INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

• Integumentary system is the largest organ of

„ LAYERS OF SKIN
• „EPIDERMIS
STRATUM CORNEUM
STRATUM LUCIDUM
„ STRATUM GRANULOSUM
„ STRATUM SPINOSUM
STRATUM GERMINATIVUM
• „DERMIS
SUPERFICIAL PAPILLARY LAYER
„ RETICULAR LAYER
• „APPENDAGES OF SKIN
• „COLOR OF SKIN
PIGMENTATION OF SKIN
„ HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD
INTRODUCTION
• Skin is the largest organ of the body
• It is not uniformly thick.
• The average thickness of the skin is about 1 to 2
mm.
• In the sole, palm and in the interscapular
region, it is considerably thick, measuring about
5 mm.
• It is thinnest over eyelids and penis, measuring
about 0.5 mm only.
Con…
• Skin is made up of two layers:
I. Outer epidermis
II. Inner dermis
ii. EPIDERMIS
Epidermis is the outer layer of skin.
It is formed by stratified epithelium.
It does not have blood vessels.
Gets its nutrition through capillaries
Con…
Layers of Epidermis
• Epidermis is formed by five layers:
1. Stratum corneum
2. Stratum lucidum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum spinosum
5. Stratum germinativum.
Con…
1. STRATUM CORNEUM
• Stratum corneum is also known as horny layer.
• It consists of dead cells, which are called
corneocytes.
• Their plasma is flat­tened with fibrous protein
known as keratin.
• These cells also contain phospholipids and
glycogen.
Con…
Con…
2. STRATUM LUCIDUM
• Stratum lucidum is made up of flattened
epithelial cells
• They have degenerated nucleus or the nucleus
is absent in some cells.
• As they exhibit shiny character, the layer looks
like a homogeneous translucent zone.
• So, this layer is called stratum lucidum (lucid =
clear).
Con…
3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM
• Stratum granulosum is a thin layer with
two to five rows of flattened rhomboid cells.
• Cytoplasm contains granules of a protein
called keratohyalin which is the precursor of
keratin.
Con…
4. STRATUM SPINOSUM
• Stratum spinosum is also known as prickle cell
layer.
• because, these cells possess some spine­like
protoplasmic projections by which they are
connected to one another.
Con…
5. STRATUM GERMINATIVUM
• Stratum germinativum is a thick layer.
• They are made up of polygonal cells,
superficially and columnar or cuboidal
epithelial cells in the deeper parts.
• New cells are constantly formed by mitotic
division.
• The stem cells, which give rise to new cells, are
known as keratinocytes.
Con…
• Melanocytes are scattered between the
keratinocytes.
• Melanocytes produce the pigment called
melanin.
• In this layer some projections called rete
ridges extend down up to dermis.
• These projections provide anchoring and
nutritional function.
DERMIS
• Dermis is the inner layer of the skin.
• It is a connective tissue layer, made up of
dense and stout collagen fibers, fibroblasts
and histiocytes.
• Collagen fibers exhibit elastic property and are
capable of storing or holding water.
• They also contain the enzyme collagenase,
which is responsible for wound healing.
Con…
• Dermis is made up of two layers:
1. Superficial papillary layer
2. Deeper reticular layer.
SUPERFICIAL PAPILLARY LAYER It contains blood
vessels, lymphatics and nerve fibers.
This layer also has some pigment­containing cells
known as chromatophores.
Dermal papillae are finger­like projections, arising
from the superficial papillary dermis.
Con…
RETICULAR LAYER
• Reticular layer is made up of reticular and
elastic fibers.
• These fibers are found around the hair
bulbs, sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
• The reticular layer also contains mast cells,
nerve endings, lymphatics, epidermal
appendages and fibroblasts.
Con…
• subcutaneous tissue located below dermis.
• It is a loose connective tissue, which connects
the skin with the internal structures of the
body.
• It serves as an insulator to protect the body
from excessive heat and cold of the
environment.
• Lot of smooth muscles called arrector pili are
also found in skin around the hair follicles.
Con…
COLOR OF SKIN
• Color of skin depends upon two important
factors:
1. Pigmentation of skin
2. Hemoglobin in the blood
Con…
PIGMENTATION OF SKIN
• Cells of the skin contain a brown pigment
called melanin.
• It is synthe­sized by melanocytes.
• Melanin is the skin pigment and it forms the
major color determinant of human skin.
Con…
• Skin becomes dark when melanin content
increases.
• It is protein in nature and it is synthesized
from the amino acid tyrosine via
dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA).
• Deficiency of melanin leads to albinism
(hypopigmentation)
Con…
HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD
• Amount and nature of hemoglobin that circulates in
the cutaneous blood vessels play an important role in
the coloration of the skin.
• Skin becomes:
i. Pale, when hemoglobin content decreases
ii. Pink, when blood rushes to skin due to cutaneous
vasodilatation (blushing)
iii. Bluish during cyanosis, which is caused by excess
amount of reduced hemoglobin.
Functions of Skin
• Primary function of skin is protection of organs.
However, it has many other important functions.
1. PROTECTIVE FUNCTION
As skin covers all the organs of the body it
protects these organs from the following factors:
i. Bacteria and toxic substances
ii. Mechanical blow
iii. Ultraviolet rays
Con…
i. Protection from Bacteria and Toxic Substance
Skin covers the organs of the body and
protects them from having direct contact with
external environment.
Lysozyme secreted in skin destroys the bacteria.
Keratinized stratum corneum of epidermis is
responsible for the protective function of skin.
This layer also offers resistance against toxic
chemicals like acids and alkalis.
Con…
• During injury or skin infection, the
keratinocytes secrete:
a. Cytokines like interleukins, α-tumor necrosis
factor and γ-interferon, which play important
role in inflammation, immunological reactions,
tissue repair and wound healing
b. Antimicrobial peptides like β-defensins,
which prevent invasion of microbes.
Con…
ii. Protection from Mechanical Blow
Since skin is somewhat loose and moves over
the underlying subcutaneous tissues.
So, the mechanical impact of any blow to the
skin is not transmitted to the underlying tissues.
Con…
iii. Protection from Ultraviolet Rays
Exposure to any source of ultraviolet rays
increases the production of melanin pigment
in skin.
Melanin absorbs ultraviolet rays.
The thickness of stratum corneum increases
which also absorbs the ultraviolet ray.
Con…
2. SENSORY FUNCTION
• As skin is the largest sense organ in the body.
• It has many nerve endings, which form the
specialized cutaneous receptors.
• These receptors are stimulated by
sensations of touch, pain, pressure or
temperature sensation and convey these
sensations to the brain via afferent nerves.
Con…
3. STORAGE FUNCTION Skin stores fat, water,
chloride and sugar and blood by cutaneous
vasodilation
4. SYNTHETIC FUNCTION
Vitamin D3 is synthesized in skin by the
action of ultraviolet rays from sunlight on
cholesterol.
Con…
5. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
Excess heat is lost from the body through
skin by radiation, conduction, convection and
Evaporation.
Sweat glands of the skin play an active part
in heat loss, by secreting sweat.
The lipid content of sebum prevents loss of heat
from the body in cold environment
Con…
6. REGULATION OF WATER ANDELECTROLYTE
BALANCE
• Skin regulates water and electrolyte balance
by excreting water and salts through sweat.
7. EXCRETORY FUNCTION
• Skin excretes small quantities of waste
materials like urea, salts and fatty substance
Con…
8. ABSORPTIVE FUNCTION
• Skin absorbs fat-soluble substances and
some ointments.
9. SECRETORY FUNCTION
• Skin secretes sweat through sweat glands and
sebum through sebaceous glands.
• By secreting sweat, skin regulates body
temperature and water balance
Gland of skin
• Eccrine sweat gland produce clear sweat. Used
for cooling
• Apocrine sweat gland produce odorous
perspiration. Found at arm pit and genitalia.
• Ciliary glands are modified apocrine glands
found at the eyelids used to lubricate the eye
• Ceruminous glands are glands of ear canal
produces wax.
• Mammary gland found at chest
Glands of Skin
Skin contains two types of glands, namely
sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
SEBACEOUS GLANDS
 they are simple or branched alveolar glands,
situated in the dermis of skin.
 They are ovoid or spherical in shape and are
situated at the side of the hair follicle.
Con…
• These glands develop from hair follicles.
• They are absent over the thick skin, which is
devoid of hair follicles.
• Each gland is covered by a connective tissue
capsule.
• The alveoli of the gland are lined by stratified
epithelial cells.
Con…
• Sebaceous glands open into the neck of the
hair follicle through a duct.
• In some areas like face, lips, nipple, glans
penis and labia minora, the sebaceous glands
open directly into the exterior.
Con…
• Secretion of Sebaceous Gland – Sebum
• Sebaceous glands secrete an oily substance
called sebum.
• Sebum is formed by the liquefaction of the
alveolar cells and poured out through the
ducts either via the hair follicle or directly into
the exterior.
Con…
Composition of Sebum: Sebum contains:
1. Free fatty acids
2. Triglycerides
3. Squalene
4. Sterols
5. Waxes
6. Paraffin
Con…
• Functions of Sebum
1. Free fatty acid content of the sebum has
antibacterial and antifungal actions.
2. Lipid nature of sebum keeps the skin smooth
and oily.
3. Lipids of the sebum prevent heat loss from
the body.
Con…
• Activation of Sebaceous Glands at Puberty
• Sebaceous glands are inactive till puberty.
• At puberty, these glands are activated by sex
hormones in both males and females.
• particularly in males, due to the increased
secretion of especially dehydroepiandrosterone,
the sebaceous glands are stimulated suddenly.
• It leads to the development of acne on the face
Con…
Acne
• Acne is the localized inflammatory condition
of the skin.
• It is characterized by pimples on face, chest
and back.
• It occurs because of over activity of sebaceous
glands.
Con…
• SWEAT GLANDS Sweat glands are of two types:
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands.
• ECCRINE GLANDS
Eccrine sweat gland is a tubular coiled gland. It consists
of two parts:
1.A coiled portion lying deeper in dermis, which secretes
the sweat
2.A duct portion, which passes through dermis and
epidermis
Con…
• The duct of eccrine gland is formed by two layers of
cuboidal epithelial cells.
Secretory Activity of Eccrine Glands
• Eccrine glands function throughout the life since
birth.
• These glands secrete a clear watery sweat.
• the secretion increases during increase in
temperature and emotional conditions.
• Sweat contains water, sodium chloride, urea and
lactic acid.
Con…
• Control of Eccrine Glands are under nervous
control and are supplied by sympathetic
postganglionic cholinergic nerve fibers which
secrete acetylcholine.
APOCRINE GLANDS are situated only in certain
areas of the body like axilla, pubis, areola and
umbilicus
Apocrine glands are also tubular coiled glands.
The coiled portion lies in deep dermis
Con…
Secretory Activity of Apocrine Glands
• Apocrine glands start functioning only at the time of
puberty.
• In old age, the function of these glands gradually
declines.
• The secretion of the apocrine glands is thick and
milky. it is odorless when secreted.
• When microorganisms grow in this secretion, a
characteristic odor develops in the regions where they
present.
Con…
Con…
Control of Apocrine Glands
• Apocrine glands are innervated by
sympathetic adrenergic nerve fibers
• adrenaline from adrenal medulla causes
secretion by apocrine glands.
• Glands of eyelids, glands of external auditory
meatus and mammary glands are the
modified apocrine glands.
Con…
Pheromones
• Pheromones are a group of chemical substances
that are secreted by apocrine glands.
• Some scientists call this substance as
vomeropherins.
• Pheromones are mostly present in urine,
vaginal fluid and other secretions of mammals.
• They influence the behavior and
reproductive cycle in these animals.
Con…
• Recently, it is found that the pheromones
excreted in axilla of a woman affects the
menstrual cycle of her room-mate .
• They stimulate receptors of vomeronasal
receptors.
• Vomeronasal receptors are distinct from other
olfactory receptors and detect specially the
odor of pheromones.
Con…
• Impulses from these receptors are transmitted
to hypothalamus, which influences the
menstrual cycle via pituitary gonadal axis.
• This effect of pheromones on the menstrual
cycle of other individuals is called dormitory
effect.
Con…
hair
• Hairs are slender, thread like structures extend
from the epidermis.
• They are composed of keratin and are
pigmented
• They are made up of protin called keratin.
• Hair consists three parts
• Hair shaft- the part of the hair you can see,
touch and style
Con…
• Hair –follicle tube like structure that keeps the
hair in the skin
• Hair bulb located under the skin and
responsible for hair growth
HAIR
• HAIR are elongated keratinized structures
that form within epidermal invaginations, of
the hair follicles
• The color, size, shape, and texture of hairs vary
according to age, genetic background, and
region of the body.
• All skin has at least minimal hair except the
glabrous skin of the palms, soles, lips, glans
penis, clitoris, and labia minora
Con…
• Hairs grow discontinuously, with periods of growth followed
by periods of rest,
• The growing hair follicle has a terminal dilation called a hair
bulb.
• A dermal papilla inserts into the base of the hair bulb and
contains a capillary network required to sustain the hair follicle.
• Keratinocytes continuous with those of the basal epidermis
cover the dermal papilla.
• These cells form the matrix of the elongating hair root;
• the part of a hair extending beyond the skin surface is the hair
shaft
Con…
• Melanocytes in the hair bulb matrix transfer
melanosomes into the epithelial cells that
will later differentiate to form the hair.
• The keratin of hair is harder and more
compact than that of the stratum corneum,
maintaining its structure as the hair shaft
much longer.
Con…
• In most thick hairs large, vacuolated, and
moderately keratinized cells form the
central medulla of the hair root
• Heavily keratinized, densely packed cells
make up the cortex around the medulla.
• The most peripheral cells of the hair root
comprise the cuticle, a thin layer of heavily
keratinized, squamous cells covering the
cortex
Con…
• The internal root sheath completely surrounds
the initial part of the hair root but
degenerates above the level of the attached
sebaceous glands.
• The external root sheath covers the internal
sheath and extends all the way to the
epidermis.
Con…
• Separating the hair follicle from the dermis is
an acellular hyaline layer, the thickened
basement membrane called the glassy
membrane
• The arrector pili muscle, a small bundle of
smooth muscle cells, extends from the
midpoint of the fibrous sheath to the dermal
papillary layer.
Con…
• As hairs grow asynchronously, cyclically, and at
different rates in different regions of the body.
• The hair growth cycle has three major phases:
■ A generally long period of mitotic activity and
growth (anagen),
■ A brief period of arrested growth and regression
of the hair bulb (catagen), and
■ A final long period of inactivity (telogen) during
which the hair may be shed.
Con…
nails
• Nails are hard ,protective structures covering the
upper surface of the fingertips and toes.
• Nails protect the of fingers and toes from damage .
the anatomy of nail consists of
• Nail plate -the hard part you can see
• Nail bed- the skin under the nail plate
• Cuticle - the thin skin at the base of the nail plate
• Matrix the root of the nail responsible for making it
grow
• Lunula –the white moon shaped part of the nail
NAILS
• A similar process of keratinization also produces
the nails, which are hard plates of keratin on the
dorsal surface of each distal phalanx .
• The proximal part of the nail is the nail root and is
covered by a fold of skin, from which epidermal
stratum corneum extends as the cuticle, or
eponychium.
• The nail plate is bound to a bed of epidermis,
• the nail bed, which contains only the basal and
spinous epidermal layers.
Con…
• The nail root forms from the nail matrix
• The nail root matures and hardens as the nail
plate
• Continuous growth in the matrix pushes the
nail plate forward over the nail bed
• The distal end of the plate becomes free of
the nail bed at the epidermal fold called the
hyponychium.
Con…
• The nearly transparent nail plate and the
thin epithelium of the nail bed provide a
useful window on the amount of oxygen in the
blood by showing the color of blood in the
dermal vessel.
Con…
Con…
Conditions and disorders
on…
Skin disorders
• Allergies like contact dermatitis
• Blisters from trauma
• Bug bites such as spider, tick bite, mosquito
bite
• Skin cancer-melanoma
• Skin infections like cellulitis
Con…
• Skin rash
• Skin disorder like acne, psoriasis, vitligo
• Wounds burn, scar
• Hair disorders
• Alopecia areata patches of hair loss caused by
autoimmune disease
• Androgenic alopecia baldness in both genders
caused by genetics
Con…
• Anagen effluvium- lose of hair during its
growth phase e.g chemotherapy
• Telogen effluvium -loss of hair during its rest
phase hormonal change
• Traumatic alopecia hair loss due to damage to
scalp
Con…
Other conditions not releated to hair loss
• Dundruff -it causes white flakes on the scalp
and hair shaft
• Hair lice- tiny crawling insect live in persons
head
• Hirsutism excessive hair growth in people
assigned female at birth
Nail disorder
• Onychomychosis fungal infections
• Oncholysis –when nail separates from nail bed
• Psoiasis of the nails acondition that causes
pitting nail discolleration
• Lichen planus-a rash that appear as riges or
grooves on nail
• Paronychia an inflammation or infection on the
tissue surrounding the nail.
Gland disorder
• Hyperhidrosis- excessive sweating
• Seborrheic dermatitis scaly red patch that
affect face, chest and back
• Sebaceous hyperplasia common in older
people.