LESSON INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: + discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of scientific revolution; and + analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa. pee This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology. Scientific Revolution Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science began, From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined? 1, Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world. ly, Science, Technology, and Society Cw “may2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation, 3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the Process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science. 4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives. Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms. The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines. Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modem science as a result of these developments r Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society C 3) fz ~-from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their bel and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes. Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views, Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world. SCIENCE IDEAS ‘SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS HUMANS SOCIETY Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas. Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period—the truths of their time. Scientists in all Periods of time are driven Science, Technology, and Societyby their curiosity, critic; inki pened wort sical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical a . Their love for science is driven eir dee ssi know and to discover, Ce oe en Creative [comm | SCIENTISTS SCIENCE IDEAS a Passion to SCIENCE ‘uriosity know DISCOVERIES Passion to TECHNOLOGY Critical Thinking discover Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas, Science Discoveries, and Technology Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas. In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. re were many scientists who worked before and after these For sure, the men, particularly individuals. However, it is important to note that these through their ideas, had shaken the world. Nicolaus Copernicus One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gril 2003). This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers—he did not do WH, Chapter I; General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and SocietyMy, oi observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as g he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus , Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite Jenty of time to sustain his interest in s was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome n author, Johannes Miller. This book f the heavens and some commentary on anything extensive such as thought experiment. By the time had been appointed as canon al his duty as a canon, he had pl astronomy. Copernicus published in 1496 by a Germa! contains Mieller’s observations 0! earlier works especially that of Ptolemy. Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close ftiends in 2 manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was NO proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally. Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution. In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’s model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun.’ The result would form a. sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, ue ie ie Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in ing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in gil, 6 € Science, Technology, and Societythe Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere. Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century. EE CAS OS 1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science? 2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time? 3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities? Charles Darwin Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father’s library (Gribbin, 2003). According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was’ observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him. Darwin’s life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos. Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species r rT Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society 7% “maw : iaevolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his. theory. Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans, His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial, He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings in a Privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view. Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days, His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence- based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and experiment. pete Se STEN 1. What is Darwin’s contribution to modern science? 2. How can Darwin’s evolutionary theory influence the following fields in modern times: * Economy * Agriculture * Political Science ReligionSigmund Freud Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels ure and a very talented (1980) also described him as a towering literary figt communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters. Freud also made a_ significant contribution in the scientific world through the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of, psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method, For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature. Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and they found his ideas not easy However, apart from these, ordinary citizens of his time. To some, especially in his explanations of human sexuality. Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist’ or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way. oa ») muss silly, Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Evens in Science, Technology, and Society1. By looking for other sources and literatures, What are controversies or questions on Freud’s ideas? the 2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist? 3. _ If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the he would make to his theory? © major Changes Cradles of Early Science Development of Science in Mesoamerica Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. The: that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowle arrival of its European colonizers. America from re is no doubt ‘dge prior to the The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation. For example, the Pyramid at Chichén Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes, Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems, These calendars were Very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations, The Mayans also develop Crops and building elaborate citi They built hydraulics syst to different communities, ed the technology for growing different les using ordinary machineries and tools. fem with sophisticated waterways to supply water (*) Science, Technology, and Society if RR Lisa Ls 3Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica, They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844. The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20, Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did. The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life: 1. roads paved with stones; 2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters; 3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land; 4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season; 5. the first suspension bridge; 6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and 7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements. Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following: 1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated to get education regardless Rw ‘Chapter 1: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society 1 i “aaof their social class, gender, or age. It is an eai i i: 5 tly fo, universal or inclusive education. Tm of 2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolat their time. In the Mayan culture, they used it as curr Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it their tribute to their gods. ite during ‘ency. The aS part of 3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery. 4, Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals. 5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season. 6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems. Development of Science in Asia Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the. Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their time. India he is a huge Peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and detent aided Ghee In its northern boarders. The Indians creatively They are kno f aa technologies useful in their everyday lives. wn for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works, Their iron steel is considered to pol te - whole of Roman Empire. be the best and held with high regard in the fortifi ‘On 2122 Science, 7 amas , Technology, and SocietyIndia is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure ts, like the Susruta Samhita, describes ncient India. Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days cach. Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon. medicinal properti various illnesses. Some ancient text different surgical and other medical procedures famous in At Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjo- daro ruler. Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991). Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Societyith substantial contributions astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, thers. Chinese civilizations have greatly untries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, and other countries that belong China ; 5 ivili s China is one of the ancient civilization: in many areas of life like medicine, philosophy, and music, among of influenced many of its neighbor col ve Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, to the old Silk Road. : sie 1 itiona ficines, a product i re known for traditional med eeberen es and discovery of the Chinese people. They ies and uses of different plants and e of acupuncture. of centuries of experi discovered various medical P! animals to cure human illness. In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the - Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first seismological detector, and developed.a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971). In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural calamities. roperti i ‘An example is the practic China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors Prevented these Chinese achievements from developing mica ee According to Needham (1986), it may have been the ane 5 ees amet of Chinese intellectuals that made pt the ideas of laws of nature. oc = % Science, Technology, and Society GMiddle East Countries The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than Plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al- Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of Chemistry” (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005). In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000). Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Evens in Science, Technology, and Society $15 2 “eer There are numerous Muslim scholars who made Significant contributions in the field of science, mathematics, astronomy, Philosophy and even in the field of social sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed. Development of Science in Africa Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it, The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too. The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve the quality of life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization. Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science. Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three. iy $716 Science, Technology, and Society hyMetallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures. Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six- month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. > Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth of science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the scientific method. It was a time in the history of science where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered innovative and useful, were developed. Some of these ideas were also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena. The scientific revolution significantly changed how people study science and do scientific activities. It inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away from thought experiments to data-driven and experiment-based ideas. There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during the period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates. He placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it. Copernicus's model of sm, Chapter I: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society; planets orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the Planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant contribution in the fielq of evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. His theory of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields until now. Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human behavior especially neurological conditions. Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these continents invented tools to help them in everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly bodies, built structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a discipline. Science provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. It also enabled human beings to develop various technologies that helped them in their everyday tasks. See MUS LUSCH How did society shape science and how did science shape society? 2. How do social and human issues influence science? 3. How do the political and cultural landscapes of the society affect the development of scientific culture, science activities, and science literacy? 4. Considering the current State of our society, do you think Science literacy among people has contributed to the growth of our economy? How can science influence government policies? 8% Z1 Science, Technology o.4«...