Meals in the Greco-Roman World

In Matt 9:10-13, the disciples of Jesus are asked why their master eats with tax-collectors and sinners. Both the question and the threefold answer are analysed in this study. Wisdom traditions prescribe Torah teachers not to engage with blatant sinners. This approach becomes contested in the first century C.E., as is clear from Pharisaic disputes on sinners and tax-collectors. In his answer, Jesus characterises himself as the divine doctor, who stirs the capacity to repentance by his sheer presence. The quote of Hosea functions as a legal justification of this strategy. Hos 6:6 points to the concept of good works, benevolent actions that save even blatant sinners.

Meals are hot. Eucharistie en Avondmaal, maar ook onze dagelijkse praktijken van eten en drinken hebben de laatste jaren volop de aandacht in wetenschappelijk onderzoek. Af te lezen aan het aantal eetclubs, buurtmaaltijden, tv-kookprogramma's is eten in onze cultuur van onverminderd grote betekenis. Deelname aan Eucharistie en Avondmaal worden minder vanzelfsprekend. Wat hebben deze liturgische praktijken ons in de 21e eeuw te zeggen? Staan zij in verband met ons dagelijks eten en drinken en zo ja, hoe? Wat zijn volgens de Schrift belangrijke aspecten van de maaltijd? Met wie wordt er maaltijd gevierd en wie bepalen dat?
In deze bundel belicht een nieuwe generatie theologen op verfrissende wijze verschillende aspecten van de maaltijd. Hun bijdragen zijn in drie thema's ondergebracht.

Deel 1: Eten, lijf en leven. Bij dit eerste thema staat het doordenken van de relatie tussen 'seculiere' en religieuze maaltijden centraal.

Deel 2: Beleving van de maaltijd. Hier komen mensen aan het woord die maaltijden vieren: welke betekenissen kennen zij toe aan heilig Avondmaal en Eucharistie?

Deel 3: Gasten en gemeenschap. Over het gemeenschapsvormende karakter van maaltijden: hoe draagt de rituele vormgeving en uitnodigings- of toelatingsbeleid daaraan bij?

Scholars usually take for granted that the sectarian members of the Qumran movement ate their common meals in full purity at a level that is often compared to that of the priests serving in the temple. This assumption rests on the interpretation of hatohorah, “the purity,” as pertaining to common meals. But a careful study of a range of texts, including the important Tohorot A, leads to a more nuanced picture. Accordingly, it is important to distinguish between the common,
everyday meals of the movement and the special meals. Whereas a mild level of impurity of the participants was accepted at the ordinary type of communal meals, special meals required purity. Even at these pure meals, there were variations concerning the required level of purity
depending on the occasion.

The term adelphoi, meaning brothers and sister, is used 271 times in the New Testament and is the foundational image for the gathered church community. To foster sibling bonds the church gathered around meals. In Mark 3:31-35 while gathered around a table in someone’s home, Jesus declared that all who follow God’s ways are brothers and sisters, giving his fellow diners a new identity as siblings.

The New Testament’s emphasis on siblingship is practically ignored in our contemporary understanding of church community. Welcome to the Family Table helps Christians foster sibling identities through the regular practice of discipleship habits.

There is no serious doubt that the Christian eucharist was originally celebrated in the context of an evening communal meal.  It is equally clear that in time the thanksgiving over bread and wine became an entirely independent liturgical event celebrated largely in the morning, while communal banquets (sometimes referred to as agape meals or love-feasts) continued separately. Conservative and revisionist accounts of liturgical history depart fairly rapidly and radically, however, on how and when sacramental ritual and substantial banquet became separate events and practices.

Excerpt: "What makes this book noteworthy is Dennis Smith’s development of a “superordinate category,” to which both Christian and non-Christian materials can be compared (see J. Z. Smith, Drudgery Divine [University of Chicago Press, 1990]). Dennis Smith’s superordinate category is successful because it has both identifiable features and flexibility, allowing for the detection of similarity and difference requisite for any comparison."

Accounts of Eucharistic origins have usually been driven by concern to establish the genealogy of later liturgical practices, and reflect broader narratives of early Christian history as either smooth transition or radical fall from primitive ideals. A more comprehensive account of early Eucharistic practice must give attention to Greco-Roman meal con- ventions, acknowledge the diversity of form and meaning in early Christian meals, and be more cautious about grand narratives. It would allow for consideration not only of the explicit theologies of prayer texts, but of implicit meanings involved in ritual, foods and other elements of meals. Such an emerging new paradigm may provide both a more adequate narrative of the development of the Christian Eucharist in classical historical terms, and richer interpretations of meals as a key aspect of early Christian practice.

A groundbreaking investigation of early Christ groups in the ancient Mediterranean that reshapes the perception of Christian associations in the first three centuries

As an urban movement, the early groups of Christ-followers came into contact with the many small groups in Greek and Roman antiquity. Organized around the workplace, a deity, a diasporic identity, or a neighborhood, these associations gathered in small face-to-face meetings and provided the principal context for cultic and social interactions for their members. Unlike most other groups, however, about which we have data on their rules of membership, financial management, and organizational hierarchy, we have very little information about Christ groups..

Drawing on data about associative practices throughout the ancient world, this innovative study offers new insight into the structure and mission of the early Christian groups. John S. Kloppenborg situates the Christian associations within the broader historical context of the ancient Mediterranean and reveals that they were likely smaller than previously believed, did not have a uniform system of governance, and that the attraction of Christian groups was based more on practice than theological belief. 

“This exceptionally important book offers a clearer understanding of who the early Christ followers really were, where they came from, and how their way of life eventually evolved into the preferred ‘religion’ of the Roman Empire.”— Anders Runesson, author of The Origins of the Synagogue

This paper will seek to understand the context of first century Greco-Roman meal culture. As a conclusion, it will provide evidence that proves that, based on religious, social, and political meals across first century Mediterranean, the Christian church was not unfamiliar with worship and unity through religious banquets. As a result, members of the Christian church in Corinth abused the Eucharist in light of their erroneous grasp—namely due the cultural and religious influence that came from their understanding of δεῖπνον and συμπόσιον.

Christians used to gather around the table for a full meal in the style of the Roman Symposium. They did so because it was culturally normal and a way to tell the Jesus story. Over the first four centuries the full banquet meal held on Saturday evening becomes the Eucharistic Rite of only bread and cup on Sunday morning. This is a brief examination of some of the historical and cultural realities that led to this shift.

The New Testament writings themselves provide only a little evidence for meal nomenclature. “Lord’s supper” (1 Cor 11:20) has been given a unique emphasis by modern interpreters; some claim it was widespread or even prevalent in earliest Christianity. Yet despite Paul’s use of the term, there is no (other) clear instance of “Lord’s Supper” as the name for a distinctive meal of the kind later and more commonly known as “Eucharist” in first three centuries CE. A more adequate account of nomenclature for communal meals in those Christian communities belongs among various elements of the quest for a fuller description of the historical reality of those meals.

The aim is to study ancient fountains in their architectural context, in the belief that the context will reveal their function in the dwelling.  This article first analyzes the fountain structures and examines the relationship between each structure and the architecture. Through this approach, it is possible to reach some conclusions of more general value, concerning the function of central parts of Roman houses.

Jesus' attitude towards purity practices is a hotly debated issue. The majority of scholars argue that Jesus challenged purity halakhah in some way. One of the proofs cited to support the position that Jesus allegedly disregarded purity laws is that he ate with " tax collectors and sinners. " Whereas purity concerns are not explicit on the story level in the texts, many scholars still find Jesus' actions contradictory to the norms. This paper discusses if purity plays a part, and if so how, in Jesus' sharing meals with people considered sinners. As I will show, purity concerns only play a minor role in Jesus' meal practice and there is nothing in his behaviour that indicates that he somehow challenged purity norms, only social norms.

Over the last century, with the explosion of research in the areas of New Testament Study and the liturgy of the early church, there has been significant discussion of the origins of the central act of Christian worship: the celebration of the Eucharist. Early on, there were attempts to identify the origin of the eucharistic anaphora within a specific Jewish prayer, the Birkat HaMazon, while more recent scholarship has attempted to situate the origin of the Eucharist within broader Greco-Roman banquet customs. By and large, the connection between the Eucharist and the Passover has been disregard or, where it is considered, situates the eucharistic prayer in the context of Grace After Meals, thus creating a circumstance of difference without distinction. This paper proposes that, despite the textual difficulties of situating the Last Supper in the context of a Passover, the Pesach liturgy may provide insight into the way the early Eucharist may have been celebrated, not by looking at a specific prayer, but in the didactic elements of the Pesach Seder.

This study draws on critical spatial theory to analyze the earliest archaeological and literary evidence of the triclinium, or Roman dining room, in Early Roman Palestine. It begins by examining the archaeological evidence of triclinia and similar banqueting spaces in Palestine, addressing their dating, their differing settings, and how their appearance and diffusion reflects socioeconomic and cultural changes under Roman influence. Next, it examines literary constructions of banqueting spaces in the Parables of Enoch, Testament of Moses, and "Q Sayings Gospel." It demonstrates that these sources all seem to envision a triclinium setting in which elites eat, drink, and engage in all sorts of revelry while reclining on couches. The final section is devoted to critical spatial analysis of both the archaeological and literary data. It argues that these sources all evince, in varying ways, the interpenetration of local and global spaces rather than the unilateral "Romanization" of provincial space.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/triclinium-trialectics-the-triclinium-as-contested-space-in-early-roman-palestine/354928660E45F6A35B32D70F38E2FB63

The fact that private fountains surpass public fountains greatly in number is one of the conclusions of this paper, which also concerns the delivered quantity of water.  The private fountains, and the revelation of their non-domestic display function, have produced knowledge that is incompatible with the modern urbanistic approach of how water supply to an ancient city should be viewed and understood.

This dissertation draws theological discourse on moral formation into dialogue with the exegesis of biblical texts in order to investigate the way the Deuteronomic tithe feast and Corinthian Lord’s Supper serve as character-forming practices.

In Part 1, I draw on virtue ethics (chapter 1), ritual studies, and liturgical ethics (chapter 2) to construct a theory of formative practices as telos-shaped, embodied, social actions that carry an embedded intention to shape the character of the individual practitioner, the politics of the community, and the world “out there.” I situate such an account within a broader model of ecclesial formation as occurring within a cultural context and under the reign of the Triune God (chapter 3).

In Part 2, I apply this theory through a close reading of Deuteronomy 14:22-29. I argue that formative practice theory illuminates how the tithe meal “teaches” practitioners to “fear the LORD” (chapter 4). Situating Deuteronomy 14:22-29 within Deuteronomy’s larger formative purposes, I further explore how the tithe meal addresses the dangers of economic abundance (chapter 5).

In Part 3, I take this same approach with a major text in the NT, namely the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34). I first demonstrate the possibility of an “apocalyptic” understanding of character formation in 1 Corinthians (chapter 6). I then provide a close reading of 1 Cor 11:17-34, demonstrating that Paul accuses the Corinthians of celebrating a meal that is “for the worse” rather than “for the better.” Paul’s solution is to reform their eucharistic feast in line with his belief that the Lord’s Supper serves as a formative practice.
This study contributes significant clarity to the way both the tithe-meal and the Lord’s Supper intend to shape the character of the individuals and communities that practice them. In the conclusion of this study, I suggest that such an account has major implications for both theological interpretation and theological ethics.

This article suggests an alternative to the common formal approach to Roman gardens.  Traditional research has considered how the gardens were laid out and how they were planted, more important than which functions they filled.  Here function refers to their use in relation to the architectural whole they are a part of, and not to the general distinction between "ornamental" and "domestic" gardens.  To gain more understanding of their function, the author points to the evidence of the finds from gardens,  which apart from sculpture, has seldom attracted much interest.  (Summary on pages 96-97).

The shape shifting of Dionysus:  When metamorphoses from myths appear in Greek and Roman art, it is for the most part only the central moment that is indicated, and the physical change in shape is left to the imagination of the viewer. 
This study will point out, by means of a Roman monument, the possibility that water and fountains could represent one particular metamorphosis; the self-willed transformation of a god.  The fountain as such may solve the artistic problem of how to represent a perpetually recurring metamorphosis and would in itself realize that metamorphosis by means of its iconography and water.

The explanation of 1 Cor 11:14-37, that Corinthian meal practice involved either peer benefaction (wealthy members providing the meal), or eranistic practices (members each contributing differing amounts and qualities of food), and the late arrival of the poorer members, is flawed in several respects. This paper uses data from Graeco-Roman associations to show that association meals were rarely funded by endowments or peer benefaction on a continuing basis, and there is no evidence of eranistic practices. The idea that poorer members typically arrived late at meals is based on anachronistic views of the structure of labor and on ambiguities in translations of προλαμβάνειν in 11:21. The disturbances at the communal meal, like those typical of association meals, likely involved competitive behavior that used differential allotments of food to assert status and privilege.

Although few Christians were likely to suffer the most violent consequences of persecution under the Roman Empire, the experiences of those imprisoned, tortured, or killed were significant far beyond the lives of the individuals concerned. These living martyrs took on a significance that was important for the whole of Christian identity, becoming spiritual patrons dispensing grace, or exemplars of an alternative mode of life. The question of whether and how to feed these prisoners became a crucial one for the rest of the Carthaginian Church.

The Epistle of James is not commonly seen in relation to early Christian common meals. At the same time, the work is preoccupied with the common life of an early Christian community, which in turn was, generally speaking, closely
related to the way in which it celebrated its meals. In other words, ethics, ecclesiology, and etiquette were closely related. Based on this consideration, this essay attempts to relate aspects of the epistle to symposiastic conventions as they were
known in the first-century Mediterranean world.

For all people, food plays a role in everyday life. While some who are busy may see food as simply a means of subsistence, meals have a deeper meaning in most cultures, including those found in the Bible. Meals can be associated with issues like a deep concern for the poor and the value of community sharing amongst followers of Christ. Another biblical aspect is the use of meals for the purpose of missions. With so much time spent on the repast, it is not a surprise that Jesus used the mealtime—in addition to communion with believers—to transfer the gospel message to unbelievers. Meals are a good way to do evangelism.

This article reviews the current state of affairs regarding our knowledge on eating habits and dietary proportions in the Roman world. The narrative is centred on the main components of the ancient diet: cereals, wine, olive oil, meat, fish, vegetables, fruits and pulses. Focal points in the discussion are food types and calories. The author integrates literature, archaeology and natural sciences, and devotes particular
attention to the possibilities and constraints of our datasets. What emerges is a complicated picture in which it remains difficult to answer basic questions and to identify general patterns. By offering a series of thinking tools, however, the article provides a new framework for researchers to increase our understanding of the classical diet in the future.

The rare attestations of the greek and latin terms for 'breakfast' (ariston, ientaculum), mostly concentrated in text of 'low' literary genres (satires, epigrams), do not allow us to have a precise idea of this meal, which was not preceived as a codified 'meal' such as dinner. So it should be private, frugal, not interesting from a literary point of view.

There are very seldom taps in the domestic areas of the houses; rather the water, artistically displayed, meets a visitor in the atrium. 
In peristyles or gardens, many different types of fountains have been documented, but triclinia gathered around small water basins seem to have been especially popular.