Contents

1. What is Language Planning? (Ortega, Gabrielle)

2. Concepts of Language Planning (Pica, Ravidas)
2.1. Instrumental Approach
2.2. Socio-Linguistic approach
3. Ideologies of Language Planning
3.1. Linguistic Pluralism (Tarrobago, Maye)
3.2. Linguistic Assimilation and Nationalism (Castillo, Justine)
3.3. Internationalism (Delos Santos, Liane)
3.4. Vernacularization (Ibanez, Lhen)
4. The Aims of Linguistic Planning (Eclarinal, Patricia &Aguilo, Elizabeth)
4.1. Extra-Linguistic Aims
4.2. Semi-Linguistic Aims
4.3. Linguistic Aims
5. Language Related Problems which Trigger Language Planning (Reyes, Stephen)
6. Factors Affecting Language Planning (Fabay, Georgette)
7. Who is Involved in Language Planning Efforts and How? (Navarro, Minelle)
8. Language Planning Types
8.1. Status Planning (Manalang, Mary Rose)
8.2. Corpus Planning (Fernandez, Arianne)
8.3. Acquisition Planning (Glorioso, Dezza)
9. Criteria of Language Choice in Language Planning (Claveron, Joverose)
10. Stages in Language Planning (Jaring, Krisha)
1. What is Language Planning?

The term language planning refers to measures taken by official agencies to influence the use
of one or more languages in a particular speech community. “Language planning refers to
deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure,
or functional allocation of their language codes” (Cooper, 1989, p. 45).

American linguist Joshua Fishman has defined language planning as "the authoritative allocation
of resources to the attainment of language status and corpus goals, whether in connection with
new functions that are aspired to or in connection with old functions that need to be discharged
more adequately" (1987). –Joshua Fishman (American linguist)

Language planning (also known as language engineering) is a deliberate effort to influence the function,
structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech community. Robert L. Cooper
(1989) defines language planning as "the activity of preparing a normative orthography, grammar, and
dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community” (p. 8).

According to Fishman (1972), Language planning is a systematic activity of regulating and improving
existing languages or creating new common regional, national or international languages. Similarly Fasold
(1987: 246) explains the idea of Language Planning as language determination, to refer to choices of
languages to be used for specific purposes. In any country, for instance, there is a tendency of selecting
a given language to be functioning in such areas as education, media, courts and others.

Many other scholars define Language Planning in their own ways. The prominent scholars in Language
Planning, Rubin and Jernudd (1971: xvi), on the other hand, define it as follows.

“Language planning is a deliberate language change; that is; changes in the system of language
code or speaking or both that are planned by organizations that are established for such purpose
or given a mandate to fulfill such purpose. As such, language planning is focused on problem
solving and is characterized by the formulation and evaluation of alternatives for solving
language problems to find the best (or optimal, most efficient) decision.”

Moreover, Kaplan and Baldauf (1997:3), who also consider Language planning as an attempt to change
the way in which it is used, remarks that Language Planning is also a means of preventing change to take
place. Their definition is stated as indicated hereafter.

“Language planning is a body of idea, laws, and regulations (language policy), change rules,
believes, practices intended to achieved a planned change (to stop change from happening) in
the language use in one or more communities.”
Generally, it is possible to say that Language Planning is an area which deals with language related
problems and its solutions. It is a calculated effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a
language or language variety within a speech community.

It is often associated with government planning, but t is also used by a variety of non-governmental
organizations, such as grassroots organizations and even individuals. The goals of language planning
differ depend ending on the nation or organization, but generally include making planning decisions and
possibly changes for the benefit of communication. Planning or improving effective communication can
also lead to other social changes such as language shift or assimilation, thereby providing another
motivation to plan the structure, function and acquisition of languages.

The term 'language planning' was introduced by the American linguist Einar Haugen in the late 1950s
and refers to all conscious efforts that aim at changing the linguistic behaviourof a speech
community. As an offshoot of sociolinguistics, Language planning is defined as the planning of deliberate
changes in the form or use of a language or language variety. Both planning and language-use are
socially-based activities. This is why Language planning is generally regarded as a sub-discipline of
sociolinguistics. Language planning does not limit its scope to education alone; it cuts across other
domains like: administration, the law, mass communication, as observed by Annamalai and Rubin
(1980) cited by Kennedy (2004).

Language Planning is a relatively new academic discipline, though by no means a new activity.
Weinstein's definition provides a useful starting-point in the discourse of Language planning. He
observes language planning as “A government-authorized, long-term, sustained and conscious effort to
alter a language's function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems' (Weinstein,
1980: 56). The process of language planning involves the assessing of language resources, assigning
preferences and functions to such language(s) as well as developing their use according to previously
determined objectives. However, language planning is not considered an individual activity. The following
societal domains are important when it comes to the planning of a language. They include: government,
national assembly/parliament, the judiciary, administration, business, the media, language experts drawn
from institutions and the community. In this paper, the levels of language planning remain the major
focus. Instances will be drawn from the educational domain, and will specifically concern itself with the
role of English and its relationship to other languages in two African nations: Tanzania and BokinaFaso.
Issues that arise in this context include: mother - tongue teaching, choice of medium of instruction at
different educational levels (and of variety to be taught), and the use of different languages for intra-
national or international purposes
2. Concepts of Language Planning

According to Fasold (1987:250) there are two concepts of language planning –the instrumental approach
and the social-linguistic approach. Let us discuss these approaches one after the other.

2.1 The Instrumental Approach

Sees language fundamentality as a tool. This approach is just like a work. For example, a work for
mechanics is so simple provided that mechanical tools are standardized. Likewise, communication would
be easier if languages are standardized.

According to the advocators of this approach, as Fasold (ibid) states, some languages are better than
others in their balance of beauty, clarity, elasticity and economy and these should be
chosenover less adequate languages where possible. When impossible, Language Planning should be
used to improve the quality of the inadequate language.

2.2 The Socio- Linguistic Approach

Begins with the recognition of a social problem that is connected with language. In this approach there is
no need of attempt to improve the esthetic and functional quality of languages asinstrumental tools.
Rather, there is seeing language as a resource that can be used in improving social life. This way of
practicing Language Planning would attempt to determine which of the available linguistic alternative is
most likely to improve a problematic situation.

3. Ideologies of Language Planning

3.1 Linguistic Pluralism

Linguistic pluralism usually refers to the condition that exists when a community or country officially
recognizes more than one language. For example, the Indian constitution recognizes fifteen national
languages. Singapore recognizes Chinese, English, Malay, and Tamil. Switzerland recognizes German,
French, Italian, and Romansch. Linguistic pluralism is common: most of the two hundred or so nations of
the world use more than one of the five thousand or so languages spoken on this planet.

Linguistic pluralism is not a reliable measure of multilingualism. A nation that recognizes only one
language may have a population that uses many. As of this writing, the United Kingdom has more than
one hundred minority languages. In the United States, nearly ten percent of the population use
languages other than English. The Democratic Republic of the Congo recognizes only five languages,
although more than 250 languages and dialects are spoken there.

Linguistic Pluralism broken down means that the languages spoken within an event or context are
multiple and most likely understood by many, for example, in a household where all the speakers speak
both Spanish and English (possibly in an area such as the US state of Arizona or Texas).
An example from my own life would be the teacher I currently work with speaks both English and
Albanian to her sons (who speak intermittent English and Albanian to her as well). In the context of
linguistic pluralism, her sons and herself understand both languages (linguistic) and use both (pluralism)
at the same time or at different points in the conversation.

Someone who knows sign language and another language (such as English and ASL) and uses both at
the same time could be said to be linguistic pluralistic, same with polyglots practicing a multiple of
languages with each other. UN or foreign political meetings could be said to be an example of such a
thing.

It may include an unspoken rule that there should be no fear of one wanting to speak the language they
desire. Even if the language is not understood, the acceptance of the language would allow for pluralism
to occur.

It is the recognition of more than one language, also takes a variety of forms. It can be territorially or
individually based or there may be some combination of the two. It promotes the coexistence of different
language groups and their right to maintain and cultivate their languages on an equitable basis. For
example, French is officially recognized in the south, Flemish in the North, German in the East.

3.2 Linguistic Assimilation and Nationalism

Linguistic imperialism, or language imperialism, is a phenomenon that occasionally occurs defined as "the
transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" comes about because of
imperialism. The transfer is considered to be a demonstration of power; traditionally military power but
also, in the modern world, economic power. Aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along
with the language. In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of
international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank evaluate the trustworthiness and value of providing structural adjustment
loans.Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted attention among scholars of applied
linguistics. In particular, Robert Phillipson's 1992 book, Linguistic Imperialism, has led to considerable
debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that
dated back to Nazi critiques of the British Council (European aristocracy was at the time agreeing on the
use of English), and to Soviet analyses of English as the language of world capitalism and world
domination. In this vein, criticism of English as a world language is rooted in anti-globalism.

It is the belief that everyone, regardless of origin, should learn the dominant language of the society. For
example, France applied this policy (French only) to various people within its border. Nationalism often
favors linguistic assimilation to make sure that every member of a speech community can use the
dominant language. This is a cause for a dominant language to gain prestige and become superior over
the minor languages. In extreme case, linguistic minorities are given little or no rights. This kind of
ideology has occurred in France in which the government planned to eliminate the non-standard French
varieties; which has resulted in modern Language Policy by France revolution. In Russia and Indonesia,
the same situation has happened.

3.3 Internationalism

Internationalism, the ideology which consists in adopting a nonindigenous language of wider

communication either as an official language or as language of instruction (Covarrubias, 1983: 66)
underlies the language planning policies of several postcolonial countries. In Gabon, for example, French
is the sole official language; in Cameroon both French and English are official languages, while in Haiti
Creole is recognized officially alongside French. Such a choice is motivated by the fact that international
languages facilitate sociocultural, economic, and political communication with other countries and access
to science and technology. In some countries where a large number of languages coexist, a language of
wider communication is felt to be the answer to communication problems. It is also a way of avoiding the
choice between two or more competing national languages. Adoption of an international language is
expected to promote modernization and participation in world trade and technology. However, on the
negative side, it reinforces the minorization of indigenous languages. For example, in Madagascar, only 1
percent of the population is competent in French, one of its official languages, while the rest of the
population speak only Malagasy. The fact that the official international language is usually spoken by a
socially powerful elite not only reinforces the prestige of this language, but also invests the elite with ever
more sociopolitical power. This situation is further complicated where the national language is not written
or has only recently been provided with a system of writing and orthography. This ideology shows how
nationalistic feelings can clash with socioeconomic and political realities. This exemplifies the distinction
put forward by Fishman (1972 [1989:109]) between “nationalism,” characterized by feelings of
uniqueness and the desire to develop culturally and otherwise, and “nationism” which pertains to the
more pragmatic problems of fulfilling these expectations.8

3.4 Vernacularization

Vernacularization is an alternative to this kind of nationism. Indigenous or national languages are

restored or modernized and officially recognized in lieu of or alongside an international language of wider
communication (Co-varrubias, 1983: 66). Madagascar, where French and Malagasy both enjoy official
status, is an example (Leclerc, 1992: 495–8). In 1978, as part of a general nationalization program,
Malagasy was declared the language of education at the primary and part of the secondary levels, with
French introduced as a second language in the second grade of the primary level. However, two kinds of
problems have arisen. First, although Madagascar has a literacy rate of 44 percent (1986 statistics:
Grimes, 1988: 254), standard 27. Language Planning and Language

Malagasy is spoken only by a small educated minority, which makes teaching in Malagasy difficult.
Second, standard Malagasy has serious shortcomings as a language of education and, although it has
undergone a standardization process since at least 1835 when it was used to translate the Bible, it is at
present undergoing a process of destandardization (Bemananjara, 1987) and must be further modernized
in order to become the language of education at the university level. Meanwhile/ French continues to be
used as the principal written language (Bemananjara, 1987: 311). By sending their children to French
schools, the educated elites perpetuate the colonial diglossic model (Leclerc, 1992: 497).
Vernacularization sometimes involves the restoration of a literary language, as in Algeria and Tunisia,
where Classical Arabic is now the official language in lieu of French (since 1976 in Tunisia and 1989 in
Algeria). This poses special problems since Classical Arabic, a written language, is far removed from
every day “Dialectal Arabic” (Grandguillaume, 1990). Vernacularization policies can furthermore involve
writing and orthography reforms, e.g., the adoption of the Roman alphabet for Turkish in the late 1920s.
The writing of dictionaries and grammars, as for the Sami language of the northern parts of Scandinavia
at the present time, is yet another aspect. An extreme case of Vernacularization is found in Israel, where
a religious language, Hebrew, was revived and installed as a national language.

4. The Aims of Language Planning

Like any other activities, Language Planning has its own aims. Scholars in this area have
come up with various types of classification of the goals. Rabin (1971, 277-279)), for instance,
classifies the aims of Language Planning as: Extra Linguistic aims, Semi-Linguistic aims and
Linguistic aims. It is important to discuss each of them as follows.
4.1 Extra-Linguistic Aims these are treated as typical instances of Language Planning and
appear to concern sociolinguists and political scientists. It's said that their implementation often
involves teaching a language to a large number of people. These aims are classified as:

Horizontal- this is concerned with change in area of use. The area of use can be geographical
(country, province, etc.) and communal (with mixed population).

Vertical- such an aim is about change in social use like 1. Between classes, 2. Between town
and country, settled and nomads, etc. and 3. In specific uses like literary v, spoken, or religious
Vs vernacular use.

Diachronic- this type of aim is said to be radical. It is involved in the revival of 'dead'
language, the use of written language for speaking or of a spoken language for writing, the
creation of a new language block and surprisingly the killing, or allowing to die, an existing
language.

4.2 Semi-Linguistic Aims- these aims represent the most frequent type of planned language
change. Even though it seems difficult to which discipline this study could belong, strong
sociological and psychological factors seem to be contained in them. Added to this fact, there is
no doubt that the linguists do the research in most cases. The Semi-linguistic aims are
categorized as:

•Writing- this is aimed at first, changing the writing system (e.g. from logographic to
alphabetic script, from diacritic to linear representation of vowels), second changing features of
the writing system (e.g. introduction of capitals; new single graphs instead of digraphs;
abolition of special initials or final graphs; abolition of word-divider), and third, Para-
orthographical change (e.g. pronunciation, standards of transliteration).

•Spelling- this is concerned with systemization and unification, simplification, phonemization

(especially of etymological spelling), word boundary spelling changes (e.g. dividing prepositions,
articles, and the like from nouns).

• Pronunciation is about the unification of the regional or social allophones and the like that
are not affecting the distribution or number of phonemes.

• Restrictions in speaking- it is the use of politeness forms and the avoidance language
taboos.

4.3 Linguistic Aims- this the province of the normative linguist, in collaboration with the
literary practitioner. The aims are classified as:

• Vocabulary- aims at: 1. the enlargement of vocabulary, 2. Vocabulary standardization ( as

technical, non-technical and dialectal), 3. Socio Semantics (decisions on sources of vocabulary
enlargement), the sources could be foreign, native, older forms of the same language, regional
dialect (borrowing), closely related languages (adaptation), vulgar and slang forms
(admissibility).

• Structure- such a change is related to the phonology, morphology and syntax.

• Style- this is concerned with such styles as Traditional Vs Europeanized style(specified

according to domain of language use), "high" style vs simple straight forward writing and
original national prestige literatures' ways of reading like in modernized spelling or translation.

5. Language Related Problems which trigger Language Planning.

Language planning deals with the language related problems and its solutions. To find out the
solutions, the problems should be identified first. OkothOkombo by quoting Webb and Kembo-Sure
(2000) identifies four language based problems. These language related problems are:

 Restricted access to knowledge and skills.

 Low productivity and ineffective performance in the workplace.
 Inadequate political participation by the public, manipulation, discrimination, and exploitation by
the ruling powers, national division and conflict.
 Linguistic and cultural alienation.

Basically, language related problems are not exactly language problem; rather they are problems
in different domains like education, economy, politics or social life.

6. Factors Affecting Language Planning

What is Language?

Language, according to oxford advanced learners dictionary, is the system of communication in

speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country or area. Language can also be
regarded as a non-instinctive system of communication which employs arbitrary and
conventional symbols that are in accordance to the laid down set of rules that are used for
human communication.

What is Planning?

Planning by its own definition is an arrangement especially one that has been carefully
considered for carrying out some future activity.
There is common saying that “to fail to plan is to plan to fail’’. Planning cuts across many
spheres of life: business, marriage, education, etc. without proper planning, human endeavor
may not escape failure.

What is Language Planning?

With language examined and planning defined, the next thing now is to know what
language planning is. Language planning refers to various ways of influencing a language either
to raise its status or to modify its system and structure. Language planning could be carried out
by Government, Department and Agencies, Academies committees, popular societies or an
individual. The concept of language planning dates back to 1960s. Since then it has proven that
it is quite possible for social groups or Government to alter the status or structure of a language
and that question of desirability is a highly controversial one. It needs be said that language
planning can be of various types and levels and that each level and type has various factors
that has to be considered. For instance, and individual planning is a language may consider a
factor that may not necessarily be considered by Government. Factors to be discussed below
range from language planning at individual level to language planning at Government level.

THE FACTORS INFLUENCING LANGUAGE PLANNING

One of the factors that influence language planning is linguistic factor.

1. Linguistic factors- One of the factors that influence language planning is linguistic
factor. It can be regarded as those that are needed to be considered on the part of a
language in relation to other languages. It relates to the status and characters of a
language as well as similarities between languages. Such considerations would inform
why a speech community, a country for instance, would prefer language like English to
language like Chinese. The former has simpler characters as opposed to the complicated
characters of the latter.
In Indonesia, for instance, Malay was preferred to Japanese as a national
language because it is less complicated in terms of characters, though it is a minority
language. The status that a language presently enjoys can also influence its preference
as national language of a country. This is why many multilingual countries in Africa
would choose an European language. In terms of similarities and dissimilarities between
languages, it is the case that languages with common origin do share some similarities
and vice versa. If a language lacks adequate lexicon for day-to-day usage, it is
imperative that language planning is done so as to rectify this anomaly. In terms of its
status, this has to do with the level of development as well as literary tradition. The
structure, lexis and grammar of the language have to be considered too. Differences
and similarities between languages are important in language planning. For example in
Nigeria, the chance of choosing either Yoruba or Igbo as a national language among the
major languages is high, because of visible similarities between the two languages.

2. Political factors- are considerations that relate the general policy of a country to its
language policy. It is not a gain saying that the Government is the Chief-actor in the
process of language planning. Government uses language planning to achieve its other
aims such as political stability and economical benefits from other nation(s).
Government also provides funds for implementing any language policy. In maintaining
political stability in Nigeria, the Government has always avoided choosing any
indigenous language as the official language in order to prevent geo-political conflicts.

Thus, the highest status any indigenous language has enjoyed is the status of a
national language. The three major Nigeria languages recognized as the national
language are: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. As an illustration, it was for political-economic
reasons that General Sani Abacha imposed French on the Nigerians during his military
regime. He single-handedly recognized French as an official language just because
France supported his oppressive ruling while the United States and the Commonwealth
of nations opposed it. Also in the time of apartheid in South Africa, the policy which
promoted segregation was supported by the language policy adopted. Such language
planning helped in undermining the language of the South African. Moreover, it is the
responsibility of the (Nigerian) Government to fund the implementation of language
planning, particularly the policy on the use of mother tongue in teaching school children
in the lower primary level. The failure or success of meeting this responsibility or
otherwise is one major way in which politics influences language planning. A language
could also be planned for political reasons. The Government, Quasi Governmental
institutions and even individuals can undertake language planning so as to give the
speakers of that language a spirit of togetherness and enable them to use their
numerical strength to gain political power. The political factor is a very crucial one in
language planning because the existing political structure determines the direction to be
taken in language planning in any given society. Politics and language planning can’t be
separated. The strong effect of political factor on language planning can be elucidated
with the case of bilingual education or minority language education. That is, the State
national policy on education is determining the language of instruction in the school.

3. Socio-demographic factor- relates to the numbers of speakers of the languages and

their geographical distribution. The actors in language planning usually consider not only
the majority language but also the minority languages. Thus, ethno linguistic
consideration made Tanzania chose a minority language as a national language. There
are about hundred languages and none of them could compete with the official
language. India chose Hindi as the official language which is language of the northern
majority ethnic group. While that of Tanzania might be said to be partially successful,
India has not succeeded in appeasing the other ethno linguistic groups which continue
to protest the choice of Hidi: [Akinnaso, 1989]. This factor influence language planning
in the sense that if the majority of people for whom the language is being planned do
not speak the language, it will lead to the failure of the language planning process. Also,
if the language planning does not reflect the social lives of the speakers, the planning
process may not see the light of the day. The society and its geographical distributions
in which language planning have to be carried out is a contributing factor that influences
language planning. This has to do with the physical structure of the society in terms of
its population, the number of spoken languages, its speakers and also their geographical
boundaries. For instances in East Africa, Tanzania, to be precise, has more than 126
ethnic groups and each grouphas its language [constituting about 126 languages]. The
result is that these ethno-linguistic units were numerically small. This paved way for
Swahili language as a social and political language [national language] of Tanzania.
Socio-psychological factor relates to language attitudes. In language planning both the
attitudes of majority language speakers and that of the minority language speakers
must be taken into consideration. In South Africa, for instance, the arbitrariness of
apartheid government did not obviously consult the majority for whom the language
policy was designed, so it failed. Language planning must be followed by acceptance, if
not, a crisis of legitimacy may arise in which authority behind the system and the policy
on which it is based are questioned, challenged and ultimately rejected. The riots of
1976 in South Africa are a good example of this assertion. Hence, initial fact finding
stage of language planning should be done with care because language loyalties can
override all other social and political ones. Although, language attitude and language
choice are very difficult to assess, yet once can observe a given population’s bilingual
behaviour. It is often the case that language attitudes can be more political rather than
linguistic. Code-switching can show language loyalty and group solidarity.

4. Socio-psychological factor- concerns the attitudes of people towards a language.

These attitudes are related to the social distribution of languages in the speech
community and the social meanings attached to the various languages. Many languages
in developing African Countries are closely identified with a single ethnic group. Other
ethnic groups may develop negative attitudes towards such one language if it were to
become the national language. The national hegemony of one ethnic language seems to
imply domination by the original speakers of that language. Socio-psychological factor is
concerned with the feelings of people towards a language. These feelings are associated
with the social distribution of languages in a speech community and the social
importance and meaning affiliated to the various languages. The need to consider how
an ethnic group will feel or react when another ethnic group’s language is been assigned
a national role, most especially in a heterogeneous society, should be considered in
language planning. It is always safe to consider religion when planning a language.
Since a multilingual society is often not mono-religion. For instance, since Hausa is very
close to the Arabic language (language of Islam) and subsequently the Islamic religion,
choosing Hausa as an official language in Nigeria may be considered as a way of
imposing Islam on Nigerians. Also, for example, in India, when Hindi was chosen as the
national language; speakers of other language protested because Hindi is associated
with the Hindu religion. And also, there have been wars in Sudan due to the imposition
of Arabic language on the people. Language is also planned so as to foster the spread or
a religion. It is related to the use of local languages in spreading religion. An instance is
the way some Catholic and orthodox churches in Nigeria are having different section of
services in different languages of the immediate environment. International factors
relates to the affiliation of a country to international bodies. Continental pressures as
well as global pressures can influence the language planning of a country. African Union
(AU), for instance, has always called for rejection of European or colonial languages. It
preaches that indigenous national languages should be adopted as the official language.
On the global level, the UNESCO declaration on mother tongue education had influenced
Nigeria language planning in particular.

5. Pedagogical factor- the need for qualitative education also influences language
planning. Since it is being scientifically proven that it is better to teach a child with
his/her mother tongue in his early years. Language policy in Nigeria, for instance, has
always reflected the need for mother tongue in education. This is not just to preserve
culture but also to aid the cognitive ability of the school children. The six-year primary
project in the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) championed by Prof.
A.B. Fafunwa is the famous of such pedagogical projects that have been considered in
language planning. Another one is the Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP) in
Amadu Bello University, Zaria for four northern languages – Hausa, Nupe, Kanuri, and
Fulfude. In planning a language, one should consider how that planning will be effective
for education system. The financial factor has to do with the consideration of finance
in the process of planning a language. Language planning can be financially draining, so
adequate planning of financial resources is essential. What we are actually reiterating
here is that whatever one does is affected by the resources one puts into it and that one
of those resources in language planning that has to be present is the financial resource.
The presence of enough financial resources can make a language planning work as its
absence can equally make it fail. When a government, a group of individuals, or an
individual is making a plan for a language consideration has to be taken of the financial
cost of the plan. For instance, if Nigeria is making a move to make Igbo, Hausa, or
Yoruba a national language, the financial cost of such a move should be consider just as
a husband planning for the use of Yoruba in his home would consider the cost of the
materials (e.g. Yoruba dictionaries, texts written English, etc.) to be used in carrying out
such a plan. So, financial factor is one of those crucial factors that have to be considered
in planning a language. Another factor that has to be considered in language planning
is the people. People who own languages of a particular territory should also be
considered in language planning. If the argument that language is the people who use it
is anything to operate by, then it will never fall out of scope to take an examination on
the people who use the language to be planned for. Here, we look at the history of the
people and try answering some questions such as: what have been the dealings of these
people? Have they once been colonized, enslaved? ( a reason which may account for
certain linguistic borrowings in their language)? Have they conquered a group or groups
of people and lorded their ways of life on them? What do this people like? Hunting,
Adventure, etc.? What is the current status of this people? What do these people think
of themselves? What do others think of them? The essence of these raised questions is
to find data on certain information that needs to be considered while planning a
language. To test-run this factor by empirical justification, an example should be made
here of the Fulani nomadic people in Oyo State. While planning for, as an example, an
official language in the state Fulani language cannot be considered, at all, as a
candidate of such planning because Yorubas’ idea of them is nothing sort of the one
human have towards animals. There is a particular saying among the Yorubas which
follows thus: “Ise eniyanniiseeranko, Fulani kose ese n seje”. This can roughly be
translated to mean: ‘What happens to human beings also happens to animals, if not,
how would a Fulani stumbles and blood would come out. What we are saying here in
essence in that before carrying out a language planning one, key factor that also need
be taken cognizance of is the people who use the language. This factor is different from
socio-demographic factor in that here we do not concern ourselves only with the
numbers of speakers and languages in the place where the planning is to be done. We
concern ourselves with the status, the history and the dealings of the people who use
the language(s) to be planned in order to enable our activity in the planning. Therefore,
in making plan for a language, the people who use the language are one of those crucial
factors to reckon with.

6. Cultural factor- is another factor that can influence language planning. When a
language exists, it does not exist alone, there is a culture attached to it. Culture refers to
the beliefs, the ways of life, the custom, the art, and the social organization of a group
of people. Learning the culture with which a particular language is attached is crucial to
planning such a language especially in corpus planning. For instance, Yoruba people
have respect as an aspect of their culture and this is shown in their language. When
Yoruba is being planned either to accommodate new terminologies and discoveries, to
serve as official language or for other purposes, care needs be taken so as not to
temper with the culture that is reflected through it. People may rise against a language
planning that tends to temper negatively with their mode of expression. As has been
seen above, the respect aspect of the Yoruba culture accounts for the presence of the
respect system found in the language. The respect system is such that there are words
readily available to refer to some one who is older than one is. Few examples of are as
the list follows: (i) Ohun – Meaning ‘he’ or ‘she’ (ii) Iwo – Meaning you (singular) (iii)
Eyin – Meaning you (Plural but used to refer to someone older than one) (iv) Awon –
Meaning they (Plural but used to refer to a single person older than one. When talking
to one’s age mate, one makes use of items (i) and (ii) but when referring to someone
older than one, one makes use of item number (iii) and (iv) to show respect to the
person. Yoruba people so much value this respect that it may cause fight and animosity
if not properly handled or employed. So, while planning for Yoruba, this respect system
of the language must not be tempered with so as not to cause confusion and chaos. At
a macro language planning level, when making move to set a national language,
especially where there are numerous people of different linguistic backgrounds, one
needs to study the culture of these different peoples to see their areas of divergence
and convergence so as to know which ethnic groups are likely to fight or not likely to
fight at the end of the day when the planning had been implemented. To put all these,
in a single sentence, one factor whose consideration must also be taken in language
planning is the culture attached to a language as it may contribute towards the success
or failure of the planning. Time they say dictates the pace of everything we do. If
language has to be planned at all, then time factor must be taken into cognizance.

7. Time of language planning- is worth considering because of the goal we want to

achieve at the end. Language planners need to see that there is an absence of political
imbroglio or instability in the society where they are planning the language. An attempt
to overlook this may either jeopardize or prolong the achievement of set goal in the blue
print. Time of ethnic clashes will not be convenient for language planning especially if
the language belongs to one of the ethnic groups. However, before planning language,
time-frame within which the language planning will take effect should be carefully
considered. This should not be ignored; otherwise the goal of the plan might not come
to fruition. Hence, there will be a waste of energy and resources spent in the process of
the planning. Certain factors have been identified by researches as influencing language
planning, one of which is the economic factor. Usually, for any society that is at the
verge of language planning, this factor should highly be regarded else the whole process
flops. In this regard, issues that have to do with the economic implications of the
planning process will be raised while the economic benefits of the language that is likely
to be favoured in the planning would also be considered. Take for instance, if Togo as a
French-speaking nation is undergoing language planning and close attention is not paid
to the second language (i.e.) which should be English owing to their economic
transactions with English speaking nations like Nigeria, their economy will suffer for it.
However, there is a belief that a well planned language will in a way have positive effect
on the economy so also if not well planned the economy will bear the loss. In the same
trend, it will be very unwise of a country whose economic relationship with a country
like France to promote policies that will contribute greatly in fostering the relationship
else the economy short-falls. In another regard, if the language planning process will
gulp a large amount of money from the nation’s coffer than it has, such process should
be redefined or reconsidered so as not to bail down negatively on the economy. It will
be highly uncalled-for for a country that can boast of only $10,000,000 in her reserve to
carve out 60% of such in language planning, the economy will suffer for it. In a nutshell,
the economic factor can however be considered as an influence in language planning. As
a matter of fact, the whole process of language planning revolves round the economy of
the society that is involved. Language are planned to perform viable functions in
promoting the economy of the society or nation.

CONCLUSION

With everything discussed so far above, it is discovered that language planning is a careful
exercise. Language planners need to pay serious attention to some factors influencing language
planning. Meanwhile, this work has been to justify some of these; ranging from linguistic factor
to economic factor. It is therefore a crucial thing to be meticulous in analyzing those factors
that determine whether the goal of language planning will be achieved or not. In a nutshell, if
factors that influence and motivate language planning are well considered and addressed such
that language is planned with full regard to those factors, the society will be of high benefit.
Take Japan as an example today Japan as a monolingual state is enjoying high rate of socio-
political development based on their well-planned language. Scholars believe Japan is a living
proof of what a brilliant language planning can result to.

7. Who Is Involved In Language Planning Efforts And How?

A question of ‘ who is the actor in Language Planning activity?’ may arise. To answer this, it of
great importance to have a look at the view of such scholars as Kaplan and Baldauf (1997);
they explain that language planning activity involves many actors because it has inter-
disciplinary nature. The following are among the major ones:
Because Language Planning typically responds to problems that are sociopolitical in nature,
sociologists or political scientists may first identify and assess the need for some sort of action.
Linguists can properly participate in the needs assessment stage to determine if the languages
or dialects chosen adequately address the problem. And may suggest ways in which syntax or
morphology may be standardized, or may assist in expanding technical vocabularies. Educators
incorporate Language Planning legislation into action and develop programs to fulfill the needs
identified. Writers keep up the tradition of writing in a dying language or complete written
works in a previously unwritten language. This stylistic expansion makes possible the
formulation of governmental documents in the planned language.National language academies
may oversee one or more phases of the language planning process.

According to Fasold (1987:25) governments are in a position to make the widest ranging, but
not the most successful, decisions that influence language. By the leadership of government
there were individuals and organization who took charge in their language planning processes.

He also added lists of language planning agents by citing Jernudd (1973) in addition to
government National, but non governmental agencies non national and non governmental
agencies a new papers proof reading function the individual author, letter writer etc.

8. Language Planning Types

8.1 Status Planning

Status planning refers to the allocation of new functions to a language (such as usingthe language as
medium of instruction or as an official language). It affects the role a language plays
within a given society. The decision to use Moor!e, Fulfulde and Jula as a medium of instruction in
Bokina Faso schools since 1990 is an example of status planning. Before now, French was used in
everyday communication, and its use had been restricted to prayers and religious as well as scholarly
writings. The introduction of Hebrew-medium schools created the conditions for the revival of
Moore, Fulfulde and Jula as common languages used in everyday communication.

8.2 Corpus Planning

Corpus planningis concerned with the internal structure of a language. It involves making changes to the
linguistic code and the creation of grammars and dictionaries for the selected language. Typical activities
of corpus planning include devising a writing system for a spoken language, initiating spelling reforms,
coining new terms and publishing grammar books. A central aspect of corpus planning (and
language planning per se) is language standardization, which can be understood as the creation
and establishment of a uniform linguistic norm for a particular language which has been
adopted and bestowed with a national status.

Although language planners separate corpus and status planning conceptually, it is necessary to
understand that the two dimensions interact closely with each other (Cobarrubias1983). The allocation of
new language functions (status planning) often requires changes in the linguistic system (corpus
planning) such as the development of new styles and lexical items.

8.3 Acquisition Planning

Acquisition planning involves the efforts to spread and promote the learning of aLanguage.
For example, cultural institutions such as the British Council or the Goethe Institute are set up
and supported by their respective governments to promote the learning of English and German as a
second language in other countries respectively. Another example of acquisition planning is the activities
by the ‘Maori community’ in New Zealand to promote the acquisition of Maori. In the early 1980s, most
Maori children had no knowledge of their ancestral language, and linguists identified Maori
as an endangered language. In a response to the decline of Maori, so-called 'language
nests' (kohunga reo) were established by the Maori community. In these pre-schools, older Maori-
speaking members of the community worked voluntarily as caretakers and taught the kohunga
reo language to the children (Cooper 1989: 157-9)

9. Criteria of Language Choice in Language Planning.

In language planning activity choice made from different languages and/or variants. Haugen (in
Fasold,1987: 256) proposed three criteria for language choice decisions. These are:

a. Efficiency to refer the language’s easiness to use and learn.

b. Adequacy to refer the degree of the language of the language’s precision of linguistic forms
to convey information.
c. Acceptability connected with the local status of the language. This sociological component of
evaluation deals with the acceptance of the language by the members of the society.

10 . Stages in Language Planning

The question “how is language planning done?” is connected with the planning and implementation
stages of a large planning process. Different scholars give different stages of planning. Rubin puts it in
(Fasold, 1987:252) in four steps:
1. Fact Finding- a substantial amount of background information should be available before any
planning decisions are made.
2. Planning- here the actual decisions are made. The planner will establish goals, select the means
(strategies), and predict outcomes.
3. Implementation- the planning decisions are carried out
4. Feedback- at this step the planner finds out how well the plan has worked.

Scholars who deal with Language Planning have their own particular approaches of listing the stages to
be followed in Language Planning. Since it consumes time to discuss in detail and they might not be
relevant they are briefly indicated. Based on the authors discussed in Chumbow (1987:17) the different
stages of planning are the following
Haugen’s (1969)
1. Selection of norms
2. Codification of norms
3. Elaboration of norms
4. Propagation
Fisherman et al (1971)
1. Policy Information
2. Codification and Elaboration
3. Implementation
Jerudd (1973)
1. Determination of Policy
2. Development of norms
3. Implementation
References

Demissie, E., Jembere, B. and Wakuma, C. (2009). Language Planning A Summary. [online] Scribd.
Available at: https://www.scribd.com/doc/94692938/Summary-on-Language-Planning [Accessed 8 Nov.
2019].

Denham, K. and Lobeck, A. (2010). Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction. Wadsworth.

Joshua F. (1971). The Impact of Nationalism on Language Planning

Joshua F. (1972). Rpt. in Language in Sociocultural Change. Stanford. University Press.

Sandra M. (1993). Agendas For Second Language Literacy. Cambridge University Press.
Robert P. (2012). Linguistic Imperialism Alive and Kicking.The Guardian.

Concepts of Language Planning References

Chumbow B. (1987) Towards Language Planning Models for Africa. Journal Of West African Languages
XVII; 1: Nigeria University Of Ilorin.

Cobarrubius, J. and Fishman J. (eds.)(1983) Progress in Language Planning:International Perspective.

The Hague: Mouton.

Daoust D. (1997) Language Planning and Language Reform: inCoulmas F. (1997). The Hand Book of
Sociolinguistics.Blackwell publishers.

Dittmar, N. (1976). Sociolingustics; A Critical Survey of Theory and Application .USA;Wheeling Illinois.

Fasold, R. (1987). The Sociolinguistics of Society.Oxford; Blackwell PublishersLtd.

Fishman J.A (1972) Advances in the Sociology of Language (Volume II)Mouton, The Hague, Paris.
Kaplan R. and Baldauf R.(1997).Language Planning From Practice to Theory. Great Britain: Multilingual
Matters.