CHAPTER 1:

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL

EVENTS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY
Intellectual Revolutions That Defined
Society

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the students should be
able to:
◦Articulate ways by which society is transformed by
science and technology.
◦Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus,
Darwin and Freud contributed to the spark of
scientific revolution.
Introduction
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific
ideas in the heart of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways
by which society is transformed by science and technology.

Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly
identify when and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has
existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how science can be
defined?

1. Science as an Idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic

explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an Intellectual activity. It compasses a systematic and
practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves
systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of Knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a
field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of
learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we are refer to
as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science
is both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better
understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and
to survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.
Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know
and understand everything around them. They have persistently observed
and studied the natural and the physical world in order to find meanings
and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas,
later known as philosophy, to provide or possible explanations to certain
phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and
all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolutions is claimed to have started in the early 16 th
century up to the late 18 th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer
is the invention of the printing press and the blooming intellectual activities done
in various places if learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of
human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea
transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of
science, technology, medicine and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations
of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to
those disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments
in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry
transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth
of modern science as a result of these developments from the disciplined
mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enables the people to reflect,
rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it
ignited vast human interest to rethink how they do science and view scientific
processes.
SCIENCE IDEAS

SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION
S
HUMANS
SOCIETY
Figure 1. Influences of Scientific Revolution
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to
scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some
scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation from
the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion and
theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many
of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially
scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human
beings, transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific
ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific investigations,
experiments and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the
creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment
of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific
revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.
Some intellectuals in their Revolutionary Ideas
To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific
revolution, it is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas
have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this
period- the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven
by the curiosity, critical thinking and creativity to explore the physical and
natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.

Creativity SCIENCE IDEAS

SCIENTISTS
SCIENCE
Critical Thinking Passion to know DISCOVERIES

Passion to discover TECHNOLOGY

Curiosity
Figure 1. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas, Science Discoveries and Technology
Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They
are ordinary people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were
never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to
death, while others were condemned by the Church during their
time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they
experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and
discovering new knowledge and ideas.

In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed.

For sure, there were many scientists who worked before and after
these individuals. However, it is important to note that these men
particularly through ideas, had shaken the world.
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is
Nicolaus Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the of the universe
had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece,
some 1, 500 years before Copernicus came on the scene. This continued
up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus continued
up to the Renaissance period.
In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient
philosophers or thinkers- he did not do anything extensive such as observing
heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an
example of what is presently called as a thought experiment. By the time he
finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at
Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of
time to sustain his interest in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced
by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes
Mueller. This book contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.
Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete
in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few
close friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus(Little Commentary).
There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of
persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally.
Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor
affected his time to formally publish his work and advance his career his
career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often
cited as the start of the scientific revolution.
In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything
moved around a single center at unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the
Sun to the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are
surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The moon, however, would still
be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’s model of the Earth orbiting
around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical
sequence.
In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1.)
the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus,
closer to the sun, and (2.) the orbits of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter lay outside
the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would
work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around
the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest
year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn with the longest year.
He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of
the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of
the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a
distance sphere.
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican
model makes sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic
and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The
Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome
for the rest of the 16th century.
CHARLES DARWIN
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept
of the world’s creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a
genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a
student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks
to observe his surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over
books in his father’s library. Darwin went to the best schools but was
observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine
and ministry, which his father imposed to him. Darwin’s life soon changed
when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage
through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book
is considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature.
Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory
with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species
evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate
species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent
materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his
theory.
Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that
moved beyond realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans.
His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He
introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the
realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a
religious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged
position of having been created by God. Darwin’s theory of evolution
scientifically questioned this view.
Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to
distinguish two fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary
biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what made
Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and
unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His
unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based
science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific
activities. It is a science marked by observation and experimentation.
SIGMUND FREUD
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels(1980) also
described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented
communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution
in the scientific world through the development of an important observational
method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This method is
popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis
he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For
Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human
mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his work
that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis
had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner(2016), his
method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some
neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time.
His method was unorthodox- focusing on human sexuality and evil nature of
man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his
time. To some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of
human sexuality.
Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution
but his contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the
human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics and
psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or a scientist is for
people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are
still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind
and behavior in a more scientifically accepted ways.

Background
Field of Interest:
Contribution:
Punishment:
Summary:
Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked
the birth of science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to
the development of the scientific ideas and discoveries , which were
considered innovative and useful, were developed. Some of these ideas
were also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena.
There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in
science during the period of scientific revolution, Nicolaus Copernicus
developed a model of the universe in which everything moved around a
single center at unvarying rates. He placed the Sun in the center of the
universe and all planets were surrounding or orbiting it. Copernicus’s model
of planets orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into
a logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant contribution in the field
of evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. His theory of evolution by
natural selection is very useful in many fields until now. Sigmund Freud
developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human
behavior especially neurological conditions.
WEDDIMEER TORRENA TORRES (Mo Wedz, DOC WEDZ)
BACHELOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION with Area of Concentration in Gen. Science
Mindanao State University

Masters of Arts in Teaching Major in English

Ifugao State University

Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Management

Ifugao State University

10 years and 6 months in Junior and Senior High School

Maryvit School Pattaya, Pattaya City, Thailand

5months in Ocean Edu Vietnam

Dong Hoi City, Vietnam
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