Unit 2

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS
THAT DEFINED SOCIETY
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart
of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed
by science and technology.
Here, we will discuss about scientific revolution and how it began. The names might
ring a bell to you, I know you have already discussed them in high school but we will still
discuss Nicolaus Copernicus, Charles Darwin, and Sigmund Freud. These men had
greatly contributed to scientific revolution. Of course, we will discuss about the
development of early science and technology throughout civilizations particularly in
Mesoamerica, Asia, and Africa.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud

contributed to the spark of scientific revolution; and
2. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world
like in Latin America, East Asia, Middles East, and Africa.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic
explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical
study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic
observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or
body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and
physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding
of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is
interwoven with the people’s lives.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up
to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? It is because the invention of the printing
machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various place of learning, and
the growing number of scholars in various fields of human
interests.

What is scientific revolution?

• The period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about
nature.
• It explained the emergence or birth of modern science.
• The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and
reexamine their beliefs and their way of life.
• It is the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was a
deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death
or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith,
religion, and theological views.

Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists.
However, this does not stop scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical
world.
Scientific revolution is very important in the development of human beings,
transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. It also
led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a
strong foundation for modern science. It transformed the natural world and the world of
ideas.

Figure 1: Influence to
Scientific Revolution
ACTIVITY 2.1: Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities? If yes,
why? If no, why not?

SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is
important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested
the dominant theories and ideas during this period – the truths of their time. Scientists in
all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore
the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.

Figure 2: Variables that

Influence the Development
of Science Ideas, Science
Discoveries, and Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. Some scientists were never
appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death, while others were
condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and
challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and
discovering new knowledge and ideas.
There were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it
is important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the
world.

Nicolaus Copernicus
- Born in the city of Torun, in the Prince-Bishopric of
Warmia, Northern Poland on February 19, 1473.

- When Nicolaus was 10 years old, his father died. Nicolaus’s

nobleman uncle, Lucas Watzenrode, became his guardian.

- He was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome or

Sumary of Ptolemy’s Almagest published in 1496 by a
German author, Johannes Mueller, in some other books,
Johannes Regiomontanus.

- Epitome contains observations of the heavens and some

commentary an earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.
According to Claudius Ptolemy’s Universe:
 Earth is placed at the center.
 The sun is one of the bodies orbiting earth.
 Placed earth in a privileged location, at the center of the universe.

However, Copernicus opposed Claudius Ptolemy’s Universe.

 He placed the Mediterranean Sea in a privileged location, at the center of the world.
 Mediterranean means middle of the land in Latin. The Greeks called it mesogeios,
meaning the same.
 Copernicus’ idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510.
 He circulated a summary of his ideas to his few friends in a manuscript called
Commentariolus (Little Commentary).
 In this hand-written document he put forward his new view of the universe.
 He thought people should shift from a Geocentric (earth centered) view to
a Heliocentric (sun centered) view.

Copernicus’
Ptolemy’s Universe Heliocentric Universe
Model Model

As you observed, there are similarities with the above two (2) figures. The Heliocentric
Universe paved way to the scientific notion of today’s Solar System.
Moreover, Nicolaus Copernicus took the basic starting points of his theory:
 The earth is not the center of the universe.
 The center of the universe is near the sun.
 The earth-sun distance is negligible compared to the distance to the stars.
 Earth’s rotation on its own axis accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
 The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun is seen because the earth is
orbiting it.
 The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the fact we observe them
from a moving location, because the earth is orbiting the sun.

With these starting points, he had relegated our planet from a special, highly privileged
position at the center of the universe, to nothing very special – another planet moving
around the sun. This was potentially dangerous, because a lot of people held the view
that:
 passages in the bible imply that the earth does not move
 the bible is the word of god
 the penalty for disagreeing with god is death
By 1532, Copernicus had made all of the observations and applied all of the
mathematics he needed to identify earth’s place in the universe. And he had finished
writing the first manuscript of his groundbreaking book De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium – The Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.
By 1539, seven more years had passed and Copernicus had still not published. This
changed when Georg Joachim Rheticus, a German Mathematician, came to learn
everything he could from Copernicus. Rheticus studied with Copernicus book for two
years. He read De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium and was incredibly enthusiastic
about it. He thought Copernicus owed it to the world to publish it.
Meanwhile, Copernicus allowed Rheticus to publish a book called Narratio
Prima – The First Report, in which Rheticus gave a basic summary of Copernicus’s
Heliocentric Theory. And so Copernicus gave the manuscript of his book to Rheticus
to be printed in Germany. He then formally published his book De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543. It is often cited as the
start of the scientific revolution.
The printing was supervised by Andreas Osiander, who added a note at the
beginning of the book which said that, even though the book’s theory was unusual, if it
helped people do astronomy calculations, it didn’t matter if it wasn’t really true.
Although Rheticus and Copernicus were deeply unhappy with Osiander’s unauthorized
note, there’s every chance that the book was only allowed to begin circulating because of
it.
Osiander had given the church an excuse not to immediately condemn the book as
heretical. The book finally emerged from the printing presses shortly before
Copernicus’s death in 1543. Copernicus, diplomatically, dedicated his book to the Pope.
Moreover, Nicolaus Copernicus’ ideas were an example of what is presently called as a
thought experiment.
What is thought experiment?
 Performed in the imagination.
 We set up some situations, we observe what happens, and then we try to draw
appropriate conclusions.
 Resemble real experiments except that they are experiment in the mind.
 Also called as imaginary experiment or gedankeneexperiment.

How can we learn something new about the world by just thinking? We have some sort
of priori insight into how nature works.

Charles Darwin
 Famous for his Theory of Evolution.

 The greatest biologist in history.

 He changed our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution.

 Darwin believed that all of life on earth had descended from a

common ancestor, whose offspring could vary slightly from the
previous generation. Successive generations of life took part in a
struggle for existence in which the best adapted variations
survived to seed new generations. Less well adapted variations
became extinct.
Near the end of summer 1831, after completing his degree, Darwin was offered a
position as a naturalist on HMS Beagle, one of the British Royal Navy’s Survey Ships. The
position had previously been offered to John Henslow, a geologist and naturalist at
Cambridge, but he had turned it down and recommended Darwin. He joined a five-year
voyage on the islands of Galapos. The expedition continued, with Darwin writing about
his experiences in each new place he visited, collecting samples of flora, fauna, and fossils,
and observing rock formations.
Darwin’s Theory
In July 1837 Darwin began keeping a notebook of his thoughts and theories about the
variation of plants and animals. By this time, he had completely accepted that species
could evolve (or, to use Darwin’s language, transmute). He decided he would make his
investigation according to the principles of Francis Bacon – he would assemble facts before
producing a theory.
The Origin of Species
Darwin’s game-changing book on the origin of species – often called the most important
book in the history of biology – became available to the public on November 24, 1859;
booksellers immediately sold all 1250 copies. Some of the most familiar ideas of
‘Darwinism’ did not appear until the later editions: the famous phrase “survival of the
fittest” appeared for the first time in the 1869 fifth edition.
Remarkably, the word evolution made its first
appearance in the sixth edition in 1872. In
support of his theory of common ancestry,
Darwin was particularly taken by the similarity
of the embryos of different species.
In 1871 Darwin’s The Descent of Man presented evidence that humans are animals –
we are members of the ape family, and are the descendants of apes.

Sigmund Freud
 Australian neurologist.
 Founder of psychoanalysis, a method of treating mental
illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.
 Psychoanalysis was proven effective in understanding some
neurological conditions and human behaviors. He proposed
two models: (1) Topographical model and (2) Structural model.

1. Topographical model (the unconscious mind)

 According to Freud’s concept of hysteria, the individual person may both know
and do not know certain things at the same time.
2. Structural model (the psyche)
 The self has three different agencies:
 Id known as primitive or instinctive component.
 Ego, that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the
external world.
 Superego synthesizes the morals, values, and systems in society in order to
function as the control outpost of the instinctive desires of the id.
ACTIVITY 2.2: If you could give or create an invention that will help the society in the
future, what would it be and why? You can illustrate your invention if you like.

CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from
Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. The Maya
civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for
approximately 2, 000 years.
The Mayans incorporated their advanced understanding of
astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This
allows them to use their temples for astronomical observations. For
example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is situated at the
location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.
Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was
advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting
eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.
The Mayan are also known for measuring time using two
complicated calendar systems to observe their religious rituals and
cultural celebrations.
The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different
crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and
tools. They built hydraulic systems and developed technology with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
Furthermore, the Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and
devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica.
They are also believed to be the first people to produce rubber
products. The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced civilizations to use a writing system knowns as Mayan hieroglyphics, a writing
system use by Mayan civilization. They are skilled in mathematics, created a number of
system based on the numeral 20 and developed the concept of zero and positional value,
even before the romans did.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific
ideas. The following were scientific ideas and tools developed to help them in their everyday
life:
1. Roads paved with stones
2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types
of land
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark religious festivals and prepare them for the
planting season
5. The first suspension bridge
6. Quipu - a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret
7. Inca textile – cloth was one of the specialized prized artistic achievements
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to society some of their contributions are the following:
1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education that is why their children
are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or race. It is and
early form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolates. In Mayan culture, they used it
as a currency. The Aztec value the cacao beans highly and made it as part of tribute to
their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could
prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles which could help during surgery
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. For planning of activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of the many ancient
civilizations. It is host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all
ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood
out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable
in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their time.

India

A huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge

mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians are known for manufacturing iron and
metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high
regard in the whole Roman Empire. They are also famous in medicine. For example,
Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in Ancient India before 2500
BC., is still practices as a form of alternative medicine.

Some ancient text, like the Susruta Samhita, an ancient text which describes different
surgical and other medical procedures famous in Ancient India.
Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360
days with 12 equal parts of 30 days. “Siddhanta Shiromani” – a 12th century ancient text
covering different topics of astronomy.
They are also known for their mathematics. They tried to standardize measurement of
length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, a Mohenjodaro ruler.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhatiya, introduced trigonometric
functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas
of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music.
Chinese civilizations have greatly influence many of its neighbor countries like Korea,
Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that
belong to the old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, they use of different plants and
animals with various medicinal properties and acupuncture.
In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop tools. Some of their
inventions are the following:

 Compass
 Paper  Different models of bridges
 Gunpowder  Wheelbarrow
 Printing tools  Propeller
 Iron plow  1st seismological detector

In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas,
lunar and solar eclipses and comets. They observed heavenly bodies to predict weather
changes and seasons and used lunar calendars.

Middle Eastern Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. The golden age of
Islam lasted until the 13th century. Muslim scientists placed greater value to science
experiments rather than plain-thought experiment. A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-
Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the
intromission theory of light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarizmi gave his name
the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the
beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic
Numerical System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the numeral system, such as the introduction of decimal point
notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of
modern chemistry. Some scholars consider Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of
Chemistry.”
In the field of medicine, science of experimental medicine and clinical trials was
pioneered by Ibn Sina. Some of his books are the Book of Healing and The Canon of
Medicine which were used as a standard medicinal texts in both Muslim world and Europe.
Development of Science in Africa
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in
Africa are knowledge producers, too.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the
development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership
of farmlands of the Egyptian living along the Nile River.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner
of chemistry.
In the field of astronomy, Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, stellar
or a combination of the three.

Metallurgy was also known in African region. North Africa and Nile Valley imported
iron technology from the near east region to invent metal tools.
Mathematics was also prominent in Africa. The Lebombo bone, which may have a tool
for mathematical calculation, is considered the oldest mathematical artifact dated from
35, 000 BCE.

ACTIVITY 2.3: We have discussed the cradles of early science through civilzations. Can
you recall them?
Give five (5) contributions for each civilizations in Mesoamerica.
Maya Civilization Inca Civilization Aztec Civilization
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4
5 5 5

Give at least two (2) contributions or prominent individuals in each country.

India China Middle East Countries African Countries
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2

Remember!
Scientific Revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the birth of
science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the
scientific method. It was a time in the history of science where many scientific ideas and
discoveries which were considered innovative and useful, were developed. Some of these
ideas were also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena. The
scientific revolution significantly changed how people study science and do scientific
activities. It inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away from thought
experiments to data-driven and experimental-based ideas.
There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during
the period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the
universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates. He placed
the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it.
Copernicus’s model of planets orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the
planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant contribution in the field
of evolutionary and biology and philosophy of science. His theory of evolution by natural
selection is very useful in many fields until now. Sigmund Freud developed the idea of
psychoanalysis that help in understanding in human behavior especially neurological
conditions.

Science also developed in different parts of the worlds: in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica,
and Africa. People in this continent s invented tools to help them in everyday life,
discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly bodies, built structures,
discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a discipline. Science
provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural
and physical worlds. It also enabled human beings to develop various technologies that
help them in everyday tasks.

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