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Social Thought & Research

ERICH FROMM'S CONCEPT OF SOCIAL

CHARACTERl

RAINER FUNK
Erich Fromm Archive, Tuebingen

Social Thought & Research, 1998, Vol. 21, No. 1-2

The tenn "social character" is at the center of Erich Fromm's

psychoanalytical thought. The significance of this term in
Fromm's approach to psychoanalysis, how he understands it.
how it is molded and what its function is will be the first topic of
this paper. Since I have already dealt with the concept of social
character elsewhere, I would like to confine myself to a
summary and say some words on the background against which
Fromm developed his psychoanalytical approach.

The term "social character" emerges only at the end of the

1930's. A first systematic description can be found in the
appendix of the book Escape from Freedom in the year 1941.
The idea behind the concept of "social character". however. had
taken shape in Fromm's mind much earlier.

The Fromm literature either connects his own psychoanalytical

approach to the Freudo-Marxism of the Frankfurt School or to
Harry Stack Sullivan's theory of interpersonal relationship. It is
certainly true that Fromm formulated his .own (namely
social-psychologically-oriented) psychoanalytical approach
within the context of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research.
The argument with the members of the Institute in the late
thirties, especially Horkheimer, Marcuse, and to a lesser extent
Adorno, was sparked off by Freudian instinct theory, Their
argument can only be understood if the specifically Frornrnian
approach connecting sociological and psychological thought is
taken into account. It was not developed only in the context of
the Frankfurt School, but ten years earlier in Fromm's
dissertation in 1922 (cf. Fromm 1989b).

1 Copyright 1998 by Dr. Rainer Funk, Ursrainer Ring 24, 0-72076 Tuebingen,
Germany Tel. 07071-600004; Fax 07071-6qOO49 email: [email protected].
214
Social Thought & Research
Erich Fromm's Concept of Social Character

In his dissertation, Fromm examined why Jews living in the "Psychoanalyse und Soziologie" (1929), that "the subiect of
Diaspora think, feel and act in a certain way despite the lack of sociology, society, in reality consists of individuals... Human
state or church institutions. Fromm's answer to this beings do not have one 'individual psyche,' which functions
social-psychological question was: it is a certain way of life of when a person performs as an individual and so becomes the
these Diaspora Jews that enables them to passionately realize the object of psychoanalysis, contrasted to a completely separate
spirit of the Torah from within. It was just when Fromm was 'mass psyche' with all sons of mass instincts, as well as vague
wri.ting. his disse~ation with Alfred Weber at Heidelberg feelings of community and solidarity, which spring into actio,n
University that he first came into contact with Sigmund Freud's whenever a person performs as part of a mass" (1929; GA L p. 3).
psychoanalysis. His own psychoanalytical experience as a Rather, the individual must be understood as socialized a priori.
patient ?f Fri~da Reichmann in Heidelberg, Wilhelm Wittemberg and thus the psyche is to be understood as being "developed
In Munich, Karl Landauer in Frankfurt and Hanns Sachs in and determined through the relationship of the individual to
Berlin, as well as his sociological education, enabled him to society" (1929, p. 5).
expre~s ~is ~ocial-psychological thought in tile language of
Freudian IOs(Jnc~-onented d~ve theory and to develop a theory
of Freudo-Marxlsm. Society, Fromm realized, cannot be As the basis for his approach, Fromm refers to statements of
understood only in terms of its economic, political and Cultural Freud's in Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) in
structure but primarily in terms of its libidinous structure. order to direct his hypothesis of the socialized individual back at
W.rhoever discerns and examines this libidinal structure Freud himself, who wrote (Freud 1921, p. 73): "In the individual's
understands how the socio-economic basis affeas the ideas and mental life someone else is invariably involved, as a model, as an
ideals of a society and that the "basis" and "superstructure" are object, as a helper, as an opponent; and so from the very first.
conveyed by a libidinal structure. individual psychology, in this extended but entirely justifiable
sense of the words, is at the same time social psychology as
The fact that Fromm, corning from sociology, formulated his well. "
psychoanalytical approach as a social-psychological one, is met
with resistance by both psychoanalysts and sociologists. The difference between personal psychology and social
Psychoanalysts find the idea of a social unconsciousness hard to psychology can for this reason only be quantitative. Social
accept. On the other hand, sociologists find no use for the psychology, just as individual psychology, tries to comprehend
unconsciousness of society and direct their interest towards the psychic structure from the individual-s life experiences. So it
"external support" and the binding power of institutions and not proceeds according to tile same methods: "Social psychology
so much towards the internal structure. Fron101, however, wishes to investigate how certain psychic attitudes common to
speaks of such a psychic structure of society and of the members of a group are related to their common life
un~onsciousness of society and thereby makes an extremely experiences" (E. Fromm 1930; GA VI, p. 17).
fruitful new approach to psychoanalysis possible.
The idea of "common life experience" is distinguished from the
If one takes seriously the basic sociological premise that there "individual life experience." In the latter it is important to know
are forces and patterns that are rooted in society itself- a
the sibling order or if someone is the only child, sicknesses and
premise that is difficult for most psychoanalysts to accept-- then
"chance" occurrences of an individual sort are significant
the question can be raised as to whether or not there is
because of their strong influence on libidinal structure. On the
something like an unconsciousness of society , and , if so ,
other hand, the "common life experience" of a group mainly
according to what patterns it develops and whether or not it can
refers to the economic, social and political conditions which
be investigated like the unconscious of an individual. If one first
determine the way of life for the group. Still completely rooted
accepts the possibihty that society has an unconsciousness,
in the metapsychological concept of Freud's instinct theory,
whi~h can be called the social unconscious, then the next step is
Fromm explained, in probably his best-known essay by the title
to tree oneself from a misguided understanding of society.
of "The Method and Function of an Analytic Social Psychology"
Fromm enlphasizes in his short but Important work,
(1932; GA I, p. 46), that "...the phenomena of social psychology
216
217
Social Thought & Research "2J Erich Fromm S Concept of Social Character
,p
are .to be unde~stood as processes involving the aaive At the end of Escape from Freedom (1941) Fromm summarizes
passive adaptation of the instinctual apparatus and f his new formulation with these words: uWe believe that man is
~oc~o-economic situation. In certain fundamental res e~s t h e i i primarily a social being. and not,' as Freud assumes, primarily
IOsu~~tual apparatus its~lf i~ ~s
a biological given; but it hi ~~e J self-sufficient and only secondarily in need of others in order to
modifiable, The role of primary formative factors goes g h Y J~'- satisfy his instinctual needs. In this sense. we believe that
eco . di . to t e n
~hro~~~lcw~~~ I~~;s'eco~~~i:a~~~~at~~nth:x:~eni~lf:edi~m ~
individual psychology is fundamentally social psychology or. in
Sullivan's terms, the psychology of interpersonal relationships;
m~uence o~ the individual's psyche. The task ot~~~~~ t the key problem of psychology is that of the particular kind of
ps~ chology IS to explain the shared, socially relevant psych'
aUlt~des ~nd ideologies-and their unconscious ~Oots t~
~~~~u~~~~~~g~~'~S of the influence of economic conditions On i ~c
.. relatedness of the individual toward the world, not that of
satisfaction or frustration of single instinctual desires" (1941. p.
290; GA I, p. 387).

It may appear that Fromm rejects all instinct-theoretical thinking.

Fromm had just formulated his psychoanalytical-soCiological r: But that is not his point. To be sure, the closer psychoanalytic
theory and method between 1929 and 1932 and exemplified 't b 1.1. theory came to being identical to libido theory, the more Fromm

F
meand~ of ~he .audlorhitarian character when the dtscomenr ~ith
reu Ian tnS~tnct t eory. arose in him. It was above all l
tended to formulate his criticism of the libido theory as criticism
of Freudian instinct theory in general. Fromm's primary interest
concerned with the qu~stlon of the significance of the Oedipus . of study was also "quasi-instinctive" needs, namely, those which
~mplex and
Wh the p~tnarchaldeterminism of Freudian libido ":' , ~ '.
., motivate the thoughts, feelings and behavior of humans as social
eo~., at occa~Ioned such criticism was mainly Fromm's If beings. The application of Freud's instinct theory to social
quesuomng, of the Issue of mothers' rights, as interpreted by f; groups permitted Fromm to recognize the limited validity of the
Mo~an, Bnffa~lt.' and above all Bachofen. It is precisely the It libido theory and, in 1935, brought him to the recognition that
~OCta] d~termlnlsnl of the Oedipus complex in Freud's H basically two kinds of drives must be distinguished. He was
Int~rpretat1on, namely as a typical product of a patriarchal [ aware that this distinction introduced a principal disagreement
so~lety, that ma~es the necessirv of a different instinct theory ,.t:f. ~
..
with Freud's instinct theory.
eVI?em--one which t~~e~ the individual as a social being ,
sen.ously and .reg~rds . hbidtnal Structure as independent from the In an unpublished letter of December 18th, 1936 to Karl August
SOCto-econonl1C situation of the individual. Wittfogel, the central idea of Fromm's re-vision of the instinct
theory can be discerned clearly. He writes: "The central point of
F~omm's criticism and n~w formulation of psychoanalytic theory this fundamental disagreement is that 1 try to show that drives
did not come about WIthout other influences. In the group which motivate social behavior are not, as Freud assumes,
around ~eorg Groddeck, to which besides Frieda sublimations of sexual instincts. Rather, they are the products of
FJ?mm-ReIchmann and Erich Fromm also Karen Homey and social processes, or, more precisely, reactions to certain
~andor Fere~~zi belonged, there was hardly any doubt about the constellations under which the individual has to satisfy his/her
msupporrabilny of the Freudian formulation of the Oedipus instincts. These drives, which I divide into those having to do
complex ~s early.as the late twenties. The thinking of Harry with human relations (love, hate, sadomasochism) and those
Stack Sullivan, with whom Fromm was friends from 1935 having to do with methods of acquisition (instincts of receiving,
proved esp.ecially helpful to Fromm's formulation o~i taking away, saving, gathering, producing), are fundamentally
psychoanal~uc ~eol}'. Fromnl's attempr to regard humans not different from natural factors, namely the instincts of hunger,
only as P?martly l~uenced by the unconscious, but also thirst, sexuality. Whereas these are common to all human beings
~orresp?ndi~gl~~as being a reflection of society found expression and animals, the former are specifically human products and not
In SUlhva.n s theory of interpersonal relationships. " Here biological; they are to be understood in the context of the social
psychologIcal development takes on the same significance as the way of life..."
~hange from forms of primary ties to forms of subjective
Independent relatedness.
218 219
Social Thought & Research Erich Fromm S Concept of Social Character

Fromm attempts to apply Freud's insight that libidinal structure psychoanalysis--also in contrast to the approach of Interpersonal
is molded by life experience to the acknowledgment of the Psychoanalysis. Above all, this difference can be elucidated
social unconscious. In other words, he comprehends the human' concerning the view of the individual. In this paper Fromm
being as primarily a reflection of society. In doing this he runs explains:
up against the inadequacy of the libido theory explanation. His
Society and the individual do not stand 'opposite' each other.
adherence to the perception that libidinal structure results from
Society is nothing but living, concrete individuals, and the
adaptation to life experience led him to a new conceptualization '/t-

'
individual can live only as a social human being. His
of the drive theory, according to which psychological j. individual life practice is necessarily determined by the life
phenomena are disconnected from their physical source, the sex H
I
practice of his society or class and in the last analysis, by the
drive, and acquire independence as "psychological drives" as manner of production of his society, that means, by how this

I
",.

opposed to "physiological drives," among which Fromm society produces, how it is organized to satisfy the needs of its
includes the drives of self-preservauon as well as sexuality. members. The differences in the manner of production and

I'
:. life of various societies or classes lead to the development of
different character structures typical of the particular society.
This re-vision of psychoanalysis also manifests itself in new
ternlinology. Since Fromm used the concept of character for his Various societies differ from each other not only in differences
in their manner of production and their social and political
social-psychological insights, he called drive theory organization but also in that their people exhibit a typical
characterology; drive structure became character structure character structure despite all individual differences. We call
instinctual impulses became character traits or simply passionat~ this the 'socially typical character" (Fromm 1992b, p. 222).
strivings; drive itself is conceptualized as psychological need
libidinal instinct is now called psychological or existential need Fromm's main interest in looking at the individual is always
(in contrast to instinctive or physiological needs); the libidinous what here he calls the "socially typical character" and later the
structure of a society became the social character, and instead of "social character". The point is that if you look at any particular
libido, Fromm, similarly to jung, now spoke of psychic energy. person you are primarily confronted with those psychic strivings
Due to his contacts with Harry Stack Sullivan, Fromm himself and impulses, both conscious and unconscious. which this
repeatedly connected his re-vision of psychoanalysis to Sullivan's specific person has in common with other persons living under
theory of interpersonal relationship. It is true of both that "the the same socio-economic circumstances; on the other hand, all
key problem of psychology is that of the particular kind of that makes this person different from. and unique among. other
relatedness of the individual toward the world, not that of persons living under the same circumstances (his or her special
satisfaction or f~stration of single instinctual desires" (1941, p. and often traumatic childhood experiences) is--in this respeet--of
290; GA I, p. 387). In the meantime- it has become customary- secondary interest. Of course these character orientations and
-especially in the American reception of Fromm--to understand traits were mediated by parents and other "obiects" to whom the
Fromm as a representative of "object relation psychoanalysis" person was and is related. But these object relations are to be
and to accordingly include him in the "Interpersonal School of . understood as representatives of socially given and molded
Psychoanalysis". (cf e.g. D. H. Ortmeyer, 1995). As much as it orientations and expectations.
true that Fromm "was a central figure in the development of the
interpersonal approach to psychoanalysis" (I. c., p. 18), as little Doubtless, this way of looking at people is plausible if you study
justice is done to the specifically Frommian approach to society by analyzing the social character of persons living under
psychoanalysis because Fromm does not only look at the similar conditions. But the attraction of this specific
individual as being related to others and to society but as a psychoanalytic approach is not diminished by looking at an
primarily "social" being. individual or a patient: here you are. in the first instance.
acquainted with the social character orientation of a specific
In 1991 I found the manuscript of an essay dating from 1937 person--and it is the social character of a specific person that
was never published by Fromm because of criticism by Fromm is always primarily interested in. We are used to
Horkheimer, LOwenthal, and Marcuse. This manuscript clearly thinking just tile opposite, namely that one can only understand
demonstrates the specifically Frommian approach
220 221
Social Thought & Research Erich Fromm's Concept of Social Character

to say "here I am and there is society"; but rather, "I am

an individual by looking at tile unique conditions and
circumstances specific [0 him, Not so with Fromm: primarily a reflection of society, in that my unconscious is
socially determined and I therefore reflect and realize the secret
expectations and wishes, fears and strivings of society in my own
Jl~st ~s in all type fornU.ng, in t~e .socially typical character only
certain fundamental traits are distinguished and these are such passionate strivings." In reality neither the real separation of
that. accor~~llg ~o their dynamic nature and their uieight, they society and individual nor the real separation of conscious and
t.t'
are of ~eclSll'e 11llpoJt~llce for all individuals of this society. unconscious, nor the real separation of society and unconscious
The fruitfulness of this category is proved in the fact. ..that exist. Both dimensions are in the social unconscious of every
~..
analysis traces back the individual's character with all his single human being.
individual traits to the elements of the socially typical character
and that an understanding of socially typical character is
essential to a full understanding of individual character
In my own interpretation of Fromm, I tty to understand him
(Fromm 1992b~ p. 22.3; italics added). from his Jewish origin and the mental sources shaping him as
they are most clearly visible in his dissertation. With the
I want to emphasize that for Fromm it is rile orientation and the understanding of the relation of individual and society displayed
traits shared with others that assume decisive importance there, Fromm received Freudian psychoanalysis and modified his
according to their dynamic nature and weight. This focus on understanding of psychoanalysis until not only the
common traits and orientations is just the opposite of Our determination of the psychic structure by the way of life, i.e. the
normal way ?f looking at people and also opposite to the way social-economic situation, was taken into account, but also the
psychoanalysis looks at patients. Especially in psychotherapy we individual as a social being, i. e.. primarily as a representation of
prefer the individualistic point of view and thereby overestimate society, and not only as being primarily related (as is claimed by
what ..is most individual. We fixate on the highly specific Interpersonal psychoanalysis).
conditions and events in tile patient's childhood, what happened
there with tile object relations and so on. We are used to Fromm's specific psychoanalytic approach shows its fruitfulness
looking at the individual as an entity clearly distinguished and both in the analysis of sodal phenomena and in. the
separated from society, though perhaps endowed with understanding of and tile therapeutical contact with the
int~rna.lized aspeas of society (by the Super-Ego or by inner individual human being. . Concerning this, the individual can
objects); or we see the individual as only secondarily influenced only be understood in his and her normal and neurotic strivings
by society, but principally separated from it. and drives, if these are discovered as traits and orientations of
the social character. Thus the understanding of the individual
This is not Fromm's way of looking at a person or a patient. In presupposes the psychoanalysis of society.
his d~ssenatio~ a~out the function of Jewish law, in encountering
a patte.nt, .or In his analysis of political events, Fr0010l is always Where the psychic energy comes from if it is not the outcome of
primarily Interested in those fundamental traits and orientations
innate instinctual drives -as Freud explained psychic energy? It
tha~ result frorn a practice of life common to many people, and
was Freud's ingenious idea to see the whole spectrum of human
~h~cl~ are therefore of decisive importance for this specific
behavior as motivated by libidinal strivings and to understand
individual or patient. This is the meaning of his statement that
innate physiological instincts as the source of human passions.
"the individual can only live as a social being." This is, as far as I
The drives (firstly the sexual instinct with its libidinous energy,
understand Fromm. the real meaning of his concept of social
later on life and death instinct) undergo a certain development,
character and the essence of his social psychological approach
in which partial instincts and instinctual impulses develop,
to psychoanalysis.
which express themselves in completely different passionate
When Fromm embraced the idea of a socially molded strivings (sadism, masochism, envy, love etc.).
unconscious or an unconscious of society by which each
individual is predetermined, he defined the Freudian correlation Fromm sees the ongm and differentiation of psychic energy
of individual and society anew. After that, it was no longer valid completely differently. For him, the passionate strivings do not
223
222
Social Thought & Research Erich rromm's Concept of Social Character

result from innate instincts, but are rooted in the specific human the contradictions. Man is thrown into this world without any
condition, which expresses itself in specific human needs--as for say and his life is usually ended without. his .say; . he .do~s not
instance the need for relatedness. Depending on the respective know where he carne from or where he IS gOing; In his hfe he
economic and social requirements, these "psychic drives" can be always lags behind what he can envision as better and more
satisfied completely differently. Just because the psychic needs perfect.
do not have an instinctual source with Fromm, he cannot ascribe
the development and differentiation of passionate strivings to the These existential dichotomies are the source of psychic energy.
momentum of a drive (as Freud did in his theory of oral, anal TIley create psychic needs which are specific to man and for
phallic and genital phases and libidinal stages). Instead, the which each person must take responsibility. So, for Fromm, there
economic and social requirements determine which passionate are not only physical or physiological needs on th.e one hand
strivings are developed or not. Thus, with Fromm the respective and mental needs on the other. There are also independent
contemporary historical situation receives a direct molding psychic needs which are gove~ed ~y their o~n rul~s and are
function: if, in order to function smoothly, a society needs therefore not reducible to physiological needs or dnves. Thes.e
people who are readily submissive, then the passion of psychic needs always have to be satisfied in some way. Their
submissiveness is the result of this social necessity acquired by satisfaction replaces the lost instinct-relatedness to the world. To
identification with this necessity or requirement. quote Fromm 0977; GA Vlll, pp. 245ff.): "The specifically human
interest in replacing the lost instinct relatedness .to. tile wo~ld
If for Fromm not "instinctual drives," but, rather, the with new affective-intellectual forms of relatedness IS Just as Vital
"psychological drives" which lie beyond the physiological needs as the interest in self-preservation and the sexual in~erest that
and are peculiar to human beings - if these psychological needs humans share with all living beings; it follows from this tl~a( the
are the source for our psychic energy, then the question arises of various solutions for the existential contradictions are Just as
how they originate. The faa that psychic needs are only energy-loaden, i.e., passionate, as the manifestations of the ego
observable in humans suggests that they should be grounded in drives and the libido."
the special placement of the human being (his/her conditio
hurnana), and not in the physically-anchored sex drive, which
humans have in common with animals. (That does not mean Fromm specified different psychic needs, most i~port~ntly,. the
that sexuality is not a very important physiological need for psychic need for relatedness. The questi?n as to In which wa~ a
Fromm, But sexuality receives its particular significance because
c:
person satisfies this need, in a productive r a non-producuve
of the fact that sex drive can play an essential role in the way. essentially depends on what life expenence he has had to
satisfaction of the need for relatedness. It is therefore an adapt to and with which socio-econormc structure he must
expression of an ever different kind of obiect-relaredness and not identify with. Even if a person adopts pat~ems of ~e~a~~dness that
the other way around, namely that object-relatedness is an hinder the development of his psychological possibilities, . we s~e
expression of an ever different kind of sex drive.) What is the attempts at solutions in which the person reaas to existential
passionate striving of man the result of, if not of instincts rooted dichotomies and produces new patterns of relatednes~ to the
in the body? Empathy for the original psychological state of the
human and natural environment. Even the psychotic, who
human being makes the answer evident. hallucinates his world, nonetheless satisfies the need for
relatedness that is found only in human beings.
In contrast to instinct-guided animals, man is a contradictory
being, characterized "namely by the dichotomy of existing in The question of productive or non-producti~e orientation in the
nature and being subject to all her laws and, at the same time, satisfaction of psychic needs determines g~owth and
transcending nature" through his reason, by means of his development of psychic possibilities as w~ll as psychic health .or
capacity for imagination and because of his self-consciousness" sickness. The alternatives of a productive or non-p~oducttve
(1977; GA VIII, p. 244). This peculiarity of the human being solution-cor, as Fromm later expressed it, the alter~at1ve~ of a
creates existential dichotomies with which he must live and to biophilic or necrophilic, bemg-onented or hav~ng-onented
which he must try to answer, without ever being able to resolve solution - determine the progression or regression of the

224 225
Social Thought & Research Erich Fromm's Concept of Social Character

psychic system. Psychic health or sickness depends on the "As long as the objective conditions of the society and the
orientation one identifies with. A person who has adapted well culture remain stable, the social character has a predominantly
to the non-productive economic and social structure, who stabilizing function. If the external conditions change in such
a way that they do not fit any more with tradition and social
functions well and is capable of working and carrying a load, is
character a lag arises which often makes the character
in reality the one who is suffering from the pathology of function' as an element of disintegration instead of
normalcy, the one who is psychologically crippled. stabilization, as dynamite instead of social mortar, as it were."
(1949, p. 6; GA I, p. 211)
Psychic needs must be satisfied. TIle way they are satisfied is,
however, socially conditioned and is internalized via the family In researching social character as ?ependen~ .on economic and
as the agent of society. Fromm expressed the alternative social requirements, essential passionate stnvings of man, ev~n
orientations in the satisfaction of needs in terms of respective unconsdous ones that thus originate from. the social
types and named them according to their objectives. The psychic unconscious, can be recognized and put to profitable .~e as
need for relatedness for instance can either be satisfied means of social change. Just how necessary such ~ recognition of
productively by a loving orientation or non-productively by a the social character as a productive force IS Fr?m~ .has
narcissistic orientation. All forms of non-productive relatedness demonstrated in the thirties by the analysis of authOrltananl~m.
are characterized by the fact that the person stays fixated on the In the forties he discovered and described th~ marketing
primary ties (fixations) or regresses to them and therefore is character orientation (E. Fromm, 1947; 1976) .and U1 the SIXties
alienated from his own forces, whereas the loving satisfaction of the narcissistic character (E. Fromm, 1964a) as well as the
the need for relatedness is characterized by the fact that the necrophilic character (E. Fromm, 1964; 1973).
loving person increasingly becomes the active part in the
relationship and creates relatedness to his human and natural
environment from his own psychic energies.
References
Last, but not least, we have to clarify the role that the social
character has in social and cultural processes. If we assume that Freud, S. 1921. Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse Pp. 71-161 in
character has the subjective function for each person of leading G.W. 13; Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego. Pp.
that person "to act according to what is necessary for him from a 65-143 in S.E. Vol. 18. ..
practical standpoint and also to give him satisfaction from his Fromm, E. 1989. (GA) Gesamtausgabe in 10 Banden,
activity psychologically" (1941, p. 283; GA I. p. 382f.), then we can herausgegeben von Rainer Funk, Stuttgart (Deutsche
maintain that, by function, "the social character internalizes Verlag-Anstalt) 1980-1981, Miinchen (Deutscher Taschenbuch
external necessities and thus harnesses human energy for the Verlag). .. R .
task of a given economic and social system" (loc. cu., p. 383). . Gesamtausgabe in 10 Banden, herausgegeben von ainer
~unk Stuttgart (Deutsche Verlag-Anstalt) 1980-1981,
The individual likes to behave the way it has to according to Miin~hen (Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag). .
economic and social requirements and expectations. If an . 1929. "Psychoanalyse und Soziologie." PI?' 268-70 In
economic system is directed toward maximization and --Zeitschrift fur psychoanalytische Pddagogik, Wien (Internat.
quantitative growth one has to make new investments by which psychoanalytischer Verlag), Vol. 3 O?28129); G~ I, p~; 3-5.
new products are created in order to safeguard its functioning. translated into English: "psychoanalysIs and SOCiology, Pp.
Thus this system needs the individual that loves to consume. 37-9 in S. E. Bronner and D. M. Kellner, eds., Critical Theory
What it enjoys doing and what its COOlfilon sense undoubtedly and Society: A Reader, New York and London: Routledge
tells it is reasonable to do--for example, to buy the best bargains
at the supermarket and at going-out-of-business sales - that is 1989. d E
. 1930. "Die Entwicklung des Chrisms ogmas. me
what it really must do. --psychoanalytische Studie zur sozialpsychologischen
Funktion der Religion." Pp. 305-73 in Imago. Zeitschrift fur
Anwendung der Psychoanalyse auf die Natur- und
226 227
n

Social Thought & Research Erich Fromm's Concept of Social Character

:1

. 1992a. Gesellschajt und Seele. Bei trag e z~r

--Sozialpsychologie und zur psychoana.lytis~hen PraXlS.
(Schriften aus dem Nachlais, Vol. 7), Wemhelm and Basel:
Beltz.
. 1992b. UDie Determiniertheit der psycllischen Stru~tur
--ciurch die Gesellschaft. Zur Methode und Aufgabe emer
Analytischen Sozialpsychologie."Pp. 23-97 in E.. ~romm,
1992a. (The page references refer to the Germ~n edlt~on; the
quotations are taken from the English typoscnpt whl~h was
r: translated by Erich Fromm himself. Confer the Enghsh .text
in the homepage of the International Erich Fromm Society:
http://fromm.home.mc.org).).
Ortmeyer, D. H. 1995. "History of the Founders of Interpersonal
psychoanalysis." Pp. 11-27 in Han~book of Interpersonal
psychoanalysis. Hillsdale: The Analytic Press.

228 229