LESSON-1

APPLICATION OF RADIOGRAPHY:
USED TO TEST- WELD, CASTING, FORGING, FABRICATION
ADVANTAGES OF RADIOGRAPHY (RT)
1. CAN BE USED WITH MOST MATERIALS
2. PROVIDES A PERMANENT VISUAL IMAGE
3. REVEALS THE INTERNAL NATURE OF MATERIAL
4. DISCLOSES FABRICATION ERRORS
5. REVEALS STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUTIES

CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNEL

LEVEL I IS QUALIFIED TO PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS,
SPECIFIC TEST AND SPECIFIC EVALUATIONS.
LEVEL II IS QUALIFIED TO SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT
AND TO INTERPRET AND EVALUATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO
CODES, STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS. MUST BE ABLE TO
PREPARE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORT TEST RESULTS
LEVEL III- MUST BE CAPABLE AND RESPONSIBLE FOR
ESTABLISHING TECHNQUES, INTERPRETING CODES AND
DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD AND TECHNIQUE TO BE USED.
MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL BACKGROUND IN THE TECHNOLOGY
AND BE FAMILIAR WITH OTHER COMMONLY USED METHODS OF
NDT.

LESSON-2

PENETRATION AND ABSORPTION

X & GAMA RAYS POSSESS THE
CAPABILITY OF PENETRATING
MATERIALS.
IN PASSING THROUGH MATTER, THE
AMOUNT OF ABSORPTION AT ANY
POINT IS DEPENDENT UPON THE
THICKNESS AND DENSITY AT THAT
POINT.
WHEN THIS VARIATION IS DETECTED
AND RECORDED(USUALLY ON FILM), A
MEANS OF IMAGING THE INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF THE MATERIAL IS
AVAILABLE
THE LATENT IMAGE PRODUCED ITN
THE FILM BECOMES A SHADOW
PICTURE OF THE SPECIMEN WHEN
THE FILM IS PROCESSED.
5

WHAT IS RADIATION?

X AND GAMA RAYS ARE A FAMILY OF WAVES THAT ARE CALLED ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES

THE SPECTRUM IS ARRANGED IN ORDER BY FREQUENCY OF THE WAVE. THE WAVES WITH
THE LOWEST REQUENCY ARE LISTED AT THE LEFT END OF THE CHART WHILE, THE WAVES
WITH THE HIGHEST FREQUENCY ARE AT THE RIGHT.

SINCE, VISIBLE LIGHT AND X AND GAMMA RAYS ARE MEMBERS OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, THEY HAVE MANY THINGS IN COMMON

1.

TRAVEL AT THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT(186,000 MILES PER SEC)

2.

TRAVEL IN STRAIGHT LINES

3.

NOT AFFECTED BY MAGNETIC FIELDS

4.

WILL EXPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

6

WAVE LENGTH DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PEAKS OF THE WAVE

SOME RADIO WAVES ARE SEVERAL MILES LONG WHILE X & GAMMA RAYS ARE
MEASURED IN ANGSTROM UNITS AN ANGSTROM UNIT IS EQUAL TO
0.00000001(10-8 BILLIONTHS) CM
FRQUENCY THE NUMBER OF ELECTROMANGNETIC WAVES THAT PASS A GIVEN
POINT IN ONE SECOND.
ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TRAVEL AT THE SAME VELOCITY
FREQUENCY IS MEASURED IN CYCLES PER SECOND A CYCLE BEING ONE
COMPLETE WAVE, TROUGH TO TROUGH OR PEAK TO PEAK
THE FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE
INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIGHT RAYS

AND GAMMA RAYS IS THEIR
PENETRATING ABILITY.
X-RAYS HAVE A HIGH FREQUENCY
AND SHORT WAVELENGTH, THEY
ARE ABLE TO PENETRATE OPAQUE
OBJECTS AND EXPOSE TO
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
THE DEPTH OF PENETRATION OF
THE RAYS DEPENDS UPON THE
KIND OF MATERIAL IN THE OBJECT
AND THE ENERGY OF THE RAYS.
THE HIGHER ENERGY IS OBTAINED
FORM X AND GAMMA RAYS WITH A
HIGH FREQUENY AND SHORT
WAVELENGTH.

X AND GAMMAR RAYS HAVE CHARCTERISTIC TO TRAVELL IN STRAIGHT LINE.

RADIATION PRODUCES THE IMAGE OF A SPECIMEN JUST AS A SHADOW.
X AND GAMMA RAYS CAN WXPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM BECAUSE OF THEIR
ABILITY TO IONIZE MATERIAL
WHEN THE RADIATION PENETRATS THE FILM, THE FILM EXPOSED BECAUSE THE
RAYS IONIZE THE TINY SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS IN THE FILM EMULSION.
THE IONIZATION OF THE FILMS EMULSION FORMS A LATENT IMAGE WHICH IS
DEVELOPED DURING LATER PROCESSING OF THE FILM.

ENOUGH RAYS MUST

PENETRATE THE
OBJECTIVE TO FORM AN
IMAGE.
ABSORPTION IS THE
ABILITY OF THE
SPECIMEN TO BLOCK THE
PASSAGE OF X- RAYS
THROUGH THE MATERIAL.
WHEN THE FILM IS
DEVELOPED, THE
EXPOSED PORTION
TURNS DARK WHILE THE
UNEXPOSED PORTION
WILL BE CLEAR.
10

THE FORMATION OF AN IMAGE

ON THE FILM DEPENDS UPON
THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION
RECEIVED BY DIFFERENT
SECTIONS OF THE FILM.
A DISCONTINUITY SUCH AS
VOID REPRESENTS A
THICKNESS DIFFERNCE IN THE
SPECIMEN AND WILL APPEAR
AS A DARK SPOT ON THE
DEVELOPED FILM.
IF TRHE DISCONTINUITY
SHOWN HERE HAD BEEN AN
INCLUSION THAT WAS MORE
DNESE THAT THE SPECIMEN
MATERIAL, THEN THE IMAGE ON
THE FILM WOULD HAVE BEEN
LIGHTER THAT SPOT.
THE X RAYS WOULD HAVE BEEN
ABSORBED BY THE DENSE
INCLUSION.
11

LESSON-3

MEASURE OF ACCURACY IS
CALLED THE SENSITIVITY
SENSITIVITY IN RADIOGRAPH
IS A FUNCTION OF THE
CONTRAST AND THE
DEFINITION OF THE
RADIOGRAPH.
CONTRAST IS THE
COMPARISION BETWEEN FILM
DENSITIES FOR DIFFERENT
AREAS OF THE RADIOGRAPH.
DEFINITION IS THE LINE OF
DEMARCATION BETWEEN
AREAS OF DIFFERENT
DENSITIES.
IF THE IMAGE IS CLEAR AND
SHARP, THE RADIOGRAPH IS
SAID TO HAVE GOOD
DEFINITION.
13

INHERENT UNSHARPNESS IS CAUSED BY FREE ELECTRONS THAT ARE

GENERATED BY THE RADIOGRAPHIC RAY AS IT PASSES THROUGH THE
FILM.
THIS SCATTERING OF FREE ELECTRONS THROUGH THE FILM CAUSES
THE FILM TO BE EXPOSED WHEREVER THE ELETRONS TRAVEL.
THE SCATTERING CAUSES SOME DEGREE OF FUZZY EDGES ON THE
IMAGE THAT CANNOT BE AVOIDED.

14

INTERNAL
SCATTER
ORIGINATES
WITHIN THE
SPECIMEN.

SIDE SCATTER
ORIGINATES
FROM WALLS
OR ANY OTHER
OBJECTS
NEARBY THAT
ARE IN THE
PATH OF THE
PRIMARY RAY.
15

BACK SCATTERORIGINATES FROM

ANY MATERIAL
WALL, FLOOR,
TABEL, TOP OR
CASSETTE THAT IS
LOCATED IN BACK
OF THE FILM
BACK SCATTER IS
OFTEN IDNETIFIED
BY PLACING A LEAD
LETTER B ON THE
BACK SIDE OF THE
CASSETTE. IF THE
LETTER IMAGE
APPEARS ON THE
FILM, INDICATE
SCATTER
RADIATION.

16

GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS OCCURES IF THE BASIC PRINCIPALS OF

SHADOW FORMATION ARE NOT FOLLOWED.
ONE CAUSE OF GOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS RELATES TO THE SIZE OF
THE RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCE.
WHEN THE SOURCE IS NOT A POINT BUT A SMALL AREA, THE IMAGE
CAST IS NOT PERFECTLY SHARP.
THE FUZZY DEGES OF THE IMAGE ARE CALLED THE PENUMBRA

17

PENUMBRA CAN BE
REDUCED WHEN
THE SOURCE TO
SPECIMEN
DISTANCE IS
INCREASED.

PENUMBRA CAN BE
REDUCED BY
KEEPING THE FILM
AS CLOSE TO THE
SPECIMEN AS
POSSIBLE.

18

REDUCED PENUMBRA WILL

IMPROVE THE DEFINITION OF
THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE.
OPTIMUM GEOMETRICAL
SHARPNESS IS OBTAINED
WHEN:
1.THE RADIATION SOURCE IS
SMALL
2.THE DISTANCE FORM THE
SOURCE TO SPECIMEN IS
RELATIVELY GREAT.
3.THE DISTANCE FROM THE
SPECIMEN TO FILM IS SMALL
WHENEVER POSSIBLE, THE
RAYS FROM THE SOURCE
SHOULD BE DIRECTED
PERPENDICULARLY TO THE FILM
TO PREVNET A DISTORTED
IMAGE.
19

SPECIMEN SHAPE IS
ANOTHER GEOMETRICAL
FACTOR THAT AFFECTS THE
DEFINITION SEEN ON THE
RADIOGRAPH.
THE IMAGE OF AN INCLUSION
COULD BE ALMOST INVISIBLE
BECAUSE OF A VERY
GRADUAL CHANGE IN
PHOTOGRAPHIC DENSITY.
ABRUPT THICKNESS CHANGE
SHOWS BEST DEFINITION
FILM GRAININESS ALSO
AFFECTS THE DEFINITION
LARGE GRAIN FILMS ARE
OFTEN USED TO REDUCE
EXPOSURE TIME
SMALL GRAIN FILMS PROVIDE
BEST DEFINITION
20

LESSON-4

ALL ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF THREE BASIC PARTICLES:

PROTON: HAS A POSITIVE CHARGE AND IS RELATIVELY HEAVY.
NEUTRON: ABOUT THE SAME SIZE AND WEIGHT AS THE PROTON BUT HAS
NO ELECTRICAL CHARGE.
ELECTRON: VERY LIGHT PARTICLE. ABOUT 1/1840 OF THE WEIGHT OF A
PROTON. IT HAS A NEGATIVE CHARGE.
THERE ARE OVER 100 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATOMS KNOWN AND CALLED
ELEMENTS.
THE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ARE PACKED TOGETHER IN THE CENTER
OF THE ATOM. THIS FORMS THE NUCLEUS.
A COMPLETE ATOM MUST HAVE AN EQUAL NUMBER OF PROTONS AND
ELECTRONS.
HOWEVER, THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS MAY BE QUITE DIFFERENT.
THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN AN ATOM DETERMINES THE KIND OF ATOM
OR ELEMENT.
22

IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Z ATOMIC NUMBER= THE NUMBER OF PROTONS ONLY IN THE
NUCLEUS. THIS DETERMINES THE TYPE OF ELEMENT.
A MASS NUMBER= THE NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS IN
THE NIUCLEUS. THIS IDENTIFIES DIFFERENT ATOMS OF THE SAME
ELEMENT.
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS:
ELEMENTS WITH A COMMON Z NUMBER AND DIFFERENT A NUMBERS
ARE CALLED ISOTOPES OF THAT ELEMENT.
ISOTOPES OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS ARE IDENTIFIED BY SHOWING THE
MASS NUMBER A AFTER THE NAME OF THE ELEMENT. (eg. COBALT-60)

23

MANY ISOTOPES OF THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OCCURES IN NATURE, BUT

ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPES ARE NOW VERY COMMON.
ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPES ARE CREATED BY BOMBARDING AND ELEMENT WITH
AN EXCESS OF NEUTRONS. THIS IS DONE IN NUCLEAR REACTOR. WHERE THE
ATOMIC FISSION PROCESS GIVES OFF LARGE NO. OF FREE NEUTRONS.
AFTER BEING EXPOSED IN THE NUCLEAR REACTOR, THE BASIC ELEMENT
ABSORBS SOME OF THE FREE NEUTRONS.
WHEN THESE EXCESS NEUTRONS DO NOT UPSET THE BALANCE OF THE
NUCLEUS- SAID STABLE AND WHICH DO UPSET CALLED- UNSTABLE
UNSTABLE ATOMS ARE SAID TO BE RADIOACTIVE.
SOME RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES ARE FOUND IN NATURE, SUCH AS RADIUM
AND URANIUM.
ISOTOPES COMMONLY USED IN RADIOGRAPHY, SUCH AS IRIDIUM 192 AND
COBALT 60 ARE ARTIFICIAL.
WHEN ELEMENT IS MADE RADIOACTIVE IN THE NUCLEAR REACTOR, THIS
PROCESS IS KNOWN AS ACTIVATION

24

WHEN AN UNSTABLE ISOTOPES IS

DECAYING OR DISINTEGRATING,
TINY PARTICLES TRAVELING AT HIGH
SPEEDS ARE EMITTED AND/OR
ENERGY IN THE FORM OF WAVES IS
GIVEN OFF.
ALL RADIATION COMES FROM THE
NUCLEUS OF THE ATOMS
THE FOLLOWING PARTICLES ARE
RELEASED
ALPHA- LARGEST RADIATION
PARTICLES WITH 2 PROTONS AND 2
NEUTRONS
BEETA VERY LIGHT HIGH SPEED
ELECTRON
GAMMA RAY (NOT A PARTICLE) AN
ENERGY WAVE
ONLY GAMMA RAYS ARE OF USE TO
THE RADIOGRAPHER
25

MEASUREMENT OF RAIOACTIVITY:
BASIC UNIT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL IS THE CURIE
WHEN A RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL DECAYS IT IS SAID TO HAVE AN
ACTIVITY OF ONE CURIE WHEN 37 BILLION OF ITS ATOMS
DISNTEGRATE IN ONE SECOND. = 37x109
WHEN COMPARING TWO SOURCES, JUST BECAUSE ONE HAS A HIGHER
ACTIVITY DOES NOT MEAN IT IS ALWAYS PRODUCING MORE RADIATION
- COBALT 60 ATOM DECAYS IT EMITS ONE BETA PARTICLE & TWO GAMMA
RAYS
- WHEN A THULIUM 170 ATOM DECAYS. OF THE ATOMS EMIT A BETA
PARTICLE & ONE GAMMA RAYS AND OF THE ATOMS EMIT BETA
PARTICLES WITH NO GAMMA RAYS.
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY OF ANY RADIOACTIVE SOURCE IS THE ACTIVITY IN
CURIES PER GRAM
- IF 4 GRAMS OF COBALT 60 HAS AN ACTIVITY OF 100 CURIES, THEN THE
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY WOULD BE 25 CURIES PER GRAM.
26

HALF LIFE OF AN ISOTOPE IS THE TIME IT TAKES FOR OF THE ATOMS

TO DECAY OR DISINTIGRATE
SOME ISOTOPES DECAY RAPIDLY (SHORT HALF-LIFE) THEREFORE THEY
HAVE A HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY.
OTHER ISOTOPES DECAY SLOWLY (LONG HALF LIFE) AND HAVE A LOW
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY.
EVERY ISOTOPE HAS ITS OWN PERTICULAR HALF - LIFE RANGING FROM
MICROSECONDS TO YEARS.
HALF LIVES OF SOME COMMON RADIOISOTOPES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
o RADIUM 226 (RA-226) 1620 YEARS
o CESIUM 137 (CS-137)

30 YEARS

o COBALT 60 (C0-60)

5.3 YEARS

o THULIUM 170 (TM-170)

o IRIDIUM 192 (IR-192)

130 YEARS
75 DAYS
27

LESSON-5

THE KINETIC ENERGY OF HIGH SPEED

ELECTRONS IS ABSORBED IN TWO WAYS:
1.ADDITIONAL IONS ARE CREATED SIMPLY BY AN
ELECTRON COLLIDING WITH ANOTHER ELECTRON.
THE ELECTRON THAT IS STRUCK IS KNOCKED OUT
OF ORBIT, BUT HAS TAKEN SOME OF THE ENERGY
OF THE FIRST ELECTRON. THIS PROCESS
CONTINUES UNTIL THERE IS VERY LITTLE ENERGY
IN ANY ONE ELECTRON. THIS PROCESS
CONTINUES UNTIL THERE IS VERY LITTLE ENERGY
IN ANY ONE ELECTRON.
2.THE BREMSSTRAHLUNG PROCESS SLOWS DOWN
OR COMPLETELY STOPS THE HIGH SPEED
ELECTRON DUE TO THE POSITIVE FIELD OF THE
ATOMIC NUCLEUS.
THE ENERGY ABSORBED BY THE NUCLEUS IS IN
EXCESS TO THE ATOMS NEED & THIS ENERGY IS
IMMEDIATELY RADIATED AS AN X-RAY OF EQUAL
OR LOWER ENERGY.
IF THE ELECTRON WERE COMPLETELY STOPPED,
THE X-RAY GIVEN OFF WILL HAVE AN ENERGY
EQUAL TO TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY OF ELECTRON.

29

BREMSSTRAHLUNG PROCESS- CAN CAUSE OTHER (LOWER ENERGY) XRAYS WHICH IN TURN CAN CAUSE ADDITIONAL COMPTON AND
PHOTOELCTRIC EFFECTS.
THIS SCATTERED RADIATION CAN BE A SERIOUS PROBLEM FOR THE
RADIOGRAPHER.

30

HALF VALUE LAYER:

AS AN X-RAY PENETRATES A
MATERIAL, THE ENERGY IS
ABSORBED BY THE
PHOTOELECTRIC AND COMPTON
EFFECT.
AT SOME PLACE IN THE MATERIAL
THERE IS A LEVEL AT WHICH THE
NUMBER OF RAYS (INTENSITY) OF
THE RADIATION IS ONE HALF OF
THE INTENSITY ON THE SURFACE.
THIS DEPTH IS THE HALF VALUE
LAYER, FOR THAT PARTICULAR
BEAM IN THAT PARTICULAR
MATERIAL.
THE RADIOGRAPH IS REDUCED BY
ONE HALF FOR EACH H.V.L. IT
PASSES THROUGH.

31

LESSON-6

X-RAY EQUIPMENT
X-RAY GENERATION REQUIREMNTS INCLUDE;
1. HAVING A SOURCE OF ELECTRON
2. HAVING A MEANS OF ACCELERATING THE ELECTRONS TO HIGH VELOCITY
3. HAVING A TARGET TO RECEIVE THE IMPACT OF THE ELCTRONS.
X-RAY ARE GENERATED WHEN A FREE HIGH SPEED ELECTRON GIVES UP
SOME OF ITS ENERGY DURING INTERACTION WITH THE ORBITAL ELECTRONS
OR NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM.
THE HIGHER THE VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRONS, THE HIGHER THE ENERGY
OF THE X-RAYS THAT ARE PRODUCED
A HEATED WIRE FILAMENT WILL SERVE AS THE SOURCE OF THE ELECTRONS.
TO GET THESE ELECTRONS TRAVELING AT A HIGH SPEED, SIMPLY PLACE A
HIGH POSITIVE CHARGE ON THE ANODE.
A SPECIAL TARGET (USUALLY TUNGSTEN) IS EMBEDDED INTO THE ANODE TO
RECEIVE THE IMPACT OF THE ELCTRON.
THE X-RAY TUBE CONSIST OF A SEALED OFF GLASS ENVELOPE, EVACUATED
TO TH HIGHEST ATTAINABLE VACCUM.
33

34

SHARPNESS: OF A RADIOGRAPHIC
FILM IMAGE IS PARTLY DETERMINED
BY THE SIZE OF THE RADIATION
SOURCE OR FOCAL SPOT
USAULLY THE TARGET IS SET AT AN
ANGLE AND THE PROJECTED SIZE OF
THE BOMBARDED AREA IS SMALLER
THAN THE ACTUAL FOCAL SPOT.
THE SIZE OF THE FOCAL SPOT IS
LIMITED BY THE HEAT GENERATED IN
THE TARGET BOMBARDMENT.
X-RAY CAN BE GENERATED THAT WILL
RADIATE IN ALMOST ANY DIRECTION.
THE DIRECTION IS DETERMINED BY
THE TARGET POSITIONING IN THE
ANODE AND THE PLACEMENT OF
LEAD SHELDING ABOUT THE TUBE.

35

THE MAJORITY OF X-RAY

EQUIPMENT USED IN
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
USES IRON CORE
TRANSFORMERS TO PRODUCE
REQUIRED HIGH VOLT.
USUALLY 3 TRANSFORMERS
ARE REQUIRED.
1. AUTOTRANSFORMER- WHICH
WILL FURNISH 110 VOLTS TO
THE FILAMENT AND HIGH
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER.
2. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER(HIGH-VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER)
3. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER(FILAMENT TRANSFORMER)
36

TWO MAIN METHODS OF RECTIFICATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT:

1.SELF RECTIFICATION-CAN BE USED WITH X-RAY TUBES HAVING AN ANODE
THAT IS MUCH COOLER THAN THE CATHODE.
ELECTRONS WILL BE ACELERATED FORM THE HOT CATHODE DURING THE
HALF CYCLE WHEN THE CURRENT ON THE ANODE IS +VE. WHEN THE ANODE
IS VE, NO ELCETRONS ARE EMITTED.

37

2. RECTIFICATION
A. HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION- CURRENT FLOWING ONLY HALF OF THE TIME
B. FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION USES SYMMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT OF
TWO DIODES AND A TRANSFORMER. THIS PROVIDES CONTINUOUS
CURRENET FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION.

38

A TYPICAL X-RAY CONTROL PANEL CONSIST:

1. FILAMENT CURRENT CONTROL AND METER
2. HIGH VOLTAGE CONTROL AND METER
3. EXPOSURE TIMER
4. POWER ON OFF SWITCH
5. INDICATOR LAMP

39

BETATRON ACELERATORS-

LINEAR ACCELERATORS

40

LESSON-7

TWO RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES GENERALLY USED IN INDL. RADIOGRAPHY

1. COBALT 60- AN ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPE HALF LIFE= 5.3 YRS.
2. IRIDIUM 192 AN ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPE- HALF LIFE= 75 DAYS
OTHER ISOTOPES WHICH ARE SOMETIMES USED
1. RADIUM 226 NATURAL ISOTOPE HALF LIFE= 1600 YRS.
2. CESIUM 137- BY PROD. OF FISSION PROCESS- HALF LIFE= 30 YRS.
3. THULIUM 170- AN ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPE- HALF LIFE= 130 DAYS
ISOTOPES ARE A SOURCE OF GAMMA RAYS.
ADVANTAGES OF USING ISOTOPES:
COST OF EQUP. & SOURCE IS LESS, ISOTOPE EQUIP. IS MORE EASILY
TRANSPORTED, SOURCE IS SMALL ENOUGH TO PASS THROUGH SMALL
OPENING, NO EXTERNAL POWER SUPPLY IS NECESSARY, BOTH PANORAMIC
AND DIRECTIONAL EXPOSURES CAN BE MADE, EQUIP. IS SIMPLE TO
OPERATE, SIZE IS SMALL, SOME ISOTOPES HAVE A VERY HIGH
PENETRATING PERMITTING RADIOGRAPHY OF VERY THICK MATERIAL
42

ISOTOPES ARE RATED ACCORDING TO THEIR AVERAGE VOLTAGE AND XRAY ARE RATED ACCORDING TO THEIR PEAK VOLTAGE, THE POWER OF AN
ISOTOPE IS DETERMINED BY HOW MANY PEAK KEV OR MEV AN X-RAY
MACHINE WOULD NEED TO DO THE SAME JOB, THIS IS CALLED
EQUIVALENT ENERGY OF THE ISOTOPE.
TO PRODUCE HIGH QUALITY RADIOGRAPH USING ISOTOPES, THE
FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS PROVIDE A BASIS FOR CHOOSING SOURCE
1.ACTIVITY- OF A SOURCE IS IN PART, A MEASURE OF THE NO. OF GAMMAR
RAYS THAT ARE BEING PRODUCED FROM THE ISOTOPES.
2.EQUIVALENT ENERGY- AN IDEAL RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCE WOULD EMIT
EXACTLY THE RIGHT MONOCHROMATIC BEAM THAT WOULD GIVE THE
CORRECT AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE.
3.HALF LIFE- AS ISOTOPES DECAY, THEIR INTENSITY DECREASES AND
TEHREFORE THE EXPOSURE TIME MUST BE INCREASED.
MANUFACTURERS ARE USUALLY RATE AN ISOTOPE FIRST BY ITS
PENETRATING POWER (EQUIVELENT ENERGY), THEN BY HALF-LIFE &
FINALLY BY ITS ACTIVITY
43

ISOTOPE SOURCES PRESENT A SEVERE RADIATION HAZARD AND WHEN

NOT IN ACTUAL USE THESE SOURCES MUST BE HANDLED CAREFULLY
AND STORED & LOCKED IN SHIELDED CONTAINERS.
REMOTE HANDELING FALLS INTO TWO AREAS
1. MOVING THE SOURCE FROM THE CENTER TO THE SURFACE OF A
SHIELDED CONTAINER
2. MOVING THE SOURCE FROM THE CENTER TO A POINT SOME DISTANCE
AWAY
ISOTOPE EQUIPMENT OFTEN REFERED TO AS CAMERA OR PROJECTOR

44

LESSON-8

RADIATION CAN BE HAZARD TO THE HUMAN BODY.

X-RAY MACHINES AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS ARE NOT THE SOURCES
OF RADIATION.
COSMIC RADIATION FROM SPACE REACHES OUR PLANET AND IT IS
IMPOSSIBLE FOR HUMANS TO AVOID ALL RADIATION.
IONIZING RADIATION HAS THE ABILITY TO DAMAGE HUMAN BODY TISSUE.
THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF ALL LIVING TISSUE IS THE CELL
THE ATOM OF A WATER MOLECULE IN A CELL BEING PENETRATED BY
IONIZING RADIATION.
THE MAIN PROESS BY WHICH DAMAGE TO TISSUE OCCURS IS KNOWN AS
IONIZATION.
DAMAGE TO HUMAN TISSUE OCCURS WHEN ENOUGH ELECTRONS ARE
KNOCKED OUT OF ENOUGH ATOMS TO:
1. BREAK DOWN THE STRUCTURE OF CELLS TO THE POINT WHERE THEY
MAY DIE, 2. CAUSE THE CELLLS TO LOSE THEIR ABILITY TO REPRODUCE, 3.
CAUSE THE CELLS TO REPRODUCE IN AN ABNORMAL MANNER.
46

AS SHOWN BELOW, RADIATION HAZARDS EXIST IN BOTH PRIMARY AND

SECONDARY (SCATERED) RADIATION.

WHEN X-RAY OR GAMA RAYS SOURCE IS REMOVED, THE SPECIMEN

CEASES TO BE AFFECTED BY RADIATION THE SPECIMEN DOES NOT
BECOME RADIOACTIVE.
A PERSON WHO HAS SUFFERED RADIATION DAMAGE COULD NOT SPREAD
RADIATION DAMAGE TO OTHER HUMANS
47

CONTAMINATION- IF THE ISOTOPE WERE CRUSHED AND BLOWN INTO THE

AIR. THEN IT WOULD BE POSSIBLE TO HAVE CONTAMINATION THAT
COULD BE SPREAD.
EXTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE- COMES FORM RADIATION SOURCES
OUTSIDE THE BODY, SUCH AS X-RAY MACHINES AND GAMMAR RAY
SOURCE CAMERAS.
INTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE- RESULTS WHEN RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL GETS INSIDE THE BODY. USUALLY BY BREATHING,
SWALLOWING, OR THROUGH BREAKS IN THE SKIN.
IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY, THE POSSIBLITY OF INTERNAL RADIATION
IS RATHER REMOTE,
A MAJOR FACTOR IN THE AMOUNT OF DAMAGE THAT A RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL WILL DO INSIDE THE BODY IS DETERMINED BY THE HALF LIFE
OF THE ISOTOPS.

48

RADIOACTIVE HALF: LIFE: THE TIME IT TAKES ONE-HALF OF THE ATOMS

OF A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE TO DISINTEGRATE.
BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE: THE TIME IT TAKES ONE HALF OF THE
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL TO BE PASSED FROM THE BODY AS WASTE.
EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE: A COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE TWO. IT IS TH
TIME NEEDED TO LOSE ONE HALF OF THE RADIOACTIVE THREAT BY A
COMBINATION OF BIOLOGICAL ELIMINATION AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION (USNRC)
THE NRC IS THE GOVERNMENTAL AGENCY THAT ENFORCES SAFETY
REGULATION COVERING THE HANDLING AND USE OF RADIOISOTOPES.
THE NRC REGULATIONS ARE DESIGNED TO LIMIT RADIATION
EXPOSURETO SAFE LEVELS, AND TO AFFORD PROTECTION TO THE
GENERAL PUBLIC.
ALL RADIOGRAPHERS USING RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES MUST BE
LICENSED BY THE NRC OR AN AGREEMENT STATE.
49

UNITS OF RADIATION DOSE MEASUREMENT

ROENTGEN (R) IS A UNIT WHICH EXPRESSES RADIATION EXPOSURE AND
IS BASED ON THE IONIZING EFFECT OF RADIATION.
THE IONIZATION PROCESS CREATES AN ION PARI, WHICH CONSISTS OF A
NEGAIVELY CHARGED PARTICLE AND A POSITIVELY CHARGED PARTICAL
ROENTGEN IS NOT A DIRECT MEASURE BUT SIMPLY MEASURES
RADIATION PRESENT IN THE AIR. THIS RELATES TO THE AMOUNT OF
EXPOSURE A PERSON WOULD RECEIVE IN THE SAME AREA.
TECHNICALLY DEFINED, THE ROENTGEN IS THE QUANTITY OF IONIZING
RADIATION THAT PRODUCES 2,083 MILLION ION PAIRS (OR ONE
ELECTROSTATIC UNIT OF CHARGE) IN ONE CUBIC CENTIMETER OF AIR.
THE MILLIROENTGEN IS USED IN THE MEASUREMENT OF PERSONNEL
EXPOUSER AND IS ABBREVIATED MR
M FOR MILLI AND R FOR ROENTGEN
ONE MILLIROENTGEN IS 1/1000 OF A ROENTGEN (0.001 ROENTGEN)
50

FOLLOWING UNITS PERMIT TO RELATE RADIATION TO THE BIOLOGICAL

EFFECT IT CAN CAUSE IN HUMAN TISSUE.
RAD- RADIATION ABSORBED DOSE- ITS A MEASURE OF ABSORPTION
AND THE ROENTGEN IS A MEASURE OF EXPOSURE.
RAD IS NOT A MEASURE OF EXPOSURE(LIKE THE ROENTGEN).THERE IS
NO WAY TO MEASURE RADS IN ARIR., FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES, AN
ABSORBED DOSE IN TISSUE EQUAL TO ONE RAD.
RBE- RADIATION BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS- ITS A MEASUREMENT OF
RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMAN TISSUE.
ALPHA RADIATION IS NOT VERY PENETRATING, BUT CAN BE VERY
DAMAGING IF IT DOES REACH THE TISSUE.
RADIATION TYPE

RBE

X & GAMMA

BETA

ALPHA

20

FAST NEUTRONS

10
51

REM- ROENTGEN EQUIVALENT MAN- AND IS THE EFFECT PRODUCED IN

HUMANS BY ANY TYPE OF RADIATION.
THE FORMULA R X RBE= REM CAN BE USED FOR X AND GAMMA
RADIATION.
THE FORMULA RAD X RBE = REM MUST BE USED FOR ALPHA RADIATION
TO EVALUATE THE DOSE AND APPLY IT TO THE PERMANENT RECORDS,
ALL RADIATION MUST BE CONVERTED TO REMS.
FOR X & GAMMA RADIATION, THE ROENTGEN IS THE EQUAL OF THE REM.
DOSE RATE IS THE TIME RATE AT WHICH A RADIATION DOSE IS RECEIVED.
THE EXPRESSION REMS PER HOUR IS THE BIOLOGICAL DOSE RATE.
WITH X AND GAMMA RAYS, THE EXPOSURE RATE IN ROENTGEN PER HOUR
IS THE SAME AS DOSE RATE IN REMS.

52

LESSON-9

PERMISSIBLE RADIATION DOSE:

THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS ARE THAT THE WORKER WILL NOT RECEIVE
AN OCCUPATIONAL DOSE IN EXCESS OF THE FOLLOWING:
AREA OF BODY EXPOSED

REM PER CALENDAR QUARTER

WHOLE BODY- HEAD, TRUNK, ORGANS, EYES, GONADS

1 REM

HANDS AND FOREARMS, FEET & ANKLES

18 REM

SKIN OF WHOLE BODY

7 REM

SIX VARIABLES WHICH INFLUENCE THE EFFECT RADIATION DOSES HAVE

ON AN INDIVIDUAL ARE:
1. THE AMOUNT OF THE BODY EXPOSED.
2. THE PART OF THE BODY EXPOSED.
3. THE TIME SPAN OVER WHICH DOSE IS RECEIVED,
4. THE AGE OF THE INDIVIDUAL EXPOSED.
5. THE BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCE AMONG INDIVIDUALS.
6. THE RADIATION LEVEL.
54

EMPLOYERS USING RADIATION EQUIPEMENT ARE REQUIRED TO KEEP UP TO DATE

RECORDS ON ALL EMPLOYEES IN AREAS WHERE RADIATION EXCEEDS A CERTAIN LEVEL.

55

ITEM 5- REQUESTS INFORMATION ON THE PART OF THE BODY EXPOSED.

ITEM 6- THE DOSE ENTERED HERE IS FROM ITEM 18.
ITEM 7 TO 13- ARE SELF EXPLANATORY, WITH DOSE ALWAYS IN REMS
ITEM 14- IS OBTAINED FROM THE LAST PRECEDING FORM
ITEM 15- IS THE TOTAL DOSE RECORDED IN ITEM 13 ON THE CURRENT FORM
ITEM 16- IS THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF OCUPATIONAL RADIATION DOSE
RECEIVED DURING A PERSONS LIFETIME TO DATE.
ITEM 17- IS THE PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE WHICH IS MORE
COMMONLY CALLED MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE
FORMULA 5 (N-18) = PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE MEASURED IN REM
N= AGE IN YEARS OF THE PERSON
ITEM 18 PERMISSIBLE DOSE IS THE UNUSED PORTION OF THE PERMISSIBLE
ACCUMULATED DOSE.
PROBLEM: WHAT IS PERMISSIBEL ACCUMULATED DOSE FOR A PERSON WHO
IS 36 YEARS OF AGE?
56

THE RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT IS OFTEN DEMONSTRATED AS SHOWN IN THE

GRAPH BELOW:

SAMPEL PROBLEM: IF A PERSON STARTED IN RADIATION WORK ON HIS 25TH

BIRTHDAY, WHAT WOULD BE HIS RADIATION BANK ACCOUNT?
57

LESSON-10

RADIATION EFFECTS:
BELOW IS A PARTIAL LIST OF BODY CELLS LISTED IN ORDER OF
DECREASING RADIOSENSITIVIY:
1. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
2. IMMATURE RED BLOOD CELLS
3. CELLS LINING THE GASTRO-INTESTIAL CANAL
4. CELS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
5. SKIN CELLS
6. CELLS OF THE BLOOD VESSELS
7. CELLS OF THE TISSUE, BONE, MUSCLE AND NERVES
THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS CAUSED BY AN OVERDOSE OF RADIATION
CAN BE DIVIDED IN TWO TYPES
1. SOMATIC
2. GENETIC
59

WITH WHOLE BODY DOSES AS SHOWN BELOW WITHIN A 24 HOUR

PERIOD, THE FOLLOWING SOMETIC EFFECTS WILL RESULT:
WHOLE BODY DOSE 24 HOUR PERIOD

EFFECTS

0 TO 25 REMS

NO DETECTABLE EFFECT

25 TO 50 REMS

SLIGHT TEMPORARY BLOOD CHANGES

100 REMS

NAUSEA, FATIGUE

200 TO 250 REMS

FIRST DEATH

500 REMS

HALF DIE (MEDIAN LETHAL DOSE)

THE PERIOD BETWEEN EXPOSURE AND THE APPEARANCE OF TH

SYMPTOMS IS CALLED THE LATENT PERIOD
AN OVERDOSE OF ABOUT 200 REMS MAY TAKE UP TO A WEEK BEFORE
SYMPTOMS APPEAR. THEN SYMPTOMS SUCH AS LOSS OF HAIR,
DIARRHEA AND LOSS OF APPETITE WILL APPEAR.

60

RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS

SEVRAL DEVICES ARE COMMONLY USED IN THE FIELD OF RADIOGRAPHY, WHICH ARE
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE
SURVEY METERS- ARE PORTABLE INSTRUMENTS USED TO MONITOR RADIATION
AREAS. DESIGNED TO GIVE RADIATION EXPOSURE RATE.
PERSONNEL MONITORING DEVICES: ARE ATTACHED TO THE CLOTHING OF THE
RADIATION WORKER. DESIGNED TO GIVE CUMULATIVE READINGS OF EXPOSURE
RATE.

ALL OF THE ABOVE DEVICE ARE DESIGNED TO MEASURE X & GAMMA

RADIATION EXPOSURE IN ROENTGENS, AND WORK ON THE PRINCIPLE OF
IONIZATION
61

TWO TYPES OF DOSIMETER DIRECT READING & NON DIRECT READING TYPE
NON DIRECT- READING TYPE DOSIMETER OR POCKET CHAMBER MUST BE
READ USING A SPECIAL CHARGER AND READING DEVICE.

DIRECT READING DOSIMETER IS READ BY LOOKING THROUGH THE

EYEPIECE, THE LENSESS AND THE TRASPARENT SCAL AT AN INDICATION
PROVIDED BY THE QUARTZ FIBER ELECTROSCOPE

62

DIRECT READING DOSIMETER HAS THE OPTICLE SYSTEM AND INDICATOR.

EACH TIME BEFORE THE DOSIMETER IS USED, IT IS PLACED IN A CHARGING
DEVICE WHICH PLACE A LIKE ELCTRICAL CHARGE ON EACH QUARTZ FIBER
THE HINGED MOVABLE FIBER SEPARATES FORM THE FIXED FIBER BECAUSE
BOTH ARE CHARGED WITH A LIKE ELCTRICAL CHARGE.
WHEN IONIZATION OCCURS IN THE CHAMBER, DUE TO X OR GAMMA RAYS
PASSING THROUGH, THE AIR IN THE CHAMBER BECOMES A CONDUCTOR OF
ELECTRICITY.
THE VE PARTICLES ARE THEN ATTRACTED TO THE +VE CHARGE OF THE
QUARTZ FIBER AND THIS NEUTRALIZES THE AMOUNT OF +VE CHARGE ON
THE FIBERS.
THE MOVABLE FIBER THEN MOVES TOWARDS THE FIXED FIBER AS IT LOSES
ITS CHARGE THIS MOVEMENT IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE AMOUNT OF
RADIATION PRESENT.
THE DOSIMETER READING INDICATES A CUMULATIVE EXPOSURE RECEIVED
SINCE IT WAS LAST CHARGED.
63

THE DOSIMETER IS USUALLY WORN IN CONJUCTION WITH A FILM BADGE TO

GIVE THE WEARER A DOUBLE CHECK.
THE FILM BADGE MEASURES IONIZING RADIATION BY USE OF SPECIAL
PHOTGRAPHIC FILM
THE ADVANTAGE OF THE FILM BADGE IS THAT IT PROVIDES A PERMANENT
RECORD OF THE WEARERS EXPOSURE AND IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE
MOST RELIABLE PERSONNEL MONITORING DEVICE.

64

SURVEY METERS PROVIDES A INSTANTANEOUS READING IN R OR MR

PER HOUR AND MEASURES RADIATION RATE.
1) IONIZATION CHAMBER METER ITS LIKE A POCKET DOSIMETER IN THAT IT
USES CHAMBER TO COLLECT THE ION PAIRS PRODUCED BY THE IONIZING
RAYS OF GAMMA AND X- RADIATION

65

2) GEIGER- MUELLER COUNTERS- ARE USED TO MEASURE RELATIVELY LOW

LEVELS OF RADIATION.
UNLIKE THE ION CHAMBER SURVEY METER THE G-M COUNTER USES A
GEIGER- MUELLER TUBE INSTEAD OF AN IONIZATION CHAMBER.
THE ION CHAMBER CONSIST OF TWO ELECTRODES WHICH ARE INSULATED
FORM EACH OTHER AND HAVE OPPOSITE CHARGES.
WHEN IONIZING RADIATION ENTERS THE CHAMBER, ION PARIS ARE CRATED,
+VE IONS FLOW TO THE VE CLECTRODE & THE VE IONS FLOW TO THE +VE
THE ELECTRODE ARE KEPT CHARGED BY A BATTERY.
A CURRENT FLOW IS CREATED THORUGH THE CIRCUIT WHICH IS MEASURED
BY A METER WHICH GIVES RADIATION RATE IN R OR MR PER HOUR.
THE GEIGER-MULLER TUBE US SIMILAR IN OPERATING PRONCIPLE TO THE ION
CHAMBER, BUT IS DESIGNED TO AMPLIFY OR MULTIPLY THE EFFECTS OF
IONIZING RAYS.
THIS IS DONE BY ACCEERATING THE PRIMARY IONS CAUSED BY IONIZING
RADIATION ENTERING THE TUBE.
66

LESSON-11

PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION:

DOSE RATE CALCULATION:- THE STANDARD DOSE RATE OF VARIOUS
ISOTOPES IS EXPRESSED IN ROENTGENS PER HOUR PER CURIE AND IS
GIVEN FOR AN EXACT DISTANCE OF ONE FOOT (R/HR/CURIE AT 1 FT)
AS SHOWN BELOW ARE TWO CO-60 SOURCES, ONE WITH AN ACTIVITY OF
2 CURIES AND THE OTHER WITH AN ACTIVITY OF 5 CURIES.
PROBLEM
WHAT WOULD BE THE
INTENSITY AT ONE FOOT IF
YOU HAD A 1 CURIE SOURCE
OF CO-60

68

THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS SEVERAL ISOTOPS COMMONLY USED IN INDUSTRIAL

RADIOGRAPHY
RADIOISOTOPE

R/HR/CURIE AT 1 FOOT

COBALT 60 (Co 60)

14.5

IRIDIUM 192 (Ir 192)

5.9

CESIUM 137 (Cs-137)

4.2

THULLIUM 170 (Tm- 170)

0.03

THERE ARE 3 BASIC MEANS OF PROVIDING PROTECTION FROM RADIATION:

1. TIME:- CONTROLLING THE LENGTH OF TIME A PERSON IS EXPOSSED TO RADIATION
2. DISTANCE:- CONTROLLING THE DISTANCE BETWEEN PERSONNEL AND THE SOURCE.
3. SHIELDING:- PLACING ABSORBING MATERIALS BETWEEN PERSONNEL AND SOURCE.

THE ABOVE THREE FACTORS MUST ALWAYS BE REMEMBERED WHEN WORKING IN

RADIOGRAPHY.
TIME REFERES TO THE DURATION OF RADIATION EXPOSURE.

69

DISTANCE:- RADIATION EXPOSURE DECREASES DRASTICALLY AS THE

DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE INCREASES.
RADIATION INTENSITY VARIES INVERSELY AS THE SQUARE OF THE
DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE.
THE INVERSE SQUARE RELATINSHIP MEANS THAT IF YOU DOUBLE THE
DISTANCE, YOU WILL RECEIVE ONLY THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION.

70

THE INVERSE SQUARE FORMULA IS SHOWN AS BELOW

I1
___
I2

(D2)2
_____
(D1)2

I1 = THE KNOWN INTENSITY AT A KNOWN DISTANCE(D1)

D1= THE DISTANCE FROM A SOURCE WHERE INTENSITY IS KNOWN(I1)
I2 = THE UNKNOWN INTENSITY AT A SECOND KNOWN DISTANCE
D2= THE DISTANCE FROM A SOURCE AT A WHICH YOU WANT TO FIND
THE UNKNOWN INTENSITY

71

SHIELDING THIRD MEANS OF PROVIDING PERSONNEL SAFETY

THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF RADIATION COME FROM THE FACT THAT
RADIATION KNOCKS ELECTRONS IN ATOMS OUT OF ORBIT.
THE SHIELDING MATERIAL ABSORBS THE RADIATION ENERGY WHEN THE
RAYS COLIDE WITH ELECTRONS IN THE MATERIAL
THE MORE DENSE THE MATERIAL, THE BETTER IT SHIELDS AGAINST
RADIATION.

72

HALF VALUE LAYER- (HVL) IS A THICKNESS OF MATERIAL THAT WILL REDUCE

RADIATION TO ONE-HALF THE ORIGINAL INTENSITY.
THE TENTH- VALUE LAYER IS ANOTHER STANDARD THAT WILL REDUCE THE
RADIATION PASSING THROUGH THAT MATERIAL TO ONE-TENTH THE ORIGINAL
INTENSITY.
HVL VARY IN THICKNESS DEPENDING UPON THE TYPE OF ISOTOPE OR THE ENERGY
OF X-RAY AND ALSO ON TYPE OF SHIELDING MATERIAL
SHELDING MATERIAL IN
INCHES

RADIOISOTOPE SOURCE
COBALT- 60

IRIDIUM- 192

CESIUM-137

1/10

1/2

1/10

1/2

1/10

1/2

LEAD

1.62

0.49

0.64

0.19

0.84

0.25

STEEL

2.90

0.87

2.0

0.61

2.25

0.68

CONCRETE OR ALLUMINIUM

8.6

2.6

6.2

1.9

7.1

2.1

SHIELDING MATERIAL

HALF VALUE LAYER FOR TUBE POSTENTIAL OF

50 kvp

70 kvp

100 kvp

125 kvp

150 kvp

200 kvp

250 kvp

300 kvp

LEAB (mm)

0.05

0.18

0.24

0.27

0.3

0.5

0.8

1.5

CONCRETE (In.)

0.2

o.5

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

73

LESSON-12

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES:

DARK ROOMS:THERE ARE MANY SIZES AND DESIGNS OF DARKROOMS,
BUT THEY ARE USUALLY DIVIDED INTO 2 AREAS; WET SIDE & DRY SIDE.
SAFE LIGHTS- PROVIDE A FILTERED LIGHT WHICH LESSENS THE DANGER
OF EXPOSING THE X-RAY FILM

75

RAIOGRAPHIC FILM:
A TRANSPARENT POLYSTER OR ACETATE IS USED AS THE BASE OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILM.
MOST RADIOGRAPHIC FILM HAS A SENSITIVE EMULSION ON BOTH SIDES OF THE ACETATE BASE.
THE OUTER LAYER OF THE FILM IS A LAYER OF GELATIN WHICH PROTECTS THE EMULSION
LAYER FROM SCARTCHES.
THE SOFT EMULSION LAYER (IMAGE LAYER) HAS SUSPENDED IN IT MICROSCOPIC GRAINS OF
SILVER BROMIDE. WHICH WHEN EXPOSED TO LIGHT OR RADIATION WOULD BECOME VISIBLE &
TRUN THE FILM BLACK.
THE IMAGE IS LATENT & NO VISIBLE CHANGE IN FILM WOULD BE NOTICEABLE UNTIL AFTER
DEVELOPMENT. LATENT IMAGE IS FORMED ON THE FILM WHEN SOME OF THE SILVER BROMIDE
GRAINS ARE IONIZED BY THE X-RAY, GAMMA RAY OR LIGHT. THE LATENT IMAGTE IS MADE
VISIBLE BY DEVELOPING THE FILM WHERE THE IONIZED SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS ARE
REDUCED TO BLACK METALLIC SILVER.

76

TANK PROCESSING: THREE ESSENTIAL PROCESSING SOLUTIONS THAT

ARE USED IN TURN TO CONVERT AN EXPOSED FILM INTO RADIOGRAPH.

77

1. DEVELOPER: IS A SOLUTION (COMBINATION OF CHEMICALS) ONE OF THE

CHEMICALS IS AN ACCELERATOR WHICH MAKES THE SOLUTION
ALKALINE. THIS CHEMICAL REMOVES THE PROTECTIVE LAYER AND
SWELLS THE EMULSION. ANOTHER CHEMICAL IN THE DEVELOPER IS THE
REDUCER WHICH CAN BE EITHER METOL OR HYDROQUINONE ITS
FUNCTION IS TO REDUCE THE EXPOSED SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS TO
BLACK METALLIC SILVER.

78

TIME & TEMPERATURE ARE IMPORTANT FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENT.

TYPICALLY, A TEMPERATURE OF 68F (20C) IS USED WITH A
DEVELOPMENT TIME OF BETWEEN 5 & 8 MINUTES.
AS THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLUTION IS INCREASED, THE SPEED AT
WHICH THE ALKALI PENETRATES IS ALSO INCREASED.
THE DENSITY IS DETERMINED BY THE NO. OF SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS
REDUCED BY THE DEVELOPER. CHEMICAL DEPLETION OF THE
DEVELOPER IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE NO. AND DENSITY OF THE FILM
DEVELOPED.

79

REPLENISHMENT OF THE DEVELOPER IS OFTEN DETERMINED BY THE USE

OF A CONTROL STRIP AND INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
1. SEVERAL FILMS ARE EXPOSED USING A STEP WEDGE TO GET A FULL
RANGE OF DENSITIES
2. AFTER EXPOSURE, THE FILM IS CUT INTO STRIPS AND ALL BUT ONE STRIP
IS STORED IN A LIGHT THIGHT BOX.
3. THE SINGLE STRIOP STRIP IS DEVELOPED IN FRESH SOLUTION AND
BECOMES THE CONTROL STRIP
4. TO DETERMINE WHEN REPLENISHMENT IS NECESSARY, THE REMAINING
STRIPS ARE PERIODICALLY PROCESSED AND COMPARED TO THE
CONTROL STRIP.
WHEN ADDED REPLENISHER IS EQUAL TO ABOUT TWO TO THREE TIMES THAT
OF THE ORIGINAL DEVELOPER, THE ENTIRE SOLUTION SHOULD BE
CHANGED. THE NEXT TOW STEPS IN TANK PROCESSING RADIOGRAPHIC
FILMS INCLUDES THE STOP BATH AND FIXER

80

2. STOP BATH(ACID) WHEN A FILM IS REMOVED FROM THE DEVELOPER, A

SMALL QUANTITY OF ALKALINE SOLUTION REMAINS ON THE FILM.
THE STOP BATH SERVES TWO FUNCTIONS:
1. STOPS DEVELOPING ACTION- BY NEUTRALIZING THE ALKALINE DEVELOPER.
2. NEUTRALIZES THE ALKALINE DEVELOPER BEFORE THE FILM IS PUT INTO
THE FIXER, THUS EXTENDING THE FIXER LIFE.
THE CHEMICAL USED IN THE STOP BATH IS USUALLY GLACIAL ACETIC ACID
3. FIXER- THE FIXER PERMANENTLY FIXES THE IMAGE ON THE FILM. IN THE
DEVELOPER, THE SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS WERE REDUCED TO METALIC
SILVER. THE UNEXPOSED SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS ARE STILL IN THE
EMULSION AND APPEAR MILKY-YELLOW ON THE FILM.
THERE ARE TWO SEPARATE STAGES IN THE FIXING PROCESS.
1. CLEANING TIME- THIS REMOVES ALL UNEXPOSED SILVER GRAINS & THE
CLOUDED FILM STARTS TO APPEAR CLEAR.
2. HARDENING- THE FIXER ALSO HARDNENS THE EMULSION GELATIN WHICH
HELPS PREVENT SCRATCHING DURING HANDLING.
81

AFTER CHEMICAL PROCESSING, THE FILM IS WASHED & DRIED. THE FILM IS
PLACED IN A SOLUTION TO RPEVENT WATER SPOTS ON THE FILM.

82

FILM MUST ALWAYS BE HANDLED WITH CARE & CLEANLINESS. DUST &
IMPROPER HANDLING OF THE FILM WILL CAUSE ARTIFACTS. A
COMMON ARTIFACT IS SIMPLY DUST. SPILLED CHEMICALS EVAPORATE &
LEAVE A CHEMICAL DUST THAT CAN CAUSE ARTIFACTS.

83