Language planning in Iran:

a historical review

ALI ASHRAF SADEGHI

Abstract

Language planning in Iran has been predominantly aimed at the modern-

ization of Persian through word coinage. The process of modernization in
Persian started in the 1920s and has continued up to the present time.
Although thousands of Persian equivalents have been coined for loan words
during the past several decades, Persian certainly needs many more native
equivalents for new foreign terms.

1. Introduction

With the Arab conquest of Iran in the seventh century A.D. the ocial
and written language of Iranian Empire, Pahlavi or Middle Persian, which
had already become di€erentiated from the spoken language, Dari,
gradually fell into disuse and was replaced by Arabic. During the two
centuries of Arab domination, the common language of Iranian people,
apart from local and regional dialects, was the Dari language. When in the
tenth century Dari was promoted as the written language of Iran, it had
already lost a signi®cant part of its Pahlavi vocabulary. During this
period, a substantial number of the scienti®c, philosophical, and cultural
terms of Pahlavi had become obsolete or totally forgotten and, on the
other hand, a number of general, religious, and administrative Arabic
words had entered spoken Persian.
Iranian scholars who used to write in Arabic began to use Persian in
their writings. They didn't try to ®nd Pahlavi terms or to coin new Persian
words, because of the availability of the Arabic scienti®c words. Thus,
a considerable number of Arabic words and expressions, mostly of
scienti®c origin were borrowed into Persian. The ®rst attempt at coining
Persian equivalents for Arabic terms was taken by Avicenna in his
Persian D anisÏn a'
ama-i `Al i, an encyclopedia of physics, metaphysics, and

0165±2516/01/0148±0019 Int'l. J. Soc. Lang. 148 (2001), pp. 19±30

# Walter de Gruyter
20 A.A. Sadeghi
logic. However, his attempts were not fruitful and no other scholar
followed him.
With the Mongolian invasion in the thirteenth century and their
domination in our country for more than a century and a half, a number
of Mongolian and Turkish loans slipped into Persian, as most of the
Mongol troops were Turks. The subsequent rulers of Iran were Turks, a
fact that contributed to the penetration of Turkish administrative and
military words into Persian.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran was situated between
three large countries: Tsarist Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and India. The
®rst contacts of Iranians with Western civilization and modern science
and technology were through Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and to a
lesser degree through India. Automotive, food, printing, and military terms
were borrowed from Russian. A number of civil and military terms were
also borrowed from Turkish. Examples of Russian loan words in these
domains include the following:

(1) Printing terms: esÏpun, from Rus. sÏpon `lead, blank type', gaÃrse,
Rus. kassa `composer's plate where type is kept',
raÃn/mgaÃ, Rus. granka `galley, an oblong tray for
keeping composed type'
(2) Terms connected with the automobile: maÃsÏin, Rus. masÏina `auto-
mobile', baÃk, Rus. bak
`tank', aÃftaÃmaÃt, Rus. avto-
mat `distributor (delco)'
(3) Terms relating to food: kaÃlbaÃs, Rus. kolbasa `sausage', borsÏ,
Rus. borsÏcÏ `cabbage soup', piraÃsÏki,
Rus. pirozÏoki plur, `a kind of patty'
(4) Military terms: paÃgun, Rus. pagon `shoulder strap', vaÃksil (band),
Rus. aksel'banty `aiguillettes', ferenjÏ, Rus. frencÏ
`military jacket'
(5) Examples of Turkish civil words: nazmiyye `police oce', baladiyye
`municipality', adliyye `ministry
of justice', tayyaÃre, Tur. from Ar.
`airplane'
(6) Examples of military words of Turkish origin: tup, from Tur. tob
`canon',baÃrut`gun-
powder', xompaÃre
`mortar'

In the nineteenth century, Iran came into contact with France.

A number of Iranian students continued their higher education in
Language planning: a historical review 21
France, and cultural relations between Iran and France gradually
increased. The linguistic consequence was French cultural dominance
and a great number of borrowings from French, most of which are still
in use in contemporary Persian.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the idea of replac-
ing foreign words with Persian equivalents grew among some men
of letters and in some learned circles. This was the starting point of
a rudimentary form of language planning in Iran. These personal and
collective attempts ended by creating certain private and ocial circles
dedicated to coining new words to replace foreign scienti®c, cultural,
and civil terms. These activities were nearly simultaneous with the
growth of nationalism in Iran. Nationalism awakened in some learned
circles the idea of linguistic purism, the target of which was to coin
Persian equivalents for western loan words, and for Arabic and Turkish
loans as well. Thus, the center of language planning in Iran was
the domain of vocabulary. This vocabulary-based concern for language,
has dominated every activity in language planning in Iran up to the
present day.

2. The ®rst society for word coinage

The ®rst society for coining words for foreign terms was a society patron-
ized by the ministry of war (defense) in 1303 A.H./1924. This society,
whose members were ten, was not active more than a decade. During this
period it succeded in coining terms such as havaÃpeymaà `airplane', forudgaÃh
`airport', xalabaÃn `pilot', vaÃbaste-ye nezaÃmi `military attacheÂ', etc.
(cf. Sadiq 1322 A.H./1943: 3; Badrei 1355 A.H./1976: 10), which gradually
gained ground and ousted their French, Arabic, or Turkish equivalents.
This organization's activities were absolutely dominated by nationalistic
intentions. No linguist or serious grammarian or man of letters was
among the members of this group. Their products were severely criti-
cized by some scholars, partly because they were either clumsy or
wrong from the etymological point of view. For example the formation
of the word artesÏ `army' was the result of a wrong analysis of the
unanlyzable obsolete word arte:sÏdaÃr `a military' into arte:sÏ (artesÏ) and
daÃr (the present stem of the verb daÃsÏtan `to have'), meaning `holder,
keeper' in complex words, such as ketaÃb-daÃr `librarian', litterally `keeper
of books'.
The second society of the kind, named ``the society for coining scienti®c
terms,'' was established in 1311 A.H./1932 in the ``school for teacher
training,'' the activities of which lasted until 1319/1940. In the weekly
22 A.A. Sadeghi
sessions of the society, some 25 to 50 students and a professor took part,
presenting and de®ning foreign terms for which Persian equivalents
were to be chosen. The process of coining new Persian words was based on
four principles (see Sadiq 1322/1943: 4; Badrei 1355/1976: 14±15):
1. conformity to the rules of Persian grammar;
2. simplicity and brevity;
3. conservation of existing terms, unless they were wrong, or more
appropriate terms could replace them;
4. preservation of terms that could be considered international.
The society comprised six sections, for natural sciences, mathematics,
physics, chemistry, philosophy, and literature. The new Persian words
suggested by each section were to be sent to the board of the society
for their approval and/or rejection. The approved words were ®rst
announced at the board and then sent to a number of scholars and
writers to obtain their opinions. The ®nal sanction was announced
after the collection and consideration of the scholars' and writers'
opinions. During the eight years activity of this society, 3000 terms
were coined, some 400 of which entered textbooks (Sadiq 1322/1943;
Badrei 1355/1976).
In 1313/1934 the ministry of public education planned to found a small
number of societies composed of scholars of di€erent branches of science,
the main goal of which was to coin new terms. Following this decision, the
Medical Academy was founded, which held a few sessions in which a
number of physicians took part. In one of the Academy's sessions the
term farhangestaÃn was suggested for French word acadeÂmie. In Middle
Persian, this word means `school'. It is composed of farhang `education'
and `culture' and the sux -estaÃn meaning `place'.

3. The Iranian Academy

According to the charter of the Medical Academy, coining Persian

medical terms and compiling textbooks were the main objectives of
this institution. However, in 1314/1935, before the rati®cation of the
Academy's statues, Rezaà Shah Pahlavi appointed M.A. Foroughi, the
then prime minister, to unify these scattered societies into a single
authoritative language-planning organization. One of the main objectives
of this institution, called the Iranian Academy, was to remove loan words
from Persian. In a letter to the ministry of public education, Foroughi
wrote, ``Seeing that some people try these days to coin words for new
concepts for which Persian has no means of expression, and seeing
that these people's methods are unfounded and do not conform to good
Language planning: a historical review 23
taste, it is incumbent upon the ministry of public education to ponder
on the idea of the establishment of such a society'' (see Badrei 1355/
1976: 18).
The Ministry invited a number of scholars and held some sessions in
which the charter of the Iranian Academy was codi®ed. The charter
comprised 16 paragraphs; the ®rst paragraph indicates that the Iranian
Academy is being founded for the maintenance, development, and
promotion of the Persian language. The second paragraph, which deals
with the tasks of the Academy, states that the Academy should prune
incongruous foreign words from the language and coin Persian terms and
expressions for every branch of life, using, as far as possible, Persian (and
not Arabic or Turkish) roots and words.
Other tasks of the Academy include (1) the reform of the Persian writing
system; (2) the writing of the Persian grammar; (3) the establishment
of principles for coining words and accepting or rejecting foreign
terms; (4) the collection of artisans' terms and expressions; (5) the
collection of words and expressions from old texts (see Badrei 1355/
1976: 19±20).
At its inception, the Academy comprised seven committees, but an
eighth committee, responsible for changing foreign (i.e. Arabic and Turco-
Mongol) toponyms into Persian ones, was established later. The other
committees were
1. committee for general administrative terminology;
2. committee for legal terminology;
3. committee for scienti®c terminology;
4. committee for Persian grammar;
5. committee for compiling a Persian dictionary;
6. committee for the guidance of public thoughts and collecting local
hymns, tunes, and words and expressions;
7. committee for studying medical terms.
By 1316/1937, around 600 terms and place names had been coined.
This ®gure reached 1700 in 1319/1940 and amounted to some 2000 by
1320/1941.
To have an idea of the achievements of the Academy, it would be useful
to mention some examples of its creations: zir-daryaÃ-i `submarine',
lit. `under sea' relative sux; do-zist `amphibian', lit. `two-life'; sabz-ine
`chlorophyl', lit. `green' relative sux; fesÏaÂr-sanjÏ `manometer', lit.
`pressure-measuring'; govaÃhi-naÃme `certi®cate', lit. `witness-book'; kaÃr-
daÃr `charge d'a€aires', lit. `a€air-having'; mardom-sÏenaÃsi `anthropology',
lit. `people-knowing'; mohre-daÃr-aÃn `vertebrates', lit. `vertebra-having';
paÃrine-sang-i `paleolithic', lit. `old stone' relative sux (cf. FarhangestaÃn-e
Iran 1319/1940).
24 A.A. Sadeghi
When Rezaà Shah abdicted in 1320/1941, the pressure for the use
of the Academy's coinings gradually languished, so that a session
was held in 1321/1942 during which the following principles were
approved:
1. Arabic words that have been accepted into Persian and used by
great poets and writers are permitted to be used in formal and informal
writings;
2. unfamiliar Arabic words, even though they have been used by some
writers, should not be used;
3. the Academy's task is not to coin words, but it can accept or reject
terms coined for concepts lacking means of expression in Persian (see
Badrei 1355/1976: 49±50).
The Academy held sessions until 1322/1943 but had stopped coining
words. Its other activities also diminished until, with the death of its
dean, H. Samii, in 1332/1953, and the rise of new political conditions in
the country, it was shut down.

4. Unocial societies for coining words

With the diminishing and suspension of the activities of the Iranian

Academy, some social and cultural circles decided to coin words that
Persian needed for the expression of some concepts of modern life. One
such circle was the society for coining terms and expressions needed
to be used in daÃ'erat-ol ma'aÃref-e faÃrsi, a Persian encyclopedia edited by
Gh. MosaÃheb, a Persian mathematician (1959±1995). The same circle
published in 1338/1959 a booklet comprising some 700 geographical,
geological, and meteorological terms coined by Gh. MosaÃheb, A. AÃraÃm,
S. As®aÃ, M. Moqarrabi, and H. Gol-e golaÃb.
The Iranian Cultural Foundation published a number of bilingual
(English-Persian) scienti®c dictionaries whose authors had tentatively
translated English scienti®c terms into Persian.
Some individual authors and translators also tried to coin Persian
words, especially in the human sciences, in their works. We should men-
tion here A.-H. AÃriaÃnpur, who in his Persian translation of M. Iqbal's The
Development of Metaphysics in Persia, coined some 2000 Persian words for
English philosophical terms. Another author active in coining Persian
words during the last decades is D. AÃshuri, who has published an English-
Persian dictionary for the human sciences (AÃshuri 1374/1995). This
dictionary comprises some 12,000 Persian equivalents, a great number of
which were coined by the author.
Language planning: a historical review 25
5. Iranian Academy of Language

Fifteen years after the closing of the Iranian Academy, M.-R. Shah Pahlavi
issued an order for the establishment of the Iranian Academy of Language
(1968). Protection of the national language and its preparation for
supplying the ever-increasing scienti®c and technical needs of the country
are insisted upon in the Shah's order. It is also emphasized that the new
academy will be the continuation of the Iranian Academy. On the basis of
this decree, the Iranian Academy of Language was founded in 1349/1970
with eleven members and objectives that include
1. Preparing Persian for adequately expressing various new scienti®c,
technical, and cultural concepts.
2. Carrying out studies in all past and present languages and dialects of
Iran, particularly in order to get a better knowledge of Persian and to
promote it (see Gol-e golaÃb and Kiaà 1355/1976: 20).
In the Academy's organization charter, the following four departments
were provided for:
1. Department of word selection and coining;
2. Department of the study of Persian vocabulary;
3. Department of the study of Persian grammar and writing system;
4. Department of ancient, middle, and modern Iranian languages and
dialects (Gol-e golaÃb and Kiaà 1355/1976: 20).
With the expansion of the activities of the Academy, the fourth
department was divided into two separate departments, one for modern
Iranian dialects, the other for the study of ancient and middle Iranian
languages; a new department for studying the relations and contacts
between Iranian languages and other languages was also founded.
The task of the department of word selection and coining was to choose
Persian equivalents for foreign terms used in Persian. This was considered
the main goal of the Academy.
The following 20 committees for various branches of science, tech-
nology, and art were selected, each composed of a number of specialists
who were invited to collaborate with linguists in word selection:
1. education and psychology;
2. economics and commerce;
3. informatics;
4. medicine;
5. geography;
6. language and literature;
7. chemistry;
8. social and political sciences;
9. law and administration;
26 A.A. Sadeghi
10. mathematics;
11. natural sciences,
12. physics;
13. cartography;
14. library science;
15. scienti®c textbooks;
16. agriculture and animal husbandry;
17. music;
18. engineering and industry;
19. toponymy;
20. ®ne arts
The academy of language published and distributed to specialists
booklets giving English technical terms for each branch of science and
their de®nitions in Persian. Specialists were requested to suggest Persian
equivalents for these terms.
Up to 1355/1976, almost 35,000 Persian words were proposed by the
committees for over 15,000 English terms.1 These words were to be dis-
cussed in the high council of the academy, and the words accepted were
reported to Shah for ®nal sanction.
In a pamphlet titled Iranian Academy and Iranian Academy of Language
by H. Gol-e golaÃb and S. Kiaà (1355/1976), KiaÃ, the head of the Iranian
Academy of Language, states, ``The Iranian Academy of Language tries
to replace as soon as possible new foreign words with Persian equivalents.
In so doing, it gives priority to words needed by various organizations;
then it tries to replace the most necessary words from the point of view
of di€erent departments of the Academy'' (1976: 26). In connection with
the methods of choosing words, he adds,

This Academy tries to choose new words as much as possible from among
commonly used words or from literary Persian or the combination of such words.
If appropriate words could not be found in common or literary language, the
choice would be made from other Iranian languages and dialects. These words,
if chosen, should be Persianized. In coining new words and compounds, the
Iranian Academy of Language endeavors not to harm the beauty and harmony
of the Persian vocabulary. It selects new terms in such a manner that the ties
between modern Persian and its past should be strengthened (Gol-e golaÃb and
Kiaà 1976: 27).

This academy had also planned to compile a dictionary for standard

Persian in which the received pronunciation of words would be recorded.
The compilation of a grammar for written Persian (on the basis of 100
books, journals, and newspapers), and the compilation of dictionaries for
Language planning: a historical review 27
all Persian dialects were other programs of the Iranian Academy of
Language.
After the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1357/1979, all
the activities of the Academy stopped. Apart from a few pamphlets
comprising a number of accepted and ®nally approved words, other
proposed words never appeared. However, the ®rst published booklet
of the Academy's coinings provoked intense reactions on the part of
some linguists and men of letters. For, contrary to the initial aims of the
Academy, to the e€ect that the Academy's ®rst priority is to choose and
coin equivalents for newly arrived foreign words, most of its e€orts were
to replace old Arabic or Western words. Moreover, most of its suggested
words were opaque and unintelligible even for educated people. The
following list includes examples of creations of the Iranian Academy of
Language, selected from two booklets comprising (1) Persian equivalents
for English educational terms (1353/1974); (2) Persian equivalents for
a part of the English terminology of the gas industry (1354/1975).

(1) Persian equivalents for English educational terms (1353/1974)

a. daÃnesÏ-yaÃb `bachelor', for Fr. loan lisaÃnsiye, from Per. daÃnesÏ
`science'zyaÃb `one who ®nds'
b. far-nesÏin `chairman', for Ar. ra'is, from the obsolete Per. pre®x
far-`before'znesÏin `one who sits'
c. aÃmuz-gaÃh `classroom', for Fr. kelaÃs, from aÃmuz, present stem and
verbal noun of the verb aÃmuxtan `to learn'z-gaÃh, a place sux
d. aÃmuze `course', for Ar. dars, from the previous verbz -e, a sux
for forming concrete nouns
e. peyvaste-kaÃr `full time', for Ar. tamaÃm-vaqt, from Per. peyvaste
`continuous'zkaÃr `work'
(2) Persian equivalents for a part of the English terminology of the gas
industry (1354/1974)

a. ham-vastaÃr `connector', for Ar. ettesaÃl, from Per. ham `same'

zvastaÃr `connecting', an obsolete form of the old active participle
of the verb bastn `to tie'
b. fazaÃre `device', for Ar. vasile, from Per. fazaÃr, an old and
analogical form of afzaÃr `device'z-e, the concrete sux
c. bar-jÏaà `®xed', for Ar. saÃbet, from Per. preposition bar `on,
upon'zjÏaà `place'
d. aÃmizaÃne `mixer', for Arabo-Per. maxlut-kon, from Per. aÃmiz,
present stem and verbal noun of the verb aÃmixtan `to mix' z -aÃne,
a sux for forming concrete nouns
28 A.A. Sadeghi
e. gonaÃre `regulator', for Fr. reg(u)laÃtor, from the present stem and
verbal noun of the inexistent Per. verb *gonaÃrdan, derived from
the Middle Persian verb win ardan `to arrange, to adjust'z-e sux
From all the products of the Iranian Academy of Language only a
few words, such as raÃyaÃne `computer', hamaÃyesÏ `congress', sÏomaÃrgaÃn
`printing, tirage (Fr.)', etc., were more or less accepted in the common
language.

6. Academy of Persian Language and Literature

In 1370/1991 a new institution, named the Academy of Persian Language

and Literature, with 25 permanent members, was founded. The third
Academy consists of seven departments, the most active of which is
the department of word selection. Other departments are department of
ancient Iranian languages; Department of Iranian dialects; department
for editing classical Persian texts; department of Persian grammar and
writing system; department for the compilation of a comprehensive Persian
dictionary; department for the compilation of an encyclopedia for
Persian literature.
The main task of the department of word selection is to ®nd Persian
equivalents for foreign words used both in common language and in
scienti®c writings.
This department encompasses committees for di€erent disciplines.
These committees hold regular meetings with the collaboration of members
and researchers of the Iranian Academy of Sciences for selecting terms
needed in di€erent branches of science. Terms chosen in these committees
will be proposed to the high council of the Academy for ®nal con®rma-
tion. One of the works carried out by this department is the choice of
Persian equivalents for some 200 western loan words used in ocial
documents and writings. The list of these words was drawn up by the Iranian
government and submitted to the Academy. These words were, after
®nal con®rmation in the high council of the Academy, submitted to the
president of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be communicated to the
government for use in ocial correspondence, texts, etc. They are
also published in book form for the public.
The Academy's ®rst principle for choosing and coining words is
transparency and intelligibility. Opaque words and dialectal and ancient
forms are rejected as unintelligible for the public. Another principle is to
preserve international words, such as raÃdio, post, televiziyon, etc. Phonetic
considerations and simplicity are also taken into account. Considering
Language planning: a historical review 29
all these facts, there is more chance for the Iranian Academy of Language
and Literature's products to ®nd favor.
Some examples of the chosen and coined words:

(3) a. payaÃm-gir `answering-machine', lit. `message-obtainer (receiver)'

b. dur-negaÃr `fax', lit. `[from] afar painter (writer)'
c. cÏeraÃqak `warmer', lit. `little lamp'
d. payaÃm-negaÃr `E-mail', lit. `message-painter (writer)'
e. ramzine `bar code', from ramz `mystery, code' z -ine, relative
sux.

The main goal of the department of Persian grammar and writing

system is, in addition to the study of Persian grammar in order to compile
a comprehensive grammar for the students of Persian language and
literature, to study the Persian writing system in order to reform it. The
amendments are communicated to the ministry of education to be used
in primary and high school textbooks.
The Academy has a monthly newsletter in which newly chosen and
coined words are published to obtain the opinion of specialists outside the
Academy. Further, a quarterly journal is published by the Academy in
which Academy members and researchers as well as outside scholars
publish studies connected with the Academy's sphere of interests.

7. Summary

Contacts between Iran and western countries in the middle of the nine-
teenth century caused the introduction of Russian, French, and English
words into Persian. In the early twentieth century, some circles tried to get
rid of foreign loan words, including Arabic and Turkish ones. The ®rst
Iranian Academy was founded in 1935 with the purpose of stopping the
excess of such circles. Since that time two other academies has been
founded, all with the objective of preparing the Persian language for
expressing general and especially new scienti®c concepts by coining
Persian words for western terms. However, the rate of introduction of
western, and particularly English, loan words into Persian is such that any
attempt to stop them is almost doomed to failure. The number of words
coined by three Iranian academies does not exceed 2000 items. Even if
terms and expressions selected by authors of scienti®c, artistic, and literary
works are taken into consideration, this number cannot reach 10,000.
The result is that many Persian textbooks in the ®eld of medicine and
science are swarming with English, and less frequently with French, words.
30 A.A. Sadeghi
The fact that English scienti®c terms are mostly agreed upon, while their
Persian equivalents are not, has aggravated this process. In conclusion,
one can say that language planning of the kind discussed here is not
proportional to real needs, and the Persian language, like many other
languages of the contemporary world, is open to borrowings from
dominant languages.

Tehran University

Note

1. For di€erent ®gures, see Modarresi (1990: 3).

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