BCH 202

GENERAL
BIOCHEMISTRY II

BY
JOY ATULE PETER
CONTENTS
• The cell
• Cell theory
• Types of cells
• Cell organelles of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
• Structures and functions of cell organelles
• Chemical composition of cells
The cell
• The cell is the lowest level of organised structure
capable of performing life activities.

• The simplest, structural and functional unit of life.

• Life = MR NIGER D

• Robert Hooke discovered and named cell from

observing a slice of cork with a crude microscope in
1665.
The cell theory
• Proposed by Matthais Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
in 1839:

-All living things are made up of cells.

-Cells are the smallest working unit of all living

things.

-All cells come from preexisting cells through cells

division.
Types of cells
• Cells are classified based on the size and complexity
into
• Prokayotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells
• These cells are primitive in structure and have less
complexity in function and organisation of
organelles compared to eurkaryotes.
Cont’d
• They are smaller in size compared to eukaryotes
hence the smallest form of cells known.
• Cell size ranges from 1-10 microns in diameter
• Commonly known as bacteria though they include
the archaebacteria.
• Prokaryotes are either free living cells or exist as
symbiotes e.g. bacteria residing in the rumen of
ruminants.
• Some prokaryotes can be pathogenic while other
non-pathogenic.
• Growth of a bacteria colony is through binary
fission.
Eukaryotes
• Larger than prokaryotes. typically 10-100 microns in
diameter.
• More complex in structure and function compared
to prokaryotes.
• Exist as unicellular or multicellular organisms.
• Reproduces via sexual (protozoas, animals, and
plants) or asexual mode (Protista, fungi, and
plants).
Cell organelles of
prokaryotes and
eukaryotes

A bacterium cell
Eukaryotic cell
Cell organelles:
structure and functions
• Organelles gotten from the root word organ and
“elle” –meaning small. Organelles in the definition
means small or tiny organs.
• Organelles are minute structures within the
cytoplasm with distinctive functions necessary for
cells to maintain homeostasis.
• Divided into membranous organelles and non-
membranous organelles
Membranous organelles
• Includes:
The plasma membrane,
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Non-membranous
organelles
• Includes:
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes
Cytosol
Membrane organelles

The plasma membrane

• Thin flexible outermost structure which envelops the
cell.
• It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins
that are-
• i)Integral Proteins ii) Peripheral proteins III)amphitropic
proteins
• Carbohydrate side chains are found only on the outer
surface of plasma membrane
• Lipids present in the plasma membrane include
i. Phospholipids
ii. cholesterol
The plasma membrane (a fluid mosaic model)
Functions
• Selective permeability: freely allows the passage of non-
polar molecules such as gases (O2,CO2, N2), lipids, steroid
hormones, and alcohols.
Polar molecules eH2O, soluble ions, Glucose, urea etc selectively pass
through the plasma membrane with the aid of transporters (protein).
• Separate the interior of the cell from the outside
environment.
• It protects the cell from its environment
• Enables effective communication between the cell to cell and
its environment.
• Gives shape to the cell.
• Links adjacent cells together by junctional complexes to form
tissues.
• Insulating Properties: It acts as dielectric material of a
charged condenser, thus cell membrane have very high
insulating value
The nucleus
• The largest organelle in a cell
• Houses the cell’s genetic material (DNA)
• Bounded by a double membrane called nuclear membrane
(envelope).
• The nuclear envelope contains proteins channels called
“nuclear pores which allows for molecules like ribonucleic
acid (RNA) and ribosomes to move in and out of the nucleus.
• Inside is the nucleoplasm, filled with liquid where
chromosomes (tightly packed strands of DNA) are located.
• The nucleolus is a subspace within the nucleus that is
concerned with producing and assembling the cell's
ribosomes and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Following assembly,
ribosomes are transported to the cell cytoplasm where they
serve as the sites for protein synthesis.
• The nucleus averages about 5 microns in diameter
Nuclear envelope

• Consists of two membranes, called the inner and

outer nuclear membranes of 20 -40 nm apart.
• The outer membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum, so the space between the
inner and outer nuclear membranes is directly
connected with the lumen of the endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Nuclear membrane is permeable only to small non-
polar molecules.
• Underlying the inner nuclear membrane is the
nuclear lamina, a fibrous meshwork that provides
structural support to the nucleus.
Function of the nucleus

• Serves as both the repository of genetic

information and the cell control center
• Site of DNA replication and transcription.
• Controls mRNA processing
• Controls cellular activities via regulating gene
expression.
• The nucleus regulates cell growth, division,
differentiation.
• Synthesis of ribosomes
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are semi-spheroid rod-shaped structures
that are encompassed in a double membrane (the inner
and outer mitochondrial membranes) of varying
permeability.
• Size ranges from 1-10 μm long
• The inner mitochondrial membrane is highly folded into
structures called cristae (crests) to increase surface area.
• the space between the cristae is called the
mitochondrial matrix
• matrix contains:
• ds circular DNA
• prokaryote like ribosome (70S)
• enzymes in Tricarboxylic acid cycle
• enzymes for β-oxidation of fatty acid
Cont’d
• The space between the two membranes is called
the intermembrane space
• Inner membrane of mitochondria contains:
• electron transport chain
• ATP synthase
• the mitochondrial matrix contains a circular DNA
called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is
genetically different from the DNA in the nucleus.
As well as the mitochondria ribosomes. As a
consequence, mitochondria are self-replicating.
Cont’d

• Mitochondrial DNA, unlike nuclear DNA, is

inherited only from the mother, while nuclear
DNA is inherited from both parents.
• The mitochondria DNA direct the synthesis of
some proteins required in the generation of
energy.
• Cells with the highest number of mitochondria
includes myocardiocytes, hepatocytes,
nephrons, slow twitch sketetal myocytes,
ovum. While red blood cell contains no
mitochondria.
Functions
• Site for the generating most of the chemical energy
(ATP) needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
In plants and green algae, energy is generated in the
chloroplast.
• The ATP is produced in a process known as cellular
respiration or oxidative phosphorylation.
• Beta oxidation of fatty acids and glucose catabolism via
the citric acid cycle occur in the matrix of mitochondria.
• Play significant role in the initiation or regulation of
programmed cell death (apoptosis).
• Store and release calcium ions required for muscle
contraction and nerve impulse transmission.
Cont’d
• Detoxification of ammonia to produce urea occur in
the mitochondria.
• Involved in cellular activities such as cell
differentiation, cell signalling, aging, cell cycle
control and cell growth.
Endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic part of this term means ‘inside the
cell’, and reticulum means network.
• Hence, the endoplasmic reticulum is the network of
tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm.
• It is a membrane attached to the nuclear envelope that
folds around itself.
• An extensive network of closed, flattened membrane-
bounded sacs called cisternae. (cisterna = a reservoir for
a liquid)
• The Space inside the tubules is filled with Endoplasmic
Matrix.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) has ribosomes
attached
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) has no
attached ribosomes.
Functions
• Smooth ER:
 Synthesis of lipids (triacyglycerols, phospholipids,
cholesterol and steroid hormones).
 Glycogen metabolism in the liver cells,
 Detoxification of drugs and poisons,
 Store calcium for muscle contraction.
 Site for unsaturation of fatty acids.
Cont’d
• Rough ER:
• Synthesis of secretory proteins, cell membrane
proteins and organelle proteins.
• Site of protein folding and modification
(glycosylation).
• Synthesis of phospholipids and ER associated
protein.
• Site of sorting of proteins.
Golgi apparatus
• Golgi Bodies or apparatus is a collection of membrane
enclosed sacs composed of four or more stacked layers of
thin, flatten closed vessels lying near the side of the nucleus.
• Consist of multiple discrete compartments.
• Consist of three functionally distinct regions:
• i)The cis Golgi network (the receiving site)
• ii)Golgi stack–which is divided into
• a)The media land
• b)Trans subcompartments
• iii)The trans Golgi network (the shipping site).
• Golgi products (that will be secreted) depart from the trans
face of the Golgi by transport vesicle for the correct docking.
Functions
• Further modification of proteins and lipids transported
from the ER: glycosylation and phosphorylation (tagging
the sorting signal)
• Oligosaccharides portion of the glycoproteins are
modified: Golgi removes some sugar monomers and
substitutes others.
• Some polysaccharides are synthesized in the Golgi e.g
pectin and cellulose of the plant cell wall and most of
the glycosaminoglycans of animal extracellular matrix.
• Sorting and transport of the modified proteins and lipids
to the lysosome, plasma membrane or outside the cells.
• Involved in the formation of lysosomes.
• Site of synthesis of glycolipid and sphingolipids.
Lysosome
• These are spherical membrane-enclosed organelles
replete with powerful enzymes requiring a pH of 5
internally for intracellular digestion.
• As the cell’s recycling center it can re-use any
valuable raw materials it degrades.
• There are at least 50 hydrolytic (‘breaking with
water’) enzymes that have been identified, including
proteases, nucleases, glycosidases, lipases,
phospholipases, and phosphatases proteins,
polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids.
• if those hydrolases leak out of the lysosmes, they
are not likely to do damage unless the cells become
acidic.
Cont’d
• lysosomal enzymes and membranes are made by
rough ER and transferred to the Golgi for
processing. Lysosomal membranes are highly
glycosylated to protect them from lysosomal
proteases.
• Food particles engulfed as a food vacuole
(phagocytosis) or an endosome (product of
receptor-mediated endocytosis) is fused with the
lysosome for digestion.
• The digestion products are passed to cytosol and
become nutrient for the cell.
Functions
• lysosomes play an important role in cleansing and
detoxing cells, they do this by digesting other older
or worn out organelles in a natural process called
autophagy (auto means self and phagy means to
eat).
• Acts as a form of digestive (lytic) system of the cell,
because enzymes present in it can digest essentially
all macromolecules.
• Engulf exogenous substances e.g. bacteria and
degrade them (in phagocytic white blood cells)
• When a cell dies, lysosomal enzymes causes
autolysis of the remnant. That’s why lysosomes are
known as Suicidal Bags.
Peroxisome
• A single membrane structure of about 0.5µm in
diameter.
• Contain enzymes (oxidases) that transfer hydrogen
from various substrate to oxygen and produce H2O2
as intermediate product
• However, peroxisomes contain another enzyme
(catalase) that convert H2O2 to H2O
• Glyoxysomes = specialized peroxisomes (found in
fat storing tissues of plant seeds) convert fatty acid
to sugar (glucose) which can be used as energy for
seedling.
Functions
• Detoxification of alcohol and other drugs
• Neutralization of damaging free radicals
• site for β-oxidation of fatty acid and biosynthesis of
ether phospholipids.
Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs
• Diverse functions in cell maintenance
• Food vacuoles formed by phagocytosis and
digested by lysosomes.
• Contractile vacuoles (in protists) pump excess water
out of the cells.
• Central vacuole (a versatile compartment in plants)
stores protein and metabolic by-products, reservoir
of inorganic ions, pigments).
Non-membrane organelles
Cytoplasm
• Thick, gel-like semi transparent fluid that is found
in both plant and animal cell.
• The constituent parts of cytoplasm are cytosol, cell
organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions.
• Bounded by the plasma membrane, and contains
many organelles in a eukaryotic cell (cell containing
Membrane bounded nucleus).
Cytosol

• The cytosol, the aqueous part of the cytoplasm

outside all of the organelles, also contains its own
distinctive proteins.
• It accounts for almost 70% of the total cell volume.
• Gelatinous substance consisting mainly of
cytoskeleton filaments, organic molecules, salt and
water.
• Chemically, the cytoplasmic matrix is composed of
many chemical elements in the form of atoms, ions
and molecules.
Ribosome
• Ribosomes are composed of proteins and ribonucleic
acid (RNA), in about equivalent amounts. There are
two sections, or subunits and each subunit is made of
one or more ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and many
ribosomal proteins (r-proteins).
• Ribosomes can be considered “protein factories” of
the cell as apparently they can very rapidly make
proteins as long as the mRNA is being delivered to it.
Ribosomes can be free in the cytoplasm floating
around making proteins, or they can be bound to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the entire complex
is then called rough ER (see section above).
Functions
• Decoding the message from the mRNA; and
• Generating the peptide bonds.
Cytoskeleton
• Within the cytoplasm and tethered to the plasma
membrane, is network of protein fibers known as
the cytoskeleton.
• The major components of the cytoskeleton are
microtubules, intermediate filaments, and
microfilaments.
• All three of these structures are polymers of
protein subunits that vary greatly in diameter.
Cont’d
• Microtubules- These are long hollow structures approx.
25nm in diameter. Determine shape of the cell, role in the
contraction of the spindle and movement of chromosomes
and centrioles as well as inciliary and flagellar motion.
• Intermediate Filaments-They are 8-14nm in diameter and
are made up of various subunits. They form a flexible
scaffolding or cell and help it resist external pressure.
• In their absence cell ruptures more easily and when they are
abnormal in human, blistering in common.
• The proteins that make up intermediate filament are cell
types specific and are thus frequently used as cellular
markers.
• Microfilaments-They are long solid fibers 4-6nm in diameter.
They comprise the contractile protein actin and are
responsible for the cell motion.
Functions
• They are involved in the:-
• Movement of the chromosomes
• Cell movement
• Processes that move secretion granules in the cell
• Movement of proteins within the cell membrane.
• helps cells maintain their shape and internal
organization.
• Provides mechanical support for cells to carry out
their essential functions, like cell division and
movement.
Centromere
• A centrosome is a cellular structure involved in the
process of cell division.
• It consists of two centrioles oriented at right angles to
each other.
• The centrosome is the primary microtubule-organizing
center (MTOC) and regulates cell motility, adhesion and
polarity in interphase, and facilitates the organization of
the spindle poles during mitosis (cell division).
• Also, proteins called microtubules assemble into a
spindle between the two centrosomes and help separate
the replicated chromosomes into the daughter cells.
Chemical composition of
the cell
• Different substances that make a cell are collectively
called Protoplasm.
• Protoplasm is composed of:-
• 1)Water- 70-80% Water is present in cell.
• 2)Carbohydrates
• 3)Lipids
• 4)Proteins
• 5)Electrolyte: Sodium(Na+), Potassium(K+),
Magnesium(Mg2+), Calcium(Ca2+), Phosphate,
Chloride(Cl-), and Bicarbonate(HC03-).