Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Erbil Polytechnic University

Stage:2
Dep: Physiotherapy Department
Subject: Kinesiology and Biomechanics

Biomechanics of
Muscle

Prepared by: Muhammad Nahro Aziz

Supervised by: Dr.Ghassan Husni Ali
2020-2021
Preface

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Allah enabling me to complete

my Report.

In order to gain more knowledge in the field of “Kinesiology and Biomechanics”. I

required to make a report on “Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle”. The basic
objective behind doing this report is to get knowledge Biomechanics of skeletal
Muscle. In this report I have included a brief about introduction of Muscle,
Factors Affecting Muscular Strength, Sources of Resistance to Muscle
Contraction, Muscle Size and Its Effect on Force Production, and Relationship
between a Muscle’s Moment Arm and Its Force Production.

Doing this report helped me to enhance our knowledge Biomechanics of muscle

as well as its structures. doing undergo many experiences related with my topic.

Through this report I come to know about importance of “Biomechanics of

Muscle” towards the work.
Contents

Headings Page Number

Preface
Introduction 1

Structures of Skeletal Muscle 2-3

Muscle contraction 3-5

Factors Affecting Ability to Generate

5-7
Muscle Force
Sources of Resistance to Muscle
8-10
Contraction

Factors Affecting Muscular Strength 9-12

Muscle Size and Its Effect on Force

12-13
Production

Relationship between a Muscle’s Moment

14
Arm and Its Force Production

Conclusion 15
References 16
Introduction

We Human being have a unique characteristics in producing a variety of posture and movement
and we have ability to move from one place to another, i.e. the locomotive function. The enabler
of these functions is our musculoskeletal system that support the body loads and movements of the
body segments. This function is embedded in the principles of human biomechanics.
Biomechanics has its major application in the areas of improving movement performanc e,
reduction of movement impairment or intervention in movement-related injuries or conditions. In
physiotherapy practice, Biomechanics concepts such as principles of range of motion, active and
passive insufficiency, concave-convex rule, the law of forces, motion and machines are applied in
therapeutic exercises, Also, ergonomics training and the design of modern orthopaedic devices
such as advanced walking aids are based on the application of biomechanics concept . Therefore,
biomechanics is considered to be one of the basic knowledge in physiotherapy practice to provide
optimal care for several movement-related injuries or conditions. Hence, I will start by
introducing us to some of these biomechanics concepts .

1
Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle

STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

A whole skeletal muscle is considered an organ of the muscular

system. Each organ or muscle consists of skeletal muscle
tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and blood or vascular
tissue.

Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, shape, and

arrangement of fibers. They range from extremely tiny strands
such as the stapedium muscle of the middle ear to large masses
such as the muscles of the thigh. Some skeletal muscles are broad
in shape and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are parallel
to the long axis of the muscle; in some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they are
oblique.

Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle may be
made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and wrapped in a
connective tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the epimysium,
surrounds and separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward *Commonly, the
to divide the muscle into compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of epimysium,

muscle fibers. Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is perimysium, and

surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Within the endomysium extend
fasciculus, each individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by beyond the fleshy
connective tissue called the endomysium. part of the muscle

Skeletal muscle cells (fibers), like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The
connective tissue covering furnish support and protection for the delicate cells
and allow them to withstand the forces of contraction. The coverings also provide pathways for the
passage of blood vessels and nerves.

Commonly, the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium extend beyond the fleshy part of the muscle,
the belly or gaster, to form a thick ropelike tendon or a broad, flat sheet-like aponeurosis. The tendon

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and aponeurosis form indirect attachments from muscles to the periosteum of bones or to the
connective tissue of other muscles. Typically a muscle spans a joint and is attached to bones by tendons
at both ends. One of the bones remains relatively fixed or stable while the other end moves as a result
of muscle contraction.

Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly related to the
primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal muscle fiber can contract, it has to
receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally, an artery and at least one vein accompany each nerve
that penetrates the epimysium of a skeletal muscle. Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the
connective tissue components of the muscle of a nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels
called capillaries.

Muscle contraction

Here is what happens in detail. The process of a muscle contracting can be divided into 5 sections:

1. A nerve impulse arrives at the neuromuscular junction, which causes a release of a

chemical called Acetylcholine. The presence of Acetylcholine causes the depolarisation
of the motor endplate which travels throughout the muscle by the transverse tubules,
causing Calcium (Ca+) to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
2. In the presence of high concentrations of Ca+, the Ca+ binds to Troponin, changing its
shape and so moving Tropomyosin from the active site of the Actin. The Myosin
filaments can now attach to the Actin, forming a cross-bridge.
3. The breakdown of ATP releases energy which enables the Myosin to pull the Actin
filaments inwards and so shortening the muscle. This occurs along the entire length of
every myofibril in the muscle cell.
4. The Myosin detaches from the Actin and the cross-bridge is broken when an ATP
molecule binds to the Myosin head. When the ATP is then broken down the Myosin
head can again attach to an Actin binding site further along the Actin filament and
repeat the ‘power stroke’. This repeated pulling of the Actin over the myosin is often
known as the ratchet mechanism.

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5. This process of muscular contraction can last for as long as there are adequate ATP and
Ca+ stores. Once the impulse stops the Ca+ is pumped back to the Sarcoplasmi
Reticulum and the Actin returns to its resting position causing the muscle to lengthen
and relax.
+ It is important to realise that a single power stroke results in only a shortening of approximately 1%
of the entire muscle. Therefore to achieve an overall shortening of up to 35% the whole process must
be repeated many times. It is thought that whilst half of the cross-bridges are active in pulling the Actin
over the Myosin, the other half are looking for their next binding site.

Stretched Muscle

Looking at the diagram above again shows a stretched

muscle where the I – bands and the H – zone is elongated
due to reduced overlapping of the myosin and actin
filaments. There would be reduced muscle strength because
few cross-bridges can form between the actin and myosin.

Partially Contracted Muscle

The diagram above shows a partially contracted muscle

where there is more overlapping of the myosin and actin
with lots of potential for cross bridges to form. The I –
bands and H – zone is shortened.

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Fully Contracted Muscle

The diagram above shows a fully contracted muscle with lots

of overlap between the actin and myosin. Because the thin
actin filaments have overlapped there is a reduced potential
for cross bridges to form again. Therefore, there will be low
force production from the muscle.

Factors Affecting Ability to Generate Muscle Force

Strength
Maximum force that a muscle or muscle group can generate at a specific velocity

Power
Maximum force that a muscle or muscle group can generate at a very high rate of speed

Torque

The “rotational” power of a muscle or muscle groups; i.e. movement against a resistance through
angular displacement. Example, knee flexion or extension.

Angle of Pennation

A. Angle at which muscle fibers align with tendon

The more parallel to the tendon, the greater the potential for speed of contraction
The more oblique (angled) to the tendon, the greater the potential for force of contraction

B. Types of pennation

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Unipennate – one set of muscle fibers at oblique angle
Bipennate – muscle fibers aligned on either side of tendon
Multipennate – more than one tendon attachment with 2 or more angles in whole muscle group
Fusiform – muscle fibers are parallel to tendon
Longitundinal – muscle fibers are parallel but have intermediate attachments
Radiate – muscle fibers are spread out from single point

Angle of Muscle-Bone Attachment

- a person whose tendons are inserted on the bone closer to the joint center should be able to move
the body part faster through the ROM
- a person whose tendons are inserted on the bone further from the joint center should be able to lift
heavier weights

Length of Moment Arm

- the longer the moment arm, the greater the mechanical advantage, i.e. easier to lift a weight
- the shorter the moment arm, the lesser the mechanical advantage, i.e. more difficult to lift a weight

Neural Control
- neural interaction can affect contraction output in various ways:
A. more muscle force occurs when:
1. more motor units are involved
2. motor units are greater in size
3. rate of motor unit firing is
faster
B. Conditioning timeline

Muscle Cross-sectional Area

- the force that a muscle can exert is directly related to its cross-sectional area rather than volume
e.g. a tall athlete with longer arms can have large muscle volume, but a shorter athlete with less
volume can have greater cross-sectional area

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Muscle Contraction Velocity

- force capability of muscle declines as velocity of contraction increases and vice versa

Muscle Action
- Basic actions are:
a. isometric – no change in muscle length
since contractile force = resistive force;
e.g. abdominals during sit-up
b. isotonic – change in muscle length
1. concentric – shortening
2. eccentric – lengthening
c. isokinetic – change in muscle length while
working against an accomodating resistance at a
fixed velocity.

Strength to Mass ratio

- strength of a muscle (relative to its mass) directly reflects an athlete’s ability to accelerate their body
e.g. if an athlete’s muscle mass by
15% but force only by 10%,
ability to accelerate is reduced

Body Size

- smaller athletes are generally stronger than taller athletes on a pound for pound basis
Why?
As body size , muscle mass is
increasing faster than muscle
strength can keep up

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Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction

Gravity

- downward force on an object

- object’s weight = object’s mass x acceleration

Positioning of Resistance
- depending upon the placement of an object (barbell), different muscles may be affected
e.g. in the squat, a more forward inclination of the trunk brings the weight closer to the knees;
hence this reduces the resistive torque about the knees that the quad muscles must counteract
while at the same time
the weight is farther from the hip, so the resistive torque about the hip increases making the
gluteus and hamstrings work harder

Weight-stacked machines

- provide support during lifting actions

- can design certain ROM’s that can’t be provided by free weights
- easy to use when selecting weights

Free-weights

- provide means to do whole-body training

i.e. cause certain muscle to become stabilizers
- simulate real-life muscle actions
i.e. more natural coordination occurring between
muscle groups

Inertia

- the force that must be overcome to move a weight

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a. can be used to one’s advantage as in the technique of bracketing * performing a sport
movement with lighter than normal and heavier than normal implements e.g. using a heavier shot
put to train for strength or a lighter shot put to train for speed

6. Friction

- creating resistance while gripping a barbell or a rope during a rope-climb

7. Fluid Resistance
- resistance encountered when moving through water
- 2 types:
a. surface drag – resistance on surface
b. form drag – resistance when fluid presses
against front or rear of object passing through it

Elasticity
- resistance created through springs or bands
e.g. therabands
- amount of resistance is
controlled by length of stretch or
thickness of band
- problems with elastic devices:
a. every movement begins with low resistance
and ends with high resistance; may be
contrary to human movement
b. adjusting resistance
c. not optimum for providing resistance in jumpers

Electronically-controlled devices
- control rate of machine movement through a feedback mechanism

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examples:
a. isokinetic devices – Biodex, Cybex,
Orthotron, Kin Com, mini-gyms
b. cycle ergometers
c. others – control power output and
acceleration

Factors Affecting Muscular Strength

Age
Another factor over which we have little control is age. Studies show that people of all ages can
increase their muscle size and strength as a result of a safe and effective strength training program.
However, the rate of strength and muscle gain appears to be greater from age 10-20, the years of rapid
growth and development. After reaching normal physical maturity, muscular improvements usually
don’t come as quickly.

Gender
Gender does not affect the quality of our muscle, but does influence the quantity. Although men’s and
women’s muscle tissue are characteristically the same, men generally have more muscle tissue than
women do because muscle size is increased by the presence of testosterone, the male sex hormone. The
larger the muscles, the stronger the person; this is why most men are stronger than most women.

Limb and Muscle Length

Another strength factor that is naturally determined is limb length. Persons with short limbs tend to be
able to lift more weight because of advantageous leverage factors (arms and legs). Similarly,
differences in strength development may come about because of variation in muscle length. Some
people have long muscles, and some people have short muscles. Persons with relatively long muscles
have greater potential for developing size and strength than persons with relatively short muscles.

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Point of Tendon Insertion

Muscle strength is also influenced by the point of tendon insertion. For example, let’s say Jim and John
both have the same arm and muscle length. However, Jim’s biceps tendon attaches to his forearm
farther from his elbow joint than John’s does. This gives Jim a biomechanical advantage: he is able to
lift more weight than John in biceps exercises such as the Biceps Curl.

Other Important Factors

All of these factors affect our ability to gain strength and muscle development through training. Keep
in mind, however, that the most influential factor in achieving good results is using a very slow,
controlled lifting movement and lifting to the point of muscle fatigue.

In addition to using good lifting technique, it is absolutely imperative that you not only train with
intensity on a well-balanced program, but also give your muscles enough resting time between training
sessions. Overtraining is a common mistake people make; it happens not only when you don’t allow
your muscles enough rest, but also when you train with too many sets and exercises for each muscle
group.

Another mistake people make is doing the same program over and over again even after they have
reached a plateau. Any time you 1) stop gaining strength or muscle size or 2) get bored, it is crucial that
you change the program, so that you can go through a whole new phase achieving new results.

We inherit most of these factors affecting strength from our parents, and they have a big impact on our
size, strength, and appearance. It is very important that you not become obsessed with trying to look
like a world-class body builder—or any other body type that is not your own. We are not all meant to
look the same. It is very important that you learn about and accept your own body’s characteristics and
type, so you can develop a reasonable program specific to realistic goals and personal interests.

Genetics does clearly play a role in your health and appearance, but they certainly do not determine
how often or well you train. Even if you are born with a genetic predisposition to being overweight or
weak, the way you live is what will ultimately determine whether you become fit and strong or fat and
weak.

Weightlifting provides many important benefits that cannot be achieved by any other exercise or
activity. Physiologically, the benefits of consistent strength training include an increase in muscle size
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and tone, increased muscle strength, and increases in tendon, bone, and ligament strength. Strength-
training has also been shown to improve psychological health as well, by increasing self-esteem,
confidence and self-worth. If you understand and accept your body, you will be able to work with it,
not against it. Everyone can improve their strength, appearance, and performance level by consistently
implementing an effective strength training program.

Muscle Size and Its Effect on Force Production

As noted earlier in this chapter, the force of contraction is a function

of the number of cross-links made between the actin and myosin
chains. The more cross-links formed, the stronger the force of
contraction. Therefore, the force of contraction depends upon the
amount of actin and myosin available and thus on the number of
fibers a muscle contains. In other words, the force of contraction is
related to a muscle’s size. In fact, muscle size is the most important
single factor determining the tensile force generated by a muscle’s
contraction. Estimates of the maximal contractile force per unit of Figure 4.10: The relationship between
muscle range from approximately 20 to 135 N/cm2. These data muscle architecture and
muscle size. A. The anatomical cross-
reveal a wide disparity in the estimates of the maximum tensile force sectional area of a muscle is
the area of a slice through the widest part of
that muscle can produce. Additional research is needed to determine the muscle perpendicular to the muscle’s
length. It is similar in a parallel fiber
if all skeletal muscle has the same potential maximum and what that muscle and a pennate muscle of similar
overall size. B. The
maximum really is. Although the estimates presented above vary physiological cross-sectional area of a
widely, they do demonstrate that the maximum tensile force muscle is the area of a slice
that cuts across all of the fibers of the
produced by an individual muscle is a function of its area. However, muscle. It is quite different
for a parallel fiber muscle and a pennate
the overall size of a muscle may be a poor indication of the number muscle.

of fibers contained in that muscle. The relationship between muscle size and force of contraction is
complicated
by the muscle’s architecture. The anatomical cross-sectional area of the muscle is the cross-sectional
area at the muscle’s widest point and perpendicular to the length of the whole muscle. In a parallel fiber
muscle this cross-sectional area cuts across most of the fibers of the muscle (Fig. 4.10). However, in a
pennate muscle the anatomical cross-sectional area cuts across only a portion of the fibers composing
the muscle. Thus the anatomical cross-sectional area underestimates the number of fibers contained in a

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pennate muscle and hence its force production capabilities. The standard measure used to approximate
the number of fibers of a whole muscle is its physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). The PCSA is
the area of a slice that passes through all of the fibers of a muscle. In a parallel fiber muscle the PCSA
is approximately equal to the anatomical cross-sectional area. However, in a pennate muscle the PCSA
is considerably larger than its anatomical cross-sectional area. The PCSAs of two muscles of similar
overall size demonstrate the influence of muscle architecture on force production. Although their
anatomical cross-sectional areas are very similar, the pennate muscle has a much larger PCSA. Thus if
all other factors are equal, the pennate muscle is capable of generating more contraction force than the
muscle with parallel
fibers. The angle at which the fibers insert into the tendon also
influences the total force that is applied to the limb by a pennate muscle. This angle is known as the
angle of pennation. The tensile force generated by the whole muscle is the vector
sum of the force components that are applied parallel to the muscle’s tendon. Therefore, as the angle of
pennation increases, the tensile component of the contraction force decreases. However, the larger the
pennation angle is, the larger the PCSA is. In most muscles the pennation angle is 30° or less, and thus
pennation typically increases the tensile force produced by contraction.Resistance training increases the
fibers’ angle of pennation (and the muscle’s PCSA). This increase appears to result from increases, or
hypertrophy, in the cross-sectional area of individual muscle fibers. Muscle architecture demonstrates
how muscles exhibit specializations that enhance one performance characteristic or another. Long
fibers in a muscle promote the excursion producing capacity of the muscle. However, spatial
constraints of the human body prevent a muscle with long fibers from having a very large cross-
sectional area and hence a large force-production capacity. On the other hand, muscles with a large
PCSA can be fit into small areas by arranging the fibers in a pennate pattern. However, the short fibers
limit the excursion capacity of the muscle. Thus fiber arrangement suggests that pennate muscles are
specialized for force production but have
limited ability to produce a large excursion. Conversely, a muscle with parallel fibers has an improved
ability to produce an excursion but produces a smaller contractile force than a pennate muscle of the
same overall size. Thus the intrinsic structural characteristics of a muscle help define the performance
of the muscle by affecting both the force of contraction and the amount of the resulting joint excursion.
These intrinsic factors respond to an increase or decrease in activity over time. However, instantaneous
changes in the muscle also result in large but temporary responses in a muscle’s performance. These
changes include stretching the muscle and altering its moment arm. These effects are described below

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Relationship between a Muscle’s Moment Arm and Its Force Production

As noted earlier, a muscle’s ability to rotate a joint

depends
upon the muscle’s force of contraction and on its
moment arm, the perpendicular distance from the muscle
force to the point of rotation. The previous discussion
reveals that muscle size and the stretch of the muscle
have a significant impact on the force of contraction.
However, the muscle’s moment arm is critical in
determining the moment
Figure 4.16: Moment arm of a muscle. A muscle’s moment arm
generated by the muscle contraction. The larger the (l) is easily calculated using the muscle’s angle of application ()
and the distance (d) from the muscle attachment to the axis of
moment arm, the larger the moment created by the rotation.
I d sin l1l2
muscle contraction. The relationship between a muscle’s Figure 4.17: The effect of moment arm of a muscle on the muscle’s
performance. A muscle with a short moment arm (l1) generates a
moment arm and its angle of application is described smaller moment than a muscle with a longer moment arm
(l2) that generates the same contraction force.
earlier in the current chapter. The moment arm is
determined by the sine
of the angle of application and the distance between the muscle’s attachment and the joint’s axis of
rotation (Fig. 4.16). The muscle’s moment arm is maximum when the muscle’s angle of application is
90°, since the sine of 90° equals 1. A muscle with a large moment arm produces a
larger moment than a muscle with a shorter moment arm if both muscles generate equal contractile
forces (Fig. 4.17).The moment arms of some muscles such as the hamstrings change several
centimeters through the full ROM of the joint, while others such as the flexor digitorum profundus
demonstrate very little change (Fig. 4.18). Therefore, a muscle’s ability to produce a moment varies
with the joint position.

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Conclusion

This chapter reviews the basic mechanisms of muscle shortening and discusses in detail the individual
factors that influence a muscle’s ability to produce motion and to generate
force. The primary factors influencing a muscle’s ability to produce joint motion are the length of the
muscle fibers within the muscle and the length of the muscle’s moment arm. Muscle strength, including
its tensile force of contraction and its resulting moment, is a function of muscle size, muscle
moment arm length, stretch of the muscle, contraction velocity, fiber types within the muscle, and
amount of muscle fiber recruitment. Each factor is described and examples are provided to demonstrate
how an understanding of the factor can be used in the clinic to explain or optimize performance. The
discussion also demonstrates that often as one factor is enhancing a performance characteristic another
factor may be detracting from that performance. The final output of a muscle is the result of all of the
factors influencing performance.
Thus to understand the basis for a patient’s performance, the clinician must be able to recognize how
the individual factors influencing muscle performance change as joint position and motion change.

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References
➢ Biomechanics of Skeletal muscle chapter 9 (Book)
➢ https://www.physio-pedia.com/Introduction_to_Human_Biomechanics_1
➢ https://www.afpafitness.com/research-articles/factors-affecting-muscular-strength
➢ https://web.cortland.edu/buckenmeyerp/neuro3.htm
➢ https://www.teachpe.com/anatomy-physiology/sliding-filament-theory
➢ https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/muscular/structure.html#:~:text=Each%20skelet
al%20muscle%20fiber%20is,tissue%20sheath%20called%20the%20epimysium.

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