. Our sheer physical sensation of a powerful and monumental work of
sculpture, the exaltation inspired by an imposing building, the visual and intellectual gratification
of grasping a painting’s compositional arrangement, the emotional surge of awe, pity, rage, or
joy aroused by many different types of works - all these leave us with the same feeling of
fulfilment as does a great symphony or fugue or a well-performed drama.
But the function of art goes beyond this. It may project in symbolic (that is, indirect)
form certain universal truths. These may ultimately have the greatest potential meaning for us.
And then, there will be certain elements on the intuitive (non-rational) level, the existence of
which we can point out but certainly not explain. As in the non-plastic arts of music and
playwriting, this very circumstance gives an elasticity, indeed an endlessness, to the possible
reactions and degrees of pleasure to be derived, depending on our own sensitivity. These added
intangible factors, those satisfactions of the soul, make the reaction to art potentially one of the
great experiences man can undergo.

DISCOVERING THE ORIGINAL MEANING OF A WORK OF ART

Obviously, the “snap” judgement on a work of art is out of place; more examination is
called for. With further study we discover, for example, that the original purpose and the present
function of many works of art may be entirely different. This means that a sculpture like
Michelangelo’s MOSES, a building like the LOUVRE, and a painting like Gericault’s RAFT OF
THE MEDUSA were made for one reason - generally practical in a religious, political, or other
sense - and now serve a changed purpose altogether, that of purely aesthetic enjoyment.
With so many works of art from the past in museums, we must often remind ourselves
that a particular piece of sculpture or painting was originally part of a temple or church, set in an
altogether different kind of light or high up on a different eye level or tinted with colour which it
has since lost. These and other changes show how far we may have come from the original
function, local, and intrinsic meaning of the work of art.

THE TECHINICAL LANGUAGE OF THE ARTIST

The arts have an important technical aspect which must be considered for greater
understanding and enjoyment. This technical side has direct bearing on what the artist can
accomplish physically (in other words, the limitations or advantages of the various media) and
on what this may mean in ultimate spiritual terms.
In the technical area we shall become aware of the major role played by drawing,
particularly in the traditional arts. The artist is first and foremost a sensitive organism receiving
visual and emotional stimuli from the outside world. These stimuli are absorbed and translated
into the language of art through various technical media as well as through the artistic idiom of
the time, rendered in the artist’s personal manner. Many, if not most, of the arts do this with the
aid of drawing, which here acts in the capacity of planning device.
We must not discount the independent function of the drawing in an art form by itself,
especially since the Renaissance, but its chief traditional use has been as a basis, a preliminary
sketch for buildings, paintings, sculpture, and the industrial arts.
WHAT DETERMINES STYLE?
We are also to investigate the history of the arts. This will bring in its turn a realization of
the different standards of taste that prevail in each period, and sometimes of the relationship
between the social and historical forces of each epoch and the cultural expression of that time as
revealed in its arts. We must think of these epochs as differing from each other and yet linked
together in the sense that one period is often a reaction in many ways to the period preceding.
Moreover, certain artistic traditions are handed on from one generation to another, as revealed in
techniques such as bronze casting, lithography, etching, and oil painting. Sometimes, techniques
are revived after many generations, such as the revival of Renaissance fresco painting in modern
Mexican art.
We should note that the history of art is related to the history of each separate epoch and
to history as a whole, and that the individual arts (painting, sculpture, etc.) are related to each
other as well as to the period. This means that the arts influence each other; in given periods one
art may perhaps be dominant, as in the Gothic age when the architectural concept (that is, the
idea of the cathedral) was the most important. No art exists entirely apart from any other in a
particular era; they are all connected with the general cultural spirit of the time.
Just as art in general is part of a continuous development, each artist will be found to
have a history of his own which, although part of the cultural expression of his age, is still an
individual and personal thing.
We may also speak of aesthetic or artistic problems as having their own history. By this
we mean that the actual elements which go into the creation of a work of art: space, light,
proportion, etc., proceed in a parallel fashion to that of art as a whole. Space, for example, is
treated differently from one culture to another, and yet it remains part of a total development
process. In the change from the Romanesque to the Gothic kind of space, for instance, we find a
continuity and yet a significant difference as well.
Each period has its own specific artistic character and dominant trends - sculpturesque,
architectonic, or pictorial. This character or trend is the result in part of the socio-historical
forces of that particular time, their relationship to the immediate or distant past, and finally the
many expressions of thousands of creative individualities. The three elements are mutually
interdependent and interactive, stimulating and restraining each other, and, taken together,
ultimately constitute the creative attitude of the time.

THE QUESTION OF TASTE

This creative attitude expresses itself in a kind of artistic taste which differs from period
to period.
Two things must be noted here: first, that those separate periods had their own taste in art
(just as we have ours today); second, that our attitude toward their art is conditioned to a great
extent by the prevailing taste of our own time. A simple illustration will help make the latter
point clear. Rembrandt, who died in 1669, outlived his own era, so that by the time of his death,
Dutch painting had already entered into a somewhat formal and even aristocratic type of
expression best represented by Vermeer, who was born a quarter of a century after him. Further
during the 18th century, in the face of the dominantly elegant and decorative Rococo art of
France, the serious and soulful heritage left by Rembrandt would necessarily be less popular than
ever. On the other hand, during the Romanticism of the early 19th century (see Delacroix)
Rembrandt’s emotional quality, his dramatic lightened effects, and his specific concern with the
human being made him very popular.
Thus we have two separate problems: how a given period looks on its own art, and how it
looks on the art of another period of culture removed in time or space. Furthermore, the way we
view the art of others is conditioned to a great extent by the way we perceive our own, that is,
what we consider good or worthwhile.
A question that naturally emerges is whether or not we have the right to criticise and
condemn any type of artistic, literary, or musical taste because it does not conform to our own.
Can we take the position that Rubens’ women are too heavy, or Egyptian painting too flat, or
Chinese music too discordant? Or, should we rather, try to realize that since each of these art
forms is a legitimate and serious expression of its own time and place, designed (usually
unconsciously) to meet certain spiritual needs, we must give it the same careful consideration
that we feel our own taste is entitled to receive?

ARTISTIC STANDARDS AND OUR JUDGEMENT

Although there is no statute that compels everyone to like the same things, and many of
us may have a distaste for some style of the past or for some contemporary phenomenon in the
arts, these forms have a right to exist as much as our own preferred styles. One may even speak
of a moral obligation to let these non-favoured types of expression be heard, however much we
dislike them. In this process also, the critic and the historian have a valuable function to fulfil,
giving us the benefit of their knowledge and experience.
There is a school of thought that maintains that it is impossible to set up objective
standards by which works of art may be judged. This reflects an honest belief that the virtues
possessed by the object of art reside within the eye of the observer, that since there are so many
possible reactions, these may be as readily caused by the viewer himself as by the object viewed.
With this belief there necessarily goes a refusal to state or even hazard any value or quality
judgements.
In opposition, we maintain that since works of art are products of a given period with its
attendant historical and other circumstances, our knowledge of these historical, cultural and
artistic circumstances helps us to judge a work in terms of its own environment and execution.
Balancing the aims of the period as a whole and the aims of the individual artist within this
framework, we begin to arrive - not always completely or successfully, it is true - at a standard of
value, a fairly rough rule of thumb. … After we examine enough of the material in a particular
type of creation, it appears almost inevitable that certain individuals in that group are better able
to transmit to the spectator the particular things for which the group stands: its striving for
monumentality or colour richness, its two-dimensional decorativeness, or other qualities.
Most people will agree that there is such a thing as a skilfully drawn line, a sensitively
applied texture, a dynamically balanced composition, or a rich and moving combination of
colours. They agree because they themselves are stirred by such demonstrations of skill and
sensitivity in certain artists; and they remain unaffected by works of others of the same school.
Here we are speaking of our own reaction rather than that of the period itself. It will be evident
that there can be conflicts between the standards of an age like ours, increasingly dominated by
the idea of non-representational art, and a period primarily devoted to narrative and
representational art. What is important is that although we may or may not like the art of a given
period, or reaction by no means disqualifies it for serious consideration.
ICON PAINTING
LESSON 2. The aim of the lesson is to teach you to compose your own utterances rejecting the
general subject for a concrete object.

1. Read the following text and say in what ways icons can be regarded different from other
kinds of pictures. Sum up the information you need to show what aspect you are specially
interested in.
By their very nature icons are different from any other kind of picture: they are the
images of saints venerated “with fear and trembling”. For centuries icons were painted by
priests, who didn’t sign their works. Before setting to work, the painter purified himself by
fasting, prayer and confession, and also communion. Taking a small panel of birch, pine, or lime,
or cypress wood, he smoothed the plane area, leaving a border, which formed a natural frame
separating the image from the outside world. Two slats of wood, placed behind, prevented
warping. The painter stuck a thin piece of tissue over the planed surface and covered it with a
layer of gesso to fix the natural colours, which were often ground with holy water and saints’
relics. He varnished the painted images with boiled linseed oil, which heightened the colours for
a while, then slowly but surely dulled them. The finished icon was blessed, whether it was placed
on the iconostasis or wall of the church, or whether it was hung in a private house in a special
corner with an oil lamp lighted night and day before it.

2. Change the following pieces of information so as to make an introduction to the studying of

icon painting. You are welcome not only to rearrange the paragraphs but change the order of
the sentences within them, leave out the unnecessary things, supply the necessary logical links
making use of the information from assignment 1 or any other source. But mind that you should
not speak on the general subject, i.e. “Icons” or “Icon Painting”, but stick to the concrete object
that is implied (or expressed) in the given pieces.

a) In the Catholic Church, paintings of religious subjects are primarily didactic; they are “the
Bible of the unlettered” in the words of Gregory the Great. In the Orthodox Church, they are an
effective witness to the faith; St John Damascene maintained that they “contain a mystery and,
like a sacrament, are vessels of divine energy and grace.” Icons are in painting what the Holy
Scriptures are in writing: an aesthetic form of the truth, which is beyond the understanding of
man and cannot be comprehended by the senses. St John Damascene declared: “Though the
intermediary of sensible perception, our minds receive a spiritual impression and are uplifted
towards the invisible divine majesty.” Icons were revered like the relics of the saints and some
were famous for the miracles they performed.

b) The subjects of icons were taken from the Old and New Testament, scenes from the lives of
Christ, the Virgin, patriarchs and saints. In spite of canons that were rarely disregarded, all the
icons on a particular subject were not identical, even when they belonged to the same period and
the same school. The main outlines remained unchanged, but the variety of treatment was
extraordinary; it was a free interpretation, an expression of the artist’s personality, his faith and
talent, and even his genius.

c) An icon is a representation of the celestial world in terms of the terrestrial, a window opened
on eternity. Obviously, it did not attempt an imitation of reality. A majestic hieratic style
removed it from our familiar world and there was no third dimension.

3. What else would you like to know about icon painting? Divide the general subjects “Icons”,
“Icon Painting” into concrete, more specific objects of analysis.
4. Render the following piece into English and offer a brief comment of your own sticking to a
concrete object.
Христианство возникло как религия рабов и угнетённых. “Желание бежать от
внешнего мира в мир внутренний” происходило от ощущения бессилия изменить
существующий порядок вещей. Мысль о невозможности обрести счастье на земле
заставляла человека верить в существование иного, божественного мира, в котором, в
противоположность земному, царят согласие и справедливость. Идея о
противоположности “земного” и “божественного”, о превосходстве “духовного” над
“телесным” определяет строй всей христианской идеологии, христианского искусства в
частности.
Христианское искусство сознательно подавляет всё, что напоминает античный культ
тела и земного бытия. Основа основ нового вероучения - мысль о противоположности
“земного” и “духовного”. Душа - всё, тело - ничто. “Плоть и кровь не могут наследовать
царствия Божия, и тление не наследует нетления” (1 послание к коринфянам апостола
Павла, XV, 50).
(Я. В. Брук “Живое наследие”, М., “Искусство”,
1970)
ICON PAINTING. VOCABULARY
репродукция (иллюстрация) a plate
каноны canons
стилистические характеристики stylistic features
древние живописцы the ancient masters
точность передачи бытовых деталей pictorial authenticity
оптическая перспектива optical perspective
поддерживать традиции to uphold the traditions/ to cultivate conventions
обладать внутренней завершенностью to have inner consistency
принятие христианства adoption of Christianity
эффективные средства выражения powerful forms of expression
художественное совершенство artistic perfection
кочевые племена nomad tribes
домонгольский период the pre-Mongol period
период татарского нашествия the time of Tartar invasion
разрабатывать to elaborate
утверждался аскетический дух asceticism was gaining ground
потемневшие от времени иконы time-darkened icons
оклад иконы metal frame
приемы живописи the pictorial techniques
прозрачная (ясная) композиция lucid composition
лаконичные линейные и цветовые laconic linear and colour solutions
решения
декоративность цветовой гаммы the decorativeness of the colour range
угловатые формы angular forms
резкие контуры sharp contours
плавные линии flowing lines
переход от заднего плана к переднему the transition from background to foreground
цветовые контрасты juxtaposition of colours
пересекающиеся линии intersecting lines
Благовещение the Annunciation
Успение the Assumption
Вознесение the Assention
Покров the Intercession
Преображение the Transfiguration
Сошествие во ад the Decent into Hell
Введение во храм the Presentation in the Temple
Судный день the Last Judgement /=the Doomsday/
Рождество (Христа, Богородицы) the Nativity of …
Положение во гроб the Entombment
Троица the Trinity
Иоанн Креститель John the Baptist
пророки prophets
апостолы apostles
евангелисты evangelists
деисусный чин deesis
Византия Byzantium
Одигитрия the Virgin Odigitria, the Virgin Hodigitria,
the Virgin Hodegetria
Умиление (Елеуса, Гликофилуса) the Virgin-Affection
Распятие the Crucifixion
византийские художники Byzantine artists
Вход в Иерусалим the Entry into Jerusalem
Успение Богородицы Dormition of the Virgin

LESSON 3. The lesson focuses on translation skills and on the skill of adapting a text for a less
experienced reader.

1. “Translate” the following information from Russian into Russian, paraphrasing the wording,
but keeping the ideas.
В представлении многих древних народов Творец – это мастер, который своими
руками изготовляет необходимую для жизни утварь. На некоторых египетских рельефах
можно видеть изображение бога Хнума, делающего человека при помощи гончарного
круга. В Индии и Греции считалось, что мир родился из недр Божества.
Только Библейское учение противопоставило язычеству и пантеизму всех оттенков
идею творения как акта Божественной Воли, Разума и Любви. Этот акт есть звено,
связующее Абсолют со всем тварным. Согласно Писанию, созидательная мощь слова
Божия, вызвав тварь из небытия, постоянно питает её и поддерживает её существование.
Библия рисует космогенез как восхождение от низшего к высшему, от
неорганического к высокоорганизованному существу – человеку. Это понимание истоков
Вселенной облекалось, естественно, в форму, соответствующую уровню знаний и типу
мышления той далекой эпохи, когда писалась Книга Бытия. Однако дело здесь не только в
эпохе. Священный автор говорит о тайне, которая в силу своей природы лучше всего
может быть выражена символически. «В начале сотворил Бог небо и землю» - эти слова
Писания не есть констатация научного факта, это язык мифа в высочайшем и священном
значении этого слова. Картина, образ, символ, заменяющие абстракцию, - способ,
необходимый для выражения непостижимого и присущий языку всех религий.
В XIX веке появилась теория Дарвина. Противники религиозной веры с восторгом
уверовали в дарвинизм и с ожесточением обрушились на библейские «дни творения».
Дарвинизм стал жупелом, которым пугали благочестивых людей.
Одним из первых понявших подлинно религиозное значение революционной идеи
был не кто иной, как дед Чарльза Дарвина – поэт и натуралист Эразм Дарвин. «Мир, -
писал он в своей «Зоономии», - развивался … образовывался постепенно из небольшого
начала, увеличивался благодаря деятельности присущих ему сил… Какая это
возвышенная мысль о безграничной мощи великого Зодчего, Причины всех причин, Отца
всех отцов, Существа существ! Ведь если бы захотели сравнивать бесконечность, то
должны были бы признать, что больше бесконечной силы нужно для создания причин
действия, чем для создания только самих действий.» В этих словах заключена самая суть
христианского подхода к эволюции. Согласно Библии, само существование мира зависит
от Творца и постепенно питается его созидательной мощью. Отсюда – понятие о
«продолжающемся творении»
Эволюция христианского сознания – это не просто движение вперед, но и
возвращение твари на пути, предначертанные Творцом, ибо развитие направлено на
создание человека, чье призвание – одухотворить мир и сделать его открытым для новых
творческих деяний Бога. Таков смысл развития с точки зрения веры; наука же изучает
лишь формы и этапы становления природы; она еще далека от того, чтобы познать все
закономерности эволюции.

2. Sum up the main points of the above information in English.

3. Read the two texts dealing with the same problem. Compose a text of your own relating the
beginnings of Christianity 2000 years ago (to be done at home and handed in!!!).
1) Для того, чтобы узнать о самом начальном периоде христианства, нам следует
обратиться к источникам, написанным самими христианами. Самые древние из них –
Евангелия – повествования об Иисусе Христе, написанные в период от 40 до 90 г. Именно
из них мы узнаем о событиях, связанных с возникновением христианства, определившего
не только культуру, но и весь облик современной цивилизации. Само слово «евангелие» в
переводе с греческого означает «радостная весть». Два из четырёх канонических
Евангелий были написаны учениками Иисуса Христа, а два других – учениками этих
учеников. Евангелия входят в состав второй части Библии, называемой Новым Заветом.
«Есть книга, - написал незадолго до смерти Пушкин, - коей каждое слово истолковано,
объяснено, проповедано во всех концах земли, применено ко всевозможным
обстоятельствам жизни… Сия книга называется Евангелием, - и такова её вечно новая
прелесть, что если мы, пресыщенные миром или удрученные унынием, случайно откроем
её, то уже не в силах противиться её сладостному увлечению и погружаемся духом в её
божественное красноречие.»

2) As Christians round the world are preparing to celebrate second millennium since the birth of
Jesus, once again they recite the story of a child born to a virgin. The details are familiar, yet
fabulous: harkening angels, adoring shepherds, a mysterious star. But is the story true? To the
literal-minded, the infancy narratives of Matthew and Luke are the opening chapters in the
official biography of Jesus. To scholars of the New Testament, however, they are not history at
all, but something infinitely more important: symbol-laden stories created to dramatize a deeper
mystery – that the Jesus who was born 2,000 years ago was really Christ, the Lord. Since the
nineteenth century, scholars have sought to isolate “the historical Jesus” from the “Christ of
faith” proclaimed in the Gospels. But today, most biblical scholars no longer make such a facile
description. For one thing, there are no firsthand written accounts of Jesus’ life from which a
verbal or visual portrait could be fashioned. For another, while there were eyewitnesses to his
public Ministry, it is highly unlikely that any of them can be identified with the authors of the
four Gospels, which were written 40 to 60 years after His death. Thus scholars agree that the real
Jesus can no more be separated from the theory of the Gospel writers than the real Socrates can
be separated from the dialogues of Plato.

4. Prepare the following text for a less experienced and less sophisticated colleague: comment
on it so as to remove predictable difficulties of understanding its vocabulary, syntax, content,
and logical structure.
In the effort to master the Gospels and other sacred texts, the burden of Biblical
scholarship has shifted from Europe to the US. The 3,000 North American member of the
Society of Biblical literature now represent the largest group of Scripture scholars in the world,
and their annual production of commentary and criticism outweighs that of all the European
countries combined. Moreover, modern Biblical research is ecumenical. Roman Catholics teach
the Bible at Protestant divinity schools, and Protestants publish books for the use by Catholic
schools and parish study groups. Equally important, first-rate Scriptural scholars now occupy
chairs of religious studies at secular universities. This trend, together with a new wave of popular
handbooks on Biblical criticism, has made access to the Gospels available to millions of
Americans, including those who prefer to discover Jesus without joining a church.
Most New Testament scholarship purposefully focuses on what the texts meant to first-
century Christians, but some of its implications call into question the authority sometimes
claimed by Christian churches today. Roman Catholic analysts, for example, agree that the
Papacy in its developed form cannot be read back into the New Testament and that the words of
Matthew’s Gospel, “Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church,” were not
necessarily uttered by Jesus during his ministry. Protestants, on the other hand, can find little
support for the claim that Scripture alone is the basis for Christian authority; on the contrary,
modern scholarship demonstrates not only that the church existed before the Gospels were
written but also that the church shaped the New Testament writings. “It is much more difficult
now for Protestants to speak naively about Biblical faith or Biblical religion,” says Professor D.
Jeul. “The diversity of Scripture is a fact and it is something to which Christian tradition must
now speak.”
The Christians most threatened by contemporary scholarship are those conservative
evangelicals who insist that every statement in the Bible – whether historical, scientific or
religious – is literally true. Virtually, all Biblical scholars would vigorously deny that their work
undercuts the central message of the Christian faith: that God was incarnate in human form and
that He died and rose again from the dead to redeem mankind from sin. To call into question
some of the historical assertions in the four Gospels is not to dispute their spiritual truth. “The
truth of the Gospels is not simply historical and anyone who tries to identify their truth with
historicity is misunderstanding them completely’” says Jesuit Joseph Fitzmyer, a top Scripture
scholar at the Catholic University of America. The problem, Fitzmyer complains, is that “in
Scripture matters, education today is so retrograde that one cannot even pose a critical question
without shocking people.

5. Practice consecutive oral translation of the above text into Russian (in pairs).

6. To most Biblical scholars today, demands for inerrancy are beside the point. The point is that
the differences, even the contradictions, between the Gospel accounts do not detract at all from
the spiritual truth that they contain. “God can reveal himself through inspired fiction, like the
story of Jonah, just as well as through inspired history,” says Father Brown.
Who was Jesus? Mark’s Jesus dies alone, feeling forsaken, but true to his Father’s will. This
Jesus will appeal to Christians who embrace life’s tragedies with confidence. Matthew’s Jesus
dies only to return and promise His guidance to those who follow Him. This Jesus will appeal to
Christians who find assurance in the church. Luke’s Jesus dies forgiving his enemies, knowing
His father awaits His spirit. This Jesus will attract Christians who have learnt in life to trust God
by imitating His mercy. John’s Jesus dies in the confidence that he will return to the Father. This
Jesus is for those Christians who have traveled the mystical way. All of these accounts express a
truth; none of them is complete. All of those Jesuses are accessible only to those whose faith
compels them on the search for “the way, the truth and the light”.
What are the features of a deity that are most valuable to human beings?

ICON PAINTING

LESSON 4. The aim of the lesson is to teach you to classify the given information according to
a definite purpose.

1. Reproduce the following piece of information:

The name ICON, meaning merely image, has been narrowed in the public mind to designate
portraits of sacred personages set up by the faithful of the Orthodox Church as objects of
devotion or aids to worship. By their very nature icons are different from any other kinds of
picture: they are images of saints venerated “with fear and trembling”.

2. Unsupervised exercises:

a) The content of the icons is easy to grasp. It Содержание иконы легко воспринимается
is due to the utmost simplicity of their благодаря чрезвычайной простоте их
composition. It reads almost at first sight, like композиции. Их композиция читается быстро,
that of a poster. почти плакатно.
b) The basic structural designs of the Основные композиционные линии упрощены,
composition tend towards geometric forms. геометризированы. При этом предпочтение
Clear and sharp contours are preferred to отдаётся не плавным очертаниям, а резким,
flowing lines. чётким.
с) In the oldest icons the figures stand facing На древнейших иконах фигуры изображены
the observer. Their feet do not touch the анфас и как бы парят над землёй. Они часто выше
ground. The figures are often taller than человеческого роста и кажутся бесплотными. Фон
lifesize and look bodiless. They are often на этих иконах - золотой “свет”, символ света
represented against the golden background небесного.
symbolizing heavenly light.

3. Use the information from the pieces below to elaborate upon the following topics:
- how and why icons appeared in Russia;
- why comparatively few icons survived and why icons are little known;
- in what way(s) icons are different from pictures.

a) Russian icons made a belated entry into the history of world art. From their first appearance in
the 11th century until the beginning of the 20th century, they were regarded simply as religious
pictures. The exhibition of ancient Russian art at Moscow in 1913, where icons were on show for
the first time, was a staggering revelation to its visitors. The Great October Socialist Revolution
brought countless works into the museums, which had been lost in churches or had been
collected privately by art-lovers with tastes in advance of their time.

b) After the 15th century, a large number of icons were protected by a metal cover, often
decorated with precious stones, which only left visible the hands and the face of the person
depicted. Most of them were blackened with varnish, which was deteriorating, and smoke from
the lamp, which burned perpetually in front of each image. When art historians removed the
black layer, they often discovered icons which had been repainted through the centuries in a
contemporary style, but under the successive layers of more or less recent date there appeared
images of unfamiliar and rare beauty.

c) Decorative motifs were probably the only form of painting that existed in Russia, before
Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, was converted to Orthodox Christianity in 989 and invited Byzantine
artists to his capital to build churches and paint sacred pictures. There is no mistaking in the
origin of the Russian icon. Very few works of these first masters, whose existence we know of
through the chronicles, have survived to this day. Russian artists soon succeeded them, and for
seven centuries schools with an astonishing variety of forms and colours flourished all through
the country. Unfortunately, the icons are not signed or dated and the paintings, like painters,
travelled afield. There is a general agreement about some of them, but the specialists, all with
equally cogent arguments, are far from ending their discussion on many others; it is all the more
difficult to separate and characterise the schools because so few examples have survived from
some of them that it is impossible to draw any conclusions. A large number of works were
destroyed during internal struggles and wars against the Mongols, Swedes and Poles; time and
neglect completed these depredations. Icons from Kiev are rare. When the town was taken by the
Mongols in 1240 the holy images that were saved were scattered throughout the country.

d) When Johannes Piscator’s Bible arrived from Amsterdam with nearly 300 engravings, the
tzars turned the old conventions and gave orders, with arguments to which there was no reply,
that Russian artists should imitate the style of western painting. The ancient icons were destroyed
or repainted. Only the sect of the Old Believers, who had refused to accept the reforms of the
Patriarch Nicon in the middle of the 17th century and who were prosecuted as a consequence,
remained faithful to the images of the past. For a time, the old Russian painting disappeared,
which contains some of the finest chapters in the history of world art, and was not rediscovered
until the 20th century. Russian scholars began the enormous labour of restoration and renovation,
so that today the principal museums of Russia possess some marvellous treasures, particularly
the Tretyakov Gallery at Moscow and the Russian Museum in Leningrad.

4. Consider the pieces once more. What information gaps can you discover? What other points
connected with icons are you interested in?

5. Make up an introduction to a lecture on icon painting intended for:

a) a group of grown-ups on a visit to the Tretyakov Gallery;
b) children of about 10-13 years old who know very little English;
c) a group of art students in their first year.

ICON PAINTING
LESSON 5. The aim of the lesson is to teach you to compare different sources of information,
to find out what they have in common and what they differ by, and to use the information in
order to introduce those who don’t know to something they are supposed to know and to love.

1. Translate the following pieces of information into good Russian (AT HOME) and do back
translation in the form of the unsupervised exercises.
a) The wide colour-scheme of early Russian painting is well-known and universally recognized
and admired. Early Russian painters inherited from the Byzantine predecessors the traditions of
late Hellenistic chiaroscuro, a system of applying highlights on a basic ground. But in early
Russian painting it lost its original significance. Light which fell on the objects from outside
became less and less important, and the emphasis was placed increasingly upon inner radiance.
In this, as in everything else, one is conscious of a definite need to produce images which are in
their turn able to create the impression of an ideal world and enrich the real world with its
supreme beauty.
b) In Russian icons colour is never so transparent as to become incorporeal. Colour was
understood as something tangible and the colour composition was built up of separate areas of
colour as an edifice is built up of several stones. Though the use of colours is sometimes
symbolic, they never acquired purely allegoric significance. They are chiefly important in
themselves, as part in the total symphony of colour. In other words colour was not employed as a
language to convey abstract ideas, but as a means of achieving the total artistic effect.
c) The colouring in Russian icons of various schools could differ greatly in choice of hues, in
their intensity, and in the predominance of a particular colour or colours. But a Russian icon can
always be distinguished from the Greek and Balkan icons as well as from the early Italian ones
above all by the general impression of colourfulness, the elevated, festive air and the joyful, yet
balanced tones.

2. Read the short pieces of information about different schools of icon painting. Say what all
these have in common and what they differ by. You are supposed to illustrate your ideas!!!
a) The style of icons from Kiev was still strongly influenced by Byzantine examples; the
figures stand facing the observer and their feet do not touch the ground; but they were
already beginning to lose some of their unreality and becoming sturdier, though
sometimes awkward at the same time. The Virgin Orans shows that the 12th century artist
had already broken with strictly Byzantine conventions; the form is traditional, but the
Virgin has become more human.

b) The school of Suzdal and Vladimir lasted from the 12th to the 15th century. The rare
icons attributed to them have a certain elegance in spite of the sometimes naïve style of
the images, which tried to imitate the historic manner of Byzantium. From the 17 th
century at Yaroslavl, a general tendency towards ornamentation and detail developed.

c) A remarkable school developed at Novgorod from the 11th century until the town was
annexed to Moscow by Ivan III in 1471 and the population was decimated by Ivan the
Terrible in 1570. The independent republic escaped domination by the Mongols, who
conquered Russia and ruled the country for some centuries. Trade brought in foreign
ideas as well as prosperity and in the beginning Novgorod made use of Byzantine artists.
The style of its painting changed rapidly. The icons were powerful and luminous and
their composition simple. Without losing their dignity and stillness, the figures became
like thick-set men. The colours were pure and vigorous, with the brilliance of vermilion
added to them. The Archangel Michael, late 13th century, is no longer painted frontally
and is looking sideways; the heavenly being has descended onto Earth and become a
Russian. Although the prophet Elias, late 14th century, is still faithful to a more hieratic
convention, it is decidedly humanised. The 14th and the 15th centuries were the golden
age of painting at Novgorod. The subjects became precise and the composition clear. The
faces became oval, and the heads were adorned with thick hair, and the eyes smile. A
marked tendency towards rationalization is noticeable. Red, yellow were blended into the
hitherto unknown harmony. The classic theme of Saint George was treated at the
beginning of the 15th century in iridescent colours and with the simplicity of composition
that is extremely forceful. The Entry into Jerusalem, late 15th century, marks an end to an
accomplished art, which was cut short before it had time to decline.
d) A human realism appeared even in the earliest works of Moscow painters, which
developed in various ways until its finest expression came in the works of Andrey
Rublev. Then like very artistic form, it declined in the affectations of mannerism. As
early as in the 13th century, the figures of the Russian saints, Saint Boris and Saint Gleb,
took on a Russian appearance. They became men of its soil and their human and
ingenious character is unquestionable. Two names stand out in the history of the Moscow
school. They were masters who were important for their paintings and the influence they
exerted. It should never be forgotten that the painters did not work on their own, but in
groups, where the personality of the atelier chief made itself felt in no uncertain manner.
Theophanes the Greek (1340? - 1410?) came from Constantinople. He brought a new
strength and intensity to icon painting. His proud austere dynamism and sober colours endowed
his precise draftsmanship with an inner power that was new. In his early paintings, there is no
mistaking of the stern Byzantine quality of his art, but he tempered it later on with humanity and
even a certain gentleness that was characteristic of the art of his adopted country. Just as El
Greco became a Spanish painter, Theophanes the Greek became a Russian artist. The Virgin of
the Don in its simplicity and finish possesses a grace that is reminiscent of some Italian
primitives. The composition and harmony of colours in his Dominion of the Virgin are
undeniably impressionistic.
Andrei Rublev (1360? - 1430?) was the greatest of icon painters. This monk had a
certain affinity with his contemporary, Fra Angelico. No painter before Rublev had
communicated humanity; suffering, trials, fear and terror gave way to hope, gentleness and
expectation. The Saviour, who until then was painted as “the redeemer with an angry eye”,
became lovable, friendly, and human. This new conception of the image “not made by human
hands”, since it was derived from the prototype, that according to tradition, God sent to Abdar
IV, king of Edessa, was the first to show a Christ pitying the miseries of man. Andrei Rublev’s
masterpiece is the Trinity, which follows the traditional Byzantine iconography of the scene with
the three angels, who visited Abraham to tell him that he should have a son, and the patriarch
offered them cakes of fine flour, butter, milk and a young calf, specially prepared for them. The
theological idea is transposed into a poetic vision. The composition conveys a striking
conception of spiritual unity by the slow steady rhythm of its lines and colours. The rounded
forms of the heads and the long oval faces are human and yet they possess a refinement unusual
in this lower world. Rublev’s Trinity is one of the greatest moments in the history of art. He
developed the style of Theophanes the Greek without weakening it; but he introduced into the
world of the icon a spiritual richness, a simplicity and tenderness that were harmonized in an
exquisite equilibrium.

3. Render the following passage into English and go on speaking about the things that to your
mind have prevented Russian art from growing rigid.
Глубоко человечная в своей основе древнерусская живопись решительно не
похожа на искусство древних славян или Дальнего Востока, где человек составляет всего
лишь часть природы, растворяется в ней. В древнерусской живописи человеку всегда
обеспечено преобладание. Русская живопись отвечает больше всего потребности
“заглянуть в помыслы души своей” (Вл. Мономах). Поэтому такое внимание уделяется в
ней “внутреннему человеку”.
Древнерусские мастера никогда не стремились охватить и воспроизвести
человеческую жизнь во всех её проявлениях. Они проходили мимо всего чрезмерно
уродливого, отталкивающего, страшного, жестокого, мимо пошлой повседневности, мимо
неразрешимых конфликтов, мимо человеческих пороков: гордости, эгоизма, жестокости,
сладострастия. Это не значит, что они приукрашивали действительность. Они
предпочитали воспевать радости и печали людей, их мужество и нежность, чинность и
простоту, их единодушие и готовность пострадать за правое дело. В иконописи человек и
в беде не падает духом, но сохраняет спокойствие, чувство собственного достоинства.

4. Can you see in the process of the development of icon painting any traces of the awakening of
the sense of personality?

5. What is meant by the style in icon painting? Explain.

ICON PAINTING
LESSON 6. The aim of the lesson is to teach you to analyse the total effect an icon is supposed
to produce upon the spectator and the means by which this effect is achieved.

1. Medieval artists were improving artistic means in devising and developing methods of indirect
reflection of life, accomplished not in abstract but in relatively concrete forms. Symbolism, if
resorted to at all, was also based on material images that could be easily comprehended by
ordinary people, e.g. the symbols for the four evangelists, or the dove, the symbol of the Holy
Ghost.
Reproduce the information above and explain what qualities of the object caused its use
as a symbol for a religious notion or other notions: 1) a rooster - resurrection; 2) a crawfish -
sluggish mind and indifference; 3) a pelican - parental devotion; 4) St.Peter’s golden key -
paradise; 5) halo - saintliness.

2. Composition is the strongest point in early Russian art. The compositional schemes were
formulated and chrystallised over the centuries, every painter improving upon the borrowed
original and adding to it something of his own. There existed several compositional schemes
favoured by early Russian painters. When the figures were arranged on the two sides of the
centre, the scene acquired imposing solemnity. When the secondary figures were arranged in a
circle around the main one, the composition revealed fewer of the architectonic features, it was
less strict, but not so troubled, and more festive. If, finally, the composition was divided into two
groups set one against the other, then it had an element of dialogue, of dramatic conflict.
COMPOSITION is the art of combining the elements of a picture or other work of art
into a satisfactory visual whole: in art, the whole is very much more than the sum of its parts. A
picture is well composed if its components - whether figures, or apples, or just shapes - form a
harmony which pleases the eye when regarded as two-dimensional shapes on a flat surface.
When we deal with the composition of a Russian icon, we come to notice that in the
majority of cases the whole composition works within the network of S-shaped lines. These
lines help the painter make ample use of the whole space of the icon bringing forth to the
spectator the harmony of the foreground and background on a flat surface. We see that every
episode present on the icon board is organized into elements each of which has an autonomous
existence and is still included into the whole picture because of the symmetry and rhythmical
structure produced by drawing and colour. Elements of the primary S-shaped line occur in
different combinations, thus forming circular, diagonal, cross-like, fan-shaped and other kinds
of composition.
Illustrate the usage of different types of composition, and explain using one of the icons,
how the composition answers the painter’s purpose.

3. Compare the two given icons, one belonging to one of the Russian schools of icon painting
and the other belonging to the Byzantine school of icon painting, from the point of view of their
compositions. Comment on the effect produced due to the composition.

4. Old Russian painters had a peculiar notion of space and time. They mixed up the planes of
both, because they aimed at representing the incomprehensive vastness of the earth in a very
small piece of painted surface. And they would never hesitate to place Jerusalem and
Constantinople within the scope of one painting. They never tried to create any illusions of the
3rd dimension. And the height of the icon was meant to show the position of a character in the
hierarchy of the figures presented. The same goes for the size of the figure.
In the 13th- 14th centuries the painters began describing their characters against the
background of everyday life, though conventionally presented. This could not be done if they
disregarded the laws of perspective. To preserve the two-dimensional effect the painters avoided
linear (direct) perspective in favour of reversed perspective, accepted as a canon. The essence
of reversed perspective consists in placing the vanishing point not in the picture itself, but in the
eye of the spectator. As a result, the lines running from the spectator to the background seem to
diverge instead of converging. Thus the spectator views the object, as it were, from different
sides simultaneously.
Analyse the given icon commenting upon the effect produced by reversed perspective, the
position, and the size of the figures.
5. RHYTHM (in painting, as in any other kind of art) presupposes certain patterns of
repetition. It’s possible to speak of rhythm in painting in terms of lines and colour patches (by
lines we mean both contours and shapes). Rhythm is one of the sole means of creating a certain
mood. Rhythm may be characterized by the uninterrupted grace of line, its intentional stiffness,
its symmetrical regularity, or its challenging (nervous) asymmetry.
Speak of the rhythm of an icon and the effect it produces.

6. Early Russian art is based on a most specific understanding of the painted image. To approach
its understanding one must clarify the difference between the image and the indication in
painting. The task of the image is to represent an object with all its characteristic features. The
purpose of the indication is to convey only those features of the object which make it possible to
merely recognize it as such (not to take the painted representation for the object itself), in other
words, to represent the simplest graphic form. In early Russian art we find a remarkably rare and
happy combination of image and indication. E.g., the very essence of the Rublev’s
Transfiguration lies in the fact that the connection of the event of Mount Tabor is transformed
into a system of indications. The glorification of the main personage is expressed in the choice of
the snow-white raiment, set against the background of a green roundel. The two flanking figures
seem to merge with the roundel, a sign of submission. The interval between the upper figures
and the figures which have rolled down to the bottom of the mountain stresses the separation of
the “heavenly” from the “earthly”. All six indication-figures are placed within a rectangular
wooden panel and form a symmetrical and stable group which expresses the basic law of the
universe. One more example of the “image-indication” is the border scene of “St. Nicholas with
scenes from his life.” We see mountains that look like heaped up chrystals, just like the works of
the Cubists. The sea is a saucer filled to the brim with water. The boat is a fragile shell and the
people are just the heads of children. Only the half-length representation of St. Nicholas can be
called, more or less, an image. In this painted story about St. Nicholas helping the people out at
sea there is something extremely touching and childlike.
Describe one of the border scenes of an icon explaining the usage of images and
indications. Show that the so-called “indications” are based on the principle of metonymy.

7. In more traditional kinds of painting, the artistic detail is called upon to make the picture
more lifelike. What is the role of detail in icon painting?

8. Describe an icon that appeals to you concentrating upon the means by which the effect is
achieved.

9. Render the following piece into English and go on speaking about the means that are
conflated to produce the desired effect.
Средневековый мастер придавал большое значение общему плоскостному узору,
который создаётся сочетанием всех изображённых фигур и предметов. Для иконописца в
этом источник единства, гармонии, а значит, и красоты.
Плоскостной узор не является чисто формальным моментом: он способствует
раскрытию содержания. Ибо согласованность форм и красок, как и ритмическое единство
- один из наиболее действенных способов передачи связи между персонажами.

Icon of the Virgin and the Child (“OUR LADY OF VLADIMIR”)

The icon shows a half-length figure of the virgin of the Eleousa (“Tenderness”) type, holding
the child on her right arm. All that remains of the original Byzantine work are the faces; the
Virgin’s, with darker olive-green flesh tones, and the Child’s, painted in lighter tints. A layer of
dark red colour adds warmth to the cheeks. The icon is believed to belong to the first half of the
12th century. It was brought from Byzantium.

Sum up the piece of information using it as an introduction to the description of the given icon
and go on describing it. Make use of the words and word combinations necessary for the
purpose.
The taste for symbolic images, metaphorical images, the use of grotesque devices,
exaggeration of line and splashes of colour was not such a novelty peculiar to 20th century art.
The traditional flattening of space and “lack of body” found in medieval frescoes and
icons cannot be ascribed solely to ignorance of scientific facts or a failure to observe nature. The
real, basic reason lay in aesthetic affirmation of certain concepts of the world, in the artistic task
of separating and contrasting the sinful earthly world and the ideal heavenly one. Naturally, in
conveying the latter, which was regarded as the supreme task, conventional devices were
employed which placed a certain distance between it and what man observed around him in
everyday life.

The icon ST.BORIS AND ST.GLEB (central Russian, 14th century)

(elongated figures, martyr princes, full of noble dignity and serenity, placed in smooth, almost
bodiless silhouette against the conventional gold background, colourful attire at once elegant and
festive, rhythmisation of the colour patches and lines, to convey the grandeur of the subjects’
ordeal, an aura of glory around them, smooth rhythmic repetition, bright festive colour
combinations).

Render the following piece into English.

В Византии иконами (от греческого eikon - образ) называли любые священные

изображения, сделанные на камне, дереве, ткани или металле. Со временем этот термин
стал использоваться для обозначения живописных изображений на отдельных досках,
которые играли важную роль в богослужебной практике. Первое сообщение об иконах
относится к началу VI века, во второй половине этого столетия они получили широкое
распространение.
Икона, по мысли византийских богословов, принципиально отличается от идола и
является не просто украшающим или иллюстрирующим изображением, но священным
образом, мистически связанным с божественным прототипом. Изображение на иконе есть
своего рода историческое свидетельство, освящённое церковной традицией. Поэтому,
задача иконописца - не новизна изобразительного решения, а идеальное воспроизведение
канонического образца. Само создание иконы приравнивается к священнодействию, от
иконописца требуется не только совершенное владение профессиональным мастерством,
но и предельная концентрация всех духовных и нравственных сил.
Render the following piece into English:
Новгородская живопись является неотъемлемой частью древнерусской культуры, для
верного понимания которой необходимо представлять себе мировоззрение
средневекового человека, столь отличающееся от современного. Окружающее бытие
воспринималось как несовершенное отражение высшей реальности. Весь видимый мир,
включая и человека, считался лишь “тенью”, неточным подобием, дающим отдалённое
представление о божественном прообразе, и целью “земной” жизни средневекового
человека становилось приближение к нему путём различных методов духовного
самосовершенствования, в том числе созерцания его на иконах. Художник стремился
создать подобие этого вечного и неизменного первообраза, а мимолётный и
преходящий чувственный мир считался недостойным запечатления. Отсюда и возник
своеобразный художественный язык иконы, где нарушение пропорций человеческого
тела, условность ликов, схематизация изображения природы или архитектуры иногда
неверно воспринимаются современным зрителем как неумение средневекового
художника. Движение в иконе замедляется или почти останавливается, а смысловое
значение изображения акцентируется при помощи жеста, который в средневековой
живописи приобретает чрезвычайно важное значение. Цвет несёт символическую
нагрузку, поэтому за каждой частью иконного изображения канонически закрепляется
определённая расцветка.
Наивысшее творческое достижение Рублёва - икона “Троица”, созданная им
незадолго до смерти (между 1411-1422гг.)
По христианскому вероучению, Бог, будучи единым по существу, троичен в лицах.
Первое лицо Троицы есть Бог-отец, сотворивший небо и землю, всё видимое и невидимое.
Второе её лицо - Бог-сын, Иисус Христос, принявший образ человеческий и сошедший с
небес на землю ради спасения людей. Третье лицо - Бог-дух святой, дающий жизнь всему
сущему.
Божество, будучи единством трёх лиц, пребывает везде и извечно и не имеет
определённого облика. Истинный вид божества неизвестен человеку - “Бога же не виде
никто” (Иоанн, I, 18). Однако иногда, как гласит христианское предание, Бог являлся
людям, принимая для этого доступный человеку облик. Первым, кто увидел Бога, был
праведный старец Авраам. Бог явился к нему в облике трёх ангелов. Авраам догадался,
что под видом трёх странников он принимает три лица Троицы. Исполнившись радости,
он усадил их под сенью Мамврийского дуба, велел жене своей Сарре испечь из лучшей
муки пресные хлебы, а отроку слуге - заколоть нежного тельца.
Именно этот библейский рассказ лёг в основу иконографии Троицы. Она
изображается в виде трёх ангелов со странническими посохами в руках. Ангелы
торжественно восседают за столом, уставленным яствами. Вдали виднеются палаты
Авраама и легендарный Мамврийский дуб. Благочестивые Авраам и Сарра подносят
крылатым странникам угощение. Так изображена Троица на фреске Феофана Грека и на
многих московских, новгородских, псковских иконах XVI - XV веков.
В иконе Рублёва поражает необыкновенная простота, “немногословность”, с
которой воспроизведено библейское событие. Из ветхозаветного рассказа художник
выбрал лишь те детали, которые дают представление, где и как происходило действие:
гора (символ пустыни), палаты Авраама и Мамврийский дуб. Подобной смелости в
отношении к священному тексту напрасно искать в более ранних иконах. Древнерусская
живопись, прежде без рассуждения следовавшая за священным текстом, ставившая своей
задачей дать зримый образ всего, о чём повествуют Библия и Евангелие, в лице Рублёва
пренебрегла буквой Священного писания и попыталась раскрыть его философский смысл.
Из искусства иллюстрирующего иконопись превратилась в искусство познающее.
Три крылатых ангела сидят вокруг стола, в центре которого стоит чаша с головой
жертвенного тельца. Смертная чаша есть композиционных и смысловой центр иконы
Рублёва; в зависимости от того, что подразумевать под жертвой, изображение получает
разный смысл. Первое значение жертвы - телец, которым Авраам угостил божественных
странников. В этом случае икона изображает пир у Авраама, и действие её происходит на
земле. Однако, для земного пира изображение слишком скорбно и угощение скудно.
Икона, без сомнения имеет более глубокий смысл. Смертная чаша с головой тельца
издавна воспринималась как символ искупительной миссии Христа, принесшего себя в
жертву ради спасения людей. В таком истолковании трапеза трёх ангелов приобретает
символичное значение. Она означает ниспослание Богом-отцом сына на свершение им
подвига во имя людей, готовность сына принести себя в жертву и благословение этой
жертвы духом-утешителем. В этом случае Троица представляет действие не земное, а
небесное. Праздничный стол - прообраз жертвенного алтаря. Жесты ангелов исполнены
осоБого символического смысла. Дуб, палаты и гора превращаются в эмблемы,
обозначающие вечность Бога-отца, вдохновение Бога-сына, возвышенную
самоотверженность духа-утешителя. Наконец, возможно ещё более отвлечённое
истолкование иконы. Согласно средневековым представлениям, троичность есть основа
миропорядка, всё в мире происходит по законам троичности. В таком истолковании
крылатые ангелы “Троицы” обозначают “движущие силы” мира: “Веру, Надежду и
Любовь”, а вся композиция в целом воплощает средневековое представление о
троичности как творческом акте и движущей силе мира.
… Ритм “Троицы” Рублёва стоит назвать линейно-цветовым, ибо цвет и рисунок у
него неразделимы. Основу композиции “Троицы” составляет фигура среднего ангела. Она
ритмически объединяет боковые фигуры. Силуэт правого ангела вторит силуэту среднего.
Этим достигается ощущение внутренней, духовной - средний и правый ангелы не смотрят
друг на друга - слитности двух фигур.
Движение среднего ангела сложно - его фигура повёрнута вправо, вправо обращена
благословляющая рука и тонкий длинный посох, но голова наклонена к левому ангелу.
Сложность движения, а также монументальность фигуры свидетельствуют о том, что
именно средний ангел должен восприниматься как источник действия, воплощать Бога-
отца.
То, что в одежде среднего ангела объединяются контрастные цвета - самый тёплый,
тяжёлый - вишнёвый и самый холодный, чистый - голубой, также символизирует полноту
власти Бога-отца. Цвет одеяний ангелов несомненно символичен. Зелёный цвет плаща
правого ангела-утешителя, по средневековой символике цвета, обозначает надежду.
Голубой небесный цвет, присутствующий в одеяниях всех трёх ангелов означает, что в
каждом из них равно “просиявает свет святой троицы”.
Из трёх ангелов левый представлен почти прямо. Правая рука ангела не опущена
вниз, как у двух других, а приподнята, означая готовность к действию.
Каждое лицо троицы неповторимо. Но при этом все три составляют одно целое.
Подобное впечатление достигнуто благодаря тому, что композиция “Троицы” подчинена
кругу.
“При всей самостоятельности каждого ангела издали они кажутся слитыми
воедино, охваченными незримым, но ясно чувствуемым кругом… Круг стал музыкальной
темой, ритмически ключом всей композиции.” Внутри круга - сложная игра линий,
ритмические повторы и противопоставления - внутренняя жизнь “Троицы”. Снаружи всё
замкнуто - для мира Троица едина и целостна.
Цветовое решение иконы также подчинено основной композиционной идее круга.
В “Троице” нет главного персонажа. Ни один из ангелов не подавляет другого - все
равны. И в то же время каждый имеет своё лицо. Между ангелами царят тишина и
согласие, но согласие означает, что один из них жертвует собой.
Успение Богородицы
После вознесения Иисуса Христа на небо Богородица, исполняя волю Сына, которую он
высказал на кресте, жила в доме Иоанна - его младшего, любимого ученика. Она достигла
большой старости (72 лет) и почувствовала, что жизнь её клонится к концу. Архангел
Гавриил явился к ней с благовестием о смерти. В этом благовестии ей было открыто не
только время грядущей кончины, но и то, что Сын в этой кончине позаботится о ней,
спасёт, возьмёт на небо её душу. Перед самой кончиной апостолы на облаках были
“восхищены” ангелами к её смертному ложу. Опоздал лишь Фома - и ему Богородица в
знак памяти оставила свой пояс. А когда свершилась кончина, дом, где находилась
умершая, апостолы, иерусалимские жёны и первые священники христианской общины,
окутало облако. И в этом облаке появился Спаситель Сын с ангельским сонмом и принял
душу из её тела, а затем передал её двум ангелам, которые умчали её на небо.
Апостолы, горюя о людях, утративших заступницу, в печальной и торжественной
процессии отправляются в Гефсиманский сад, чтобы там похоронить её тело. По дороге
процессию встречает иудей по имени Афония и, глумясь над умершей, пытается
перевернуть ложе, на котором апостолы её несут. Но в это время является ангел с мечом и
отрубает его протянутую к ложу руку. Афония раскаивается, уверовав в Богородицу,
возносит к ней молитву, и по молитве отрубленная рука прирастает на прежнее место.
Апостолы погребают Богородицу в Гефсиманском саду. Когда опоздавший и не успевший
проститься с ней Фома хочет на следующий день поклониться телу, гробница оказывается
пустой: Спаситель Сын спас не только душу, но спас от истления, взяв на небо, тело
Марии.

Святой Георгий.
Святой Георгий был юношей знатного рода, уроженцем Каппадокии в Малой Азии,
входившей в то время в состав Римской империи. Он был христианином, и когда при
Диоклетиане с новою силой вспыхнули гонения, Георгий отказался от звания и Богатства
и отправился к императору отстаивать свою веру. Силой своей веры Георгий обращает в
Христианство императрицу Александру, но император Диоклетиан заключает его в
темницу. После заключения в темницу Георгия подвергают чудовищным пыткам, каждой
из которых достаточно, чтобы сломить волю человека и просто убить его: его избивают,
секут “на воздусях” (подвешенное тело при этом сечении не имеет опоры), заливают ему в
горло расплавленное олово, сажают на раскалённого металлического быка, пытают
колесованием (привязанного к колесу прокручивают, прижимая к заострённым пикам).
И всё это выдерживает Георгий, черпая силу в вере, в обретённом им божьей благодати.
Тогда по приказу императора палач отрубает Георгию голову.

“Чудо Георгия о змие”.

В некоем городе Ласие правил царь по имени Сельвий, который был язычник и
идолопоклонник. Город процветал, но вот в трясине недалеко от него завёлся
чудовищный змий, который начал пожирать жителей. Царь собрал войско и пошёл с ним
на змия, но змий поднял волнение в трясине, и войско не смогло даже подойти близко к
нему. Тогда царь издал приказ, по которому жители должны по очереди отдавать змию
своих детей, а в случае, когда очередь дойдёт до царя, он обещал отдать ему свою
единственную дочь. Дети все были отданы змию, и царь, оплакав, отправил к нему дочь,
царевну Елисаву.
Георгий возвращался мимо Ласия на родину, в Каппадокию. Увидев плачущую девушку,
он стал расспрашивать её, в чём дело, и она рассказал ему о змие. Георгий спросил,
какому Богу верят она и её отец. Девушка ответила: “Гераклу, Скамандру, Аполлону и
Артемиде”, на что Георгий ответил: “А ты уверуешь в моего Бога. Не страшись и будь
спокойна”. Возвысив голос, он вознёс молитву, прося явить знамение и повергнуть
чудовище к его ногам, дабы уверовали язычники. И с неба сошёл глас: “твои молитвы
дошли, делай, что задумал.” В это время приблизился змий, и святой, осенив себя
крестом, бросился на него, и змий упал к его ногам. Георгий взял у девушки пояс и
поводья со своего коня и, “по устроению Божию”, связал змия и велел девушке вести его в
город. Девушка повела змия, и они пришли вместе в город, где люди поначалу стали в
ужасе разбегаться. Но Георгий велел им не бояться и уверовать в истинного Бога Иисуса
Христа, и тогда он убьёт змия. Жители восславили Иисуса Христа и Троицу, и святой
обнажил меч, убил змия и вернул царю дочь. После чего Георгий позвал
александрийского епископа, и тот крестил царя, его дочь и весь город - “примерно двести
сорок тысяч человек”.

Преображение.
Евангелие относит Преображение к тому времени, когда Иисус Христос нёс людям своё
учение, когда, окружённый учениками, проповедовал он его, странствуя по стране,
свершая чудеса и исцеления. И вот однажды, как повествуют три евангелиста (Матфей,
Марк и Лука), он взял трёх своих учеников - Петра и братьев Иакова и Иоанна и взошёл с
ними на гору Фавор. И здесь Христос стал молиться и преобразился перед ними. Лик его
после молитвы излучал сияние, одежды его сделались блистающими, “как снег”. И
явились к Иисусу Христу Илия с Моисеем - ветхозаветные, описанные в Библии пророки,
и беседовали с ним, обсуждая, когда быть его исходу в Иерусалиме. Тогда Пётр сказал:
”Равви! Хорошо нам здесь быть; сделаем три кущи (шалаша, жилища):Тебе одну, Моисею
одну и одну Илии”. “Ибо не знал, что сказать, потому что они были в страхе,” добавляет
евангелист Марк. Когда Пётр ещё говорил, облако осенило их и раздался из него глас
“Сей есть сын мой возлюбленный, так его слушайте.” И услышав, ученики от страха
“пали на лица свои”. Но Иисус сказал им: ”Встаньте и не бойтесь”. И когда встали, то уже
ничего не было. А когда сходили с горы, велел им: ”Никому не сказывайте о сём видении,
доколе Сын Человеческий не воскреснет из мёртвых.”

RENDERING
Древнерусская живопись охватывает период с XI по XVII век. На протяжении семи
столетий религиозная живопись была, по существу, единственным видом искусства на
Руси. На первый взгляд кажется, что она мало изменилась за этот огромный срок: от
киевских мозаик XI века до ярославских фресок XVII столетия русская живопись
сохранила плоскостной “иконный” строй, условные приёмы исполнения, ограниченных
круг “священных” сюжетов. И тем не менее представление о неизменности древнерусской
живописи ошибочно. Каждый новый исторический период вносил в неё новые идеи и
приёмы.
То обстоятельство, что общее решение иконы определялось каноном, что на
протяжении семи веков русская живопись оставалась в пределах традиционной сюжетики
и иконографии, обусловило особую точность, выверенность мастерства русских
иконописцев. В лучших русских иконах ни одна “формальная” деталь не безразлична
идейному замыслу. Минимальными средствами - введя в икону неприметную с первого
взгляда подробность, чуть изменив композиционный ритм, силуэт, цветовой строй иконы
- художник умел придать традиционному сюжету новое звучание.
Иконопись не могла не отражать в себе живых наблюдений над
действительностью. При всей фантастичности религиозных представлений о мире в них
отразился реальный человеческий опыт: извечная народная мечта о мире и
справедливости на земле, размышления о самоотверженной материнской любви, мысль о
вечности жизни и о смерти как одном из проявлений всеобщего порядка бытия… Таким
образом, содержание иконописи - это средневековый человек в его отношении к
реальному миру или реальный мир в своей внутренней ценности, каким он представлялся
сознанию средневекового человека. И если рассматривать иконопись под углом зрения
этого содержания, то окажется, что основные идеи средневекового искусства близки и
понятны современному человеку. То, что было “грезой” средневекового искусства,
вдохновляет человечество и сегодня.