Muscles and Muscle Tissue: Part C: Prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 9
Muscles and
Muscle
Tissue: Part C

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Force of Muscle Contraction
• The force of contraction is affected by:

• Number of muscle fibers stimulated
(recruitment)
• Relative size of the fibers—hypertrophy of
cells increases strength

Force of Muscle Contraction
• The force of contraction is affected by:

• Frequency of stimulation— frequency allows
time for more effective transfer of tension to
noncontractile components
• Length-tension relationship—muscles contract
most strongly when muscle fibers are 80–
120% of their normal resting length

Large Muscle and
number of sarcomere
muscle Large High stretched to
fibers muscle frequency of slightly over 100%
activated fibers stimulation of resting length
Contractile force
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.21

Sarcomeres Sarcomeres at Sarcomeres excessively
greatly resting length stretched
shortened
75% 100% 170%
Optimal sarcomere
operating length
(80%–120% of
resting length)

Velocity and Duration of Contraction
Influenced by:
1. Muscle fiber type
2. Load
3. Recruitment

Muscle Fiber Type
Classified according to two characteristics:

1. Speed of contraction: slow or fast,
according to:
• Speed at which myosin ATPases split ATP
• Pattern of electrical activity of the motor
neurons

Muscle Fiber Type
2. Metabolic pathways for ATP synthesis:

• Oxidative fibers—use aerobic pathways
• Glycolytic fibers—use anaerobic glycolysis

Muscle Fiber Type
Three types:
• Slow oxidative fibers
• Fast oxidative fibers
• Fast glycolytic fibers

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 9.2
Predominance Small load Predominance
of fast glycolytic of slow oxidative
(fatigable) fibers (fatigue-resistant)
fibers
Contractile Contractile
velocity duration

FO
SO
FG

Effects of Exercise
Aerobic (endurance) exercise:

• Leads to increased:
• Muscle capillaries
• Number of mitochondria
• Myoglobin synthesis
• Results in greater endurance, strength, and
resistance to fatigue
• May convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative
fibers

Effects of Resistance Exercise
• Resistance exercise (typically anaerobic)

results in:
• Muscle hypertrophy (due to increase in fiber
size)
• Increased mitochondria, myofilaments,
glycogen stores, and connective tissue

The Overload Principle
• Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes

increased muscle strength and endurance
• Muscles adapt to increased demands
• Muscles must be overloaded to produce
further gains

Smooth Muscle
• Found in walls of most hollow organs

(except heart)
• Usually in two layers (longitudinal and
circular)

Longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle
(shows smooth
muscle fibers in
cross section)
Small
intestine Mucosa
(a) (b) Cross section of the Circular layer of

intestine showing the smooth muscle
smooth muscle layers (shows longitudinal
(one circular and the views of smooth
other longitudinal) muscle fibers)
running at right
angles to each other.

Peristalsis
• Alternating contractions and relaxations of

smooth muscle layers that mix and squeeze
substances through the lumen of hollow
organs
• Longitudinal layer contracts; organ dilates and
shortens
• Circular layer contracts; organ constricts and
elongates

Microscopic Structure
• Spindle-shaped fibers: thin and short

compared with skeletal muscle fibers
• Connective tissue: endomysium only
• SR: less developed than in skeletal muscle
• Pouchlike infoldings (caveolae) of
sarcolemma sequester Ca2+
• No sarcomeres, myofibrils, or T tubules

Innervation of Smooth Muscle
• Autonomic nerve fibers innervate smooth

muscle at diffuse junctions
• Varicosities (bulbous swellings) of nerve fibers
store and release neurotransmitters

Varicosities
Autonomic Smooth
nerve fibers muscle
innervate cell
most smooth
muscle fibers.
Synaptic Mitochondrion Varicosities release

vesicles their neurotransmitters
into a wide synaptic
cleft (a diffuse junction).
Myofilaments in Smooth Muscle
• Ratio of thick to thin filaments (1:13) is much

lower than in skeletal muscle (1:2)
• Thick filaments have heads along their entire
length
• No troponin complex; protein calmodulin binds
Ca2+

Myofilaments in Smooth Muscle
• Myofilaments are spirally arranged, causing

smooth muscle to contract in a corkscrew
manner
• Dense bodies: proteins that anchor
noncontractile intermediate filaments to
sarcolemma at regular intervals

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.28a
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.28b
Contraction of Smooth Muscle
• Slow, synchronized contractions

• Cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions
• Some cells are self-excitatory (depolarize
without external stimuli); act as pacemakers
for sheets of muscle
• Rate and intensity of contraction may be
modified by neural and chemical stimuli

• Sliding filament mechanism

• Final trigger is  intracellular Ca2+
• Ca2+ is obtained from the SR and extracellular
space

Role of Calcium Ions
• Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin

• Activated calmodulin activates myosin (light
chain) kinase
• Activated kinase phosphorylates and activates
myosin
• Cross bridges interact with actin

Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Ca2+
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
1 Calcium ions (Ca2+)

enter the cytosol from
the ECF via voltage-
dependent or voltage- Ca2+
independent Ca2+
channels, or from
the scant SR.
2 Ca2+ binds to and Sarcoplasmic

activates calmodulin. reticulum
Ca2+
Inactive calmodulin Activated calmodulin
3 Activated calmodulin
activates the myosin
light chain kinase
enzymes.
Inactive kinase Activated kinase
4 The activated kinase enzymes ATP

catalyze transfer of phosphate
to myosin, activating the myosin ADP
ATPases.
Pi
Pi
Inactive Activated (phosphorylated)

myosin molecule myosin molecule
5 Activated myosin forms cross

bridges with actin of the thin
filaments and shortening begins.
Thin
filament
Thick
filament

Ca2+
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm

dependent or voltage-
Ca2+
independent Ca2+
channels, or from
the scant SR.
Sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 1

2 Ca2+ binds to and
activates calmodulin.
Ca2+

light chain kinase
enzymes.

ATPases.
Pi
Pi


Thin
filament
Thick
filament

Ca2+
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm

dependent or voltage- Ca2+
independent Ca2+
channels, or from
the scant SR.
2 Ca2+ binds to and Sarcoplasmic

activates calmodulin. reticulum
Ca2+
light chain kinase
enzymes.

ATPases.
Pi
Pi


Thin
filament
Thick
filament

• Very energy efficient (slow ATPases)

• Myofilaments may maintain a latch state for
prolonged contractions
Relaxation requires:
• Ca2+ detachment from calmodulin
• Active transport of Ca2+ into SR and ECF
• Dephosphorylation of myosin to reduce
myosin ATPase activity

Regulation of Contraction
Neural regulation:
• Neurotransmitter binding   [Ca2+] in
sarcoplasm; either graded (local) potential or
action potential
• Response depends on neurotransmitter
released and type of receptor molecules

Regulation of Contraction
Hormones and local chemicals:

• May bind to G protein–linked receptors
• May either enhance or inhibit Ca2+ entry

Special Features of Smooth Muscle
Contraction
Stress-relaxation response:
• Responds to stretch only briefly, then adapts
to new length
• Retains ability to contract on demand
• Enables organs such as the stomach and
bladder to temporarily store contents
Length and tension changes:
• Can contract when between half and twice its
resting length

Special Features of Smooth Muscle
Contraction
Hyperplasia:
• Smooth muscle cells can divide and increase
their numbers
• Example:
• estrogen effects on uterus at puberty and
during pregnancy

Types of Smooth Muscle
Single-unit (visceral) smooth muscle:

• Sheets contract rhythmically as a unit (gap
junctions)
• Often exhibit spontaneous action potentials
• Arranged in opposing sheets and exhibit
stress-relaxation response

Types of Smooth Muscle: Multiunit
Multiunit smooth muscle:

• Located in large airways, large arteries,
arrector pili muscles, and iris of eye
• Gap junctions are rare
• Arranged in motor units
• Graded contractions occur in response to
neural stimuli

Developmental Aspects
• Muscular development reflects neuromuscular

coordination
• Development occurs head to toe, and
proximal to distal
• Peak natural neural control occurs by
midadolescence
• Athletics and training can improve
neuromuscular control

• Female skeletal muscle makes up 36% of

body mass
• Male skeletal muscle makes up 42% of body
mass, primarily due to testosterone
• Body strength per unit muscle mass is the
same in both sexes

• With age, connective tissue increases and

muscle fibers decrease
• By age 30, loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia)
begins
• Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia
• Atherosclerosis may block distal arteries,
leading to intermittent claudication and severe
pain in leg muscles

Muscular Dystrophy
• Group of inherited muscle-destroying

diseases
• Muscles enlarge due to fat and connective
tissue deposits
• Muscle fibers atrophy

Muscular Dystrophy
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD):

• Most common and severe type
• Inherited, sex-linked, carried by females and
expressed in males (1/3500) as lack of dystrophin
• Victims become clumsy and fall frequently; usually die
of respiratory failure in their 20s
• No cure, but viral gene therapy or infusion of stem
cells with correct dystrophin genes show promise

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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The force of contraction is affected by:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The force of contraction is affected by:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.21

75% 100% 170%

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.22

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Classified according to two characteristics:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. Metabolic pathways for ATP synthesis:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.23

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.24

Aerobic (endurance) exercise:

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Resistance exercise (typically anaerobic)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Found in walls of most hollow organs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) (b) Cross section of the Circular layer of

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.26

• Alternating contractions and relaxations of

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Spindle-shaped fibers: thin and short

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Autonomic nerve fibers innervate smooth

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Synaptic Mitochondrion Varicosities release

• Ratio of thick to thin filaments (1:13) is much

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Myofilaments are spirally arranged, causing

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Slow, synchronized contractions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Sliding filament mechanism

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

1 Calcium ions (Ca2+)

2 Ca2+ binds to and Sarcoplasmic

Inactive calmodulin Activated calmodulin

4 The activated kinase enzymes ATP

Inactive Activated (phosphorylated)

5 Activated myosin forms cross

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29

1 Calcium ions (Ca2+)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 1

Inactive calmodulin Activated calmodulin

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 2

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 3

Inactive Activated (phosphorylated)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 4

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.29, step 5