8th CLASS

Experiments -1:
Aim: Electrostatic force comes into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
Materials required: Two plastic straws, Thread, A sheet of paper,
Procedure:1) Take equal lengths of two plastic straws.
2) Suspend one of the plastic straw from the edge of a table with the help of a
piece of thread.
3) Now hold the other plastic straw in your hand and rub its free end with a
sheet of paper.
4) Bring the rubbed end of the straw near the suspended straw.
5) Make sure that the two plastic straws do not touch each other.
6) We observed that, two straws are attracting each other.
7) A straw is said to have acquired electrostatic charge after it has been
rubbed with a sheet of paper. Such a straw is an example of a charged
body.
8) Next, rub the free end of the suspended piece of straw with a sheet of
paper.
9) Again, bring the piece of straw that was rubbed earlier with paper near the
free end of the suspended straw.
10) We observed that, two straws are repelling each other.
11) Two plastic straws acquired same electric charge.

Conclusion: Electrostatic force comes into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
The electrostatic force, therefore, is another example of a non-contact force.

Experiments -2:
Aim: Pressure exerted by liquid at the bottom of the container depends on the height of
its column.
Materials required: Transparent container, Water Ruler or measuring tape, Spring
balance or pressure gauge, Stopwatch or timer
Procedure:
1) Place the transparent container on a flat surface.
2) Fill the container with water, ensuring it is completely filled to the brim.
3) Use a ruler or measuring tape to measure the initial height (h1) of the water
column from the base of the container to the surface of the water.
4) Attach the spring balance or pressure gauge to the bottom of the container,
ensuring it is securely fastened.
5) Start the stopwatch or timer.
6) Observe and record the reading on the spring balance or pressure gauge, which

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 1
indicates the pressure exerted by the liquid at the bottom of the container.
7) Measure the final height (h2) of the water column after a specific time interval
(Ex: 30 seconds).
8) Repeat steps 5-7 for different time intervals (Ex:1 minute, 2 minutes) while
keeping the initial height constant.
9) Repeat steps 3-8 for different initial heights (h1) by adding or removing water
from the container.
S.No h1 h2 ∆h= h2- h1

Conclusion: This experiment confirms that the pressure exerted by a liquid at the
bottom of a container does depend on the height of its column.
By measuring the pressure at different heights and observing the
corresponding changes, we can see a direct relationship between the two
variables.

Experiments -3:
Aim: Pressure exerted by liquid at the bottom of the container depends on the height of
its column.
Materials required: Transparent glass or a plastic pipe, Water, A piece of thin sheet of
rubber
Procedure:
1) Take a transparent glass tube or a plastic pipe.
2) The length of the pipe/tube should be about 25 cm and its diameter should be
5-7.5 cm.
3) Also take a piece of thin sheet of a good quality rubber, say, a rubber balloon.
4) Stretch the rubber sheet tightly over one end of the pipe.

5) Hold the pipe at the middle, keeping it in a vertical position.

6) Ask one of your friends to pour some water in the pipe.
7) The rubber sheet bulges out.
8) Note also the height of the water column in the pipe.
9) Pour some more water.
10) Observe again the bulge in the rubber sheet and the height of the water
column in the pipe. Repeat this process a few more times.
11) We will observe that the bulging of the rubber balloon increase with the
increase in height of the liquid column.
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 2
Conclusion: Pressure exerted by liquid at the bottom of the container depends on the
height of its column.

Experiments -4:
Aim: Friction depends on the nature of the surface.
Materials required: Table, Wooden board, books or bricks, pencil cell, a piece of cloth,
Sand
Procedure:
1) Make an inclined plane on a smooth floor, or on a table.
2) You may use a wooden board supported by bricks, or books.
3) Put a mark with a pen at any point A on the inclined plane.
4) Now let a pencil cell move down from this point.
5) Note down the distance from starting point to the rest position.
6) Now spread a piece of cloth over the table. Make sure that there are no wrinkles
in the cloth.

7) Repeat this activity by spreading a thin layer of sand over the table.
8) Maintain the same slope throughout the activity.
S.No Object Nature of surface Distance (cm)
1 Pencil cell Plane Surface
2 Pencil cell Cloth Surface
3 Pencil cell Sand Surface

Conclusion: We observed that, the pencil cell moves a minimum distance on a sand
surface and a maximum distance on a plane surface. So, Friction depends
on the nature of the surface
Experiments -5:
Aim: Rolling friction is always easier to roll than to slide a body over another.
Materials required: 3 or 4 Pencils, Table, Thick book
Procedure:
1) Take a few pencils which are cylindrical in shape.
2) Place them parallel to each other on a table.

3) Place a thick book over it.

4) Now push the book.
5) You observe the pencils rolling as the book moves.
6) Sliding the book feels more difficult than moving it this way.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 3
7) Because the rolling friction is less than the sliding friction, the resistance to
motion has decreased.
8) Rolling friction is the resistance to a body's motion as it rolls over the surface of
another body.
9) Friction is reduced when rolling. Rolling is usually simpler than sliding a body
over another.
Conclusion: Rolling friction is always easier to roll than to slide a body over another.

Project – 1
Title of the Project: Collect information on methods of increasing and
decreasing friction in day-to-day life
Aim of the project: What are methods using increasing and decreasing friction.
Hypothesis: Friction is increased or decreased according to human needs.
Introduction: The force that acts between two bodies which are sliding or trying to slide
against each other is known as friction. For example, when we push a box along a rough
floor, friction is responsible for making the task difficult.
Friction is also known as an opposing force since it always acts in the opposite
direction of a body that is moving or trying to move. A moving body is slowed down due
to the virtue of friction. At times, friction is useful since it stops car tires from skidding
on the road and also helps us to walk on the pavement without slipping. While walking,
the friction caused between the tread on shoes and the ground prevents us from
slipping.
Sometimes, too much friction is unnecessary, and we want to reduce friction.
For example, friction between machine parts reduces the efficiency of the machine and
in order to reduce this friction, we oil the machine parts. Oil helps to separate the
surfaces and this helps to reduce the friction between them.
Factors affecting Friction:
There are many factors that affect the frictional conditions at the interface
between two surfaces in relative motion. These factors are as follows:
i) Surface Finish- The frictional coefficient is drastically affected by the roughness,
number, and even the directional contact points of the asperities on
the surfaces.
ii) Temperature- The overall level of cold or heat or cold in an environment can affect
friction. For example, temperature determines whether an anti-wear or
extreme pressure additive will be effective in certain applications.
iii) Operational Load- Friction varies directly with the load. A load that exceeds the
designed capacity will drastically increase the frictional coefficient
of friction.
iv) Relative Speed- Increasing the speed beyond the specified safety level will
dramatically increase friction.
v) Nature of the Relative Motion between the Surfaces- The frictional coefficient is
also affected by the sliding motion versus the rolling motion.
Methods of Increasing Friction
Method 1: Create an uneven or rugged or adhesive point of contact. When two or more
bodies either slide or rub against each other, there are three things that may happen:
small irregularities, nooks, and crannies on the surfaces can catch on each other; one or
both the surfaces can deform due to motion; and lastly, the atoms within each surface
can interact with each other. Practically, all three of these effects do the same thing:
generate friction. An adhesive interaction with other surfaces (like tacky glue, etc.) is an
easy way to increase friction.
Method 2: Press the two surfaces together harder. A fundamental principle of basic
physics is that the friction experienced by a body is directly proportional to its normal

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 4
force. This implies that we can increase the friction between two surfaces can be
increased if we press the surfaces into each other with a greater force.
Method 3: Stopping any relative motion. That is, if one body is in motion with respect to
another body, stop it. Until now, we have focused on sliding friction, which is also
known as kinetic friction-the friction that occurs between two bodies as they slide
against one another. In fact, this friction is different from static friction, which occurs
when a body just starts to move against one another. The friction between two bodies is
the highest right when they start moving against one another. This friction decreases,
once they are gradually in motion. This is one of the most important reasons why it’s
harder to start pushing a heavy body than it is to keep it moving.
Method 4: Remove lubrication between the two surfaces. Oil, grease, petroleum jelly,
etc. are lubricants that can greatly reduce the friction between two objects or surfaces.
This is due to the fact that friction between two solids is much higher than the friction
between those solids and the liquid between them. To increase friction, we need to
remove any lubricants from the scenario, using only dry and un-lubricated parts to
generate friction.
Method 5: Increase the fluid viscosity. Besides solid objects, fluids (liquids) and gases
(like air) can also generate friction. The amount of friction generated by a fluid as it
passes against a solid depends on several factors. One of the easiest of these to control is
the fluid viscosity since the greater the viscosity of the liquid, the greater is the friction
between the fluid and the solid. The highly viscous fluids (ones that are “thick”, “gooey”,
etc.) generate more friction than fluids that are less viscous (ones that are “smooth” and
“liquid”).
Method 6: Increase the area exposed to air. As noted in the previous point, fluids like
water and air can generate friction as they move against solid objects. The frictional
force that an object experiences as it moves through a fluid is called drag. One of the
most important properties of drag is that objects with bigger surface area, to the fluid as
they move through it — have a greater drag.
Method 7: Use a shape that has a greater drag coefficient. A variety of shapes interact
with fluids in a variety of ways as they pass through them — this implies that some
shapes can have greater drag than other shapes that are made out of the same amount
of material. The drag coefficient is the quantity that measures the relative amount of
drag a shape makes hence shapes with high drags are said to have high drag
coefficients.
Method 8: Use a less permeable material. Some materials are permeable to fluids. In
Layman’s terms, they have holes in them that allow the fluid to pass through them. This
readily reduces the area of the object that the fluid is able to push against and this
lowers the force of drag. This property holds even if they are microscopic holes — as long
as the holes are large enough to let some of the fluid pass through the object, the drag
will be reduced. This is why parachutes which are designed to produce lots of drag to
slow the speed of the user’s fall, are made out of strong, light silk or nylon and not
cheesecloth or coffee filters.
Method 9: Increase the speed of the object. It does not matter what the shape of an
object it is or how less/more permeable the material it’s made from is, the drag which it
creates will always increase as it goes faster. The faster a body moves, the more fluid it
has to move through, and, thus, the greater drag it experiences. Bodies moving at very
high speeds will experience very high friction due to drag, so these objects must be
streamlined or else they will fall apart under the force of the drag.
Methods of Reducing Friction
Method 1: Objects that move in fluids such as boats, planes, cars, etc, the shape of
their body must be streamlined in order to reduce the friction between the bodies of the
objects as the fluid.
Method 2: Friction can be reduced by polishing the surface of a body as polishing
makes the surface smooth and even.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 5
Method 3: Lubricants such as oil or grease must be applied to machine parts regularly
to reduce the friction between them.
Method 4: Suppose an object is rolled over a surface, the friction between the rolled
object and surface can be reduced by using ball bearings.
Method 5: Friction between two surfaces can also be reduced by reducing the contact
between the surfaces.
Method 6: Ball bearings are used in manufacturing vehicles, bicycles, and vehicles to
reduce friction.
Conclusion: This project aims to enhance our understanding of friction and its influence
on day-to-day life. By investigating methods to increase and reduce friction, we can
propose practical applications and optimize friction in various contexts.
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project:
Class : 8th
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School:
Time Duration :
Material used : Internet, Newspapers and 8thclass physical science book.

Project – 2
Title of the Project: WHAT HAPPENS IF FRICTION VANISHES?
Aim of the project: To collect the data and pictures about the incidents of if the friction
vanishes.
Hypothesis: We cannot do anything if there is no friction.
Introduction: Friction opposes the relative motion between two
surfaces in contact. It acts on both the surfaces.
Friction is important for many of our activities.
1. Walking and Running: Without friction, it would be extremely
difficult to walk or run. We would have no traction to push
against the ground, resulting in people sliding and stumbling
constantly.

2. Transportation: Friction plays a crucial role in the functioning

of vehicles. Cars, trains, and airplanes heavily rely on friction to
generate traction and control their movements. Without it,
driving or flying would become nearly impossible.

3. Sports: Friction is vital in numerous sports, such as soccer,

basketball, and tennis. Players would have difficulty stopping,
changing direction, or maintaining control over the ball or
equipment.

4. Gravity and Stability: Friction is essential for maintaining

stability and preventing objects from sliding or falling. Without
friction, everything from furniture to buildings would be prone
to sudden movements or collapse.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 6
5. Manufacturing: Friction is utilized in various manufacturing
processes, such as grinding, polishing, and cutting. These
processes would become significantly challenging, affecting
industries that rely on them.

6. Writing and Drawing: Friction provides the necessary

resistance between the pen/pencil and the paper, enabling
us to write and draw. Without friction, it would be extremely
difficult to create legible or precise marks on paper.

7. Personal Safety: Friction is crucial for our safety in everyday

life. We rely on it to grip handrails, hold objects firmly, and
prevent accidental slips or falls. Without friction, personal
safety would be severely compromised.

8. Fire and Heat: Friction generates heat, and without it,

fire-making would be challenging. Rubbing two objects
together to create sparks or ignite flammable material
would no longer be possible.

9. Engineering and Design: Friction is a fundamental

consideration in engineering and design. Machines,
mechanisms, and structures are designed with friction
in mind. Without it, existing designs would fail, and new
concepts would have to be developed.

10. Natural Processes: Friction plays a significant role in

natural processes like erosion, weathering, and tectonic
plate movements.The absence of friction would disrupt
these processes, leading to unpredictable changes in the
Earth's surface and environment.
Conclusion: Friction prevents objects from sliding apart. Everything would slide to the
lowest point if there was no friction. It would be impossible to scale anything. We will be
unable to write without friction. No riding a bike, cycle, or even a car or bus without
friction. There are no machines in businesses, so there are no mechanics without
friction. We would not have been able to sit, walk, run, or dance without friction
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project:
Class : 8th
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School:
Time Duration :
Material used : Internet, Newspapers and 8thclass physical science book.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 7
9th CLASS

Experiments -1:
Aim: Testing that the particles of matter are very small.
Materials required: Transparent measuring beakers, Potassium permanganate crystals,
Water, Spoon, Test tubes
Procedure:
1) Take 2–3 crystals of potassium permanganate and dissolve them in 100 mL of
water.
2) Take out approximately 10 mL of this solution and put it into 90 mL of clear
water.
3) Take out 10 mL of this solution and put it into another 90 mL of clear water.
4) Keep diluting the solution like this 5 to 8 times.
5) The water remains coloured till the last dilution.
6) This experiment shows that just a few crystals of potassium permanganate can
colour a large volume of water (about 1000L).

7) So we conclude that there must be millions of tiny particles in just one crystal of
potassium permanganate, which keep on dividing themselves into smaller and
smaller particles.
8) The same activity can be done using 2 ml of Dettol instead of potassium
permanganate.
9) The smell can be detected even on repeated dilution.
Conclusion: The particles of matter are very small. They are small beyond our
imagination.

Experiments -2:
Aim: The gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids.
Materials required:
Procedure:
1) Take three 100 mL syringes and close their nozzles by rubber corks, as shown in
Figure

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 8
2) Remove the pistons from all the syringes.
3) Leaving one syringe untouched, fill water in the second and pieces of chalk in the
third.
4) Insert the pistons back into the syringes. You may apply some vaseline on the
pistons before inserting them into the syringes for their smooth movement.
5) Now, try to compress the content by pushing the piston in each syringe.
6) The piston was pushed in easily in the syringe in which nothing except air was
filled.
7) Gases can be compressed easily.
Conclusion: We have observed that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids
and liquids.

Experiments -3:
Aim: The state of matter is affected by changing temperature.
Materials required: Beaker, Laboratory thermometer, Ice, Burner, Glass rod
Procedure:
1) Take about 150 g of ice in a beaker and suspend a laboratory thermometer so
that its bulb is in contact with the ice, as in Figure.

2)Start heating the beaker on a low flame.

3)Note the temperature when the ice starts melting.
4)Note the temperature when all the ice has converted into water.
5)The ice melts at 00C. All the ice gets conversion from solid to liquid state.
6)Now, put a glass rod in the beaker and heat while stirring till the water starts
boiling.
7) Keep a careful eye on the thermometer reading till most of the water has
vaporised.
8) The water starts boiling at 1000C and gets converted into vapours at the same
temperature.
Conclusion: On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles
increases.Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating
with greater speed. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces
of attraction between the particles. The particles leave their fixed positions
and start moving more freely. The state of matter is affected by changing
temperature.

Experiments -4:
Aim: Evaporation depends on temperature, surface area and speed of wind.
Materials required: Test tube, China dish, Fan, Thermometer
Procedure:
1) Take 5 mL of water in a test tube and keep it near a window or under a fan.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 9
2) Take 5 mL of water in an open china dish and keep it near a window or under a
fan.
3) Take 5 mL of water in an open china dish and keep it inside a cupboard or on a
shelf in your class.
4) Record the room temperature.

5) Record the time or days taken for the evaporation process in the above cases.
6) Repeat the above three steps of activity on a rainy day and record your
observations.
7) Evaporation will be fastest from the china dish kept near window.
8) The evaporation increases with temperature, surface area of the container and
speed of wind.
Conclusion: Evaporation depends on temperature, surface area and speed of wind.

Experiments -5:
Aim: Testing of solution, suspension and colloidal solution.
Materials required: 4 test tubes, copper sulphate crystals, Chalk powder or Wheat
flour, Milk or Ink, Water, Torch light,
Procedure:
1) Take four test tubes and divide into four names as— A, B, C and D.
2) Few crystals of copper sulphate to test tube A.
3) One spatula full of copper sulphate to test tube B.
4) Chalk powder or wheat flour to test tube C.
5) Few drops of milk or ink to test tube D.
6) Each test tube should add the given sample in water and stir properly using a
glass rod.

7) Particles of mixture are visible only in case of test tube C.

8) Direct a beam of light from a torch through the beaker containing the mixture
and observe from the front.
9) The path of the beam of light was visible in case of test tube C and D.
10) Leave the mixtures undisturbed for a few minutes (and set up the filtration
apparatus in the meantime).
11) The particles settle down after sometime in case of test tube C.
12) Filter the mixture.
13) Residue will be left in case of group C.
14) We observed that,
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 10
Test tubes A and B have got a solution.
Test tube C has got a suspension.
Test tube D has got a colloidal solution.
Conclusion: Test tubes A and B have got a solution, Test tube C has got a suspension,
Test tube D has got a colloidal solution.

Project – 1:
Title of the Project: Collect information on the effect of evaporation on
daily Life situations.
Aim of the Project: To study the effect of evaporation on daily life situations.
Hypothesis: Evaporation is a cooling process and surface phenomena.
Evaporation: Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain
enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid
and change into the vapour state.
The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed
to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.
The effect of evaporation on daily life situations: -
1. Drying Clothes under The Sun:
One of the most common real-life examples of evaporation is
drying of clothes under the sun. When the wet clothes are put
under the sun, they get heated up resulting in the evaporation
of water particles present in wet clothes; making the clothes dry.
2. Ironing of Clothes:
The hot iron evaporates the water vapors present in the fabric of
clothes, which help to iron the clothes well.
3. Cooling Down of Hot Tea and Other Hot Liquids:
Isn’t it a magic as to how a hot cup of tea or any hot liquid cools
down after some time? It’s all possible because of the evaporation.
Heat loss happens as the water evaporates resulting in the cooling
down of the tea and other such beverages.
4. Wet Floors:
How does the wet floor dries up? Where does the water go away?
The simple answer is that the water is evaporated because of the
heat and making the floor completely dry.
5. Melting of Ice Cubes:
When the ice cubes are taken out of the refrigerator for having drinks,
we all must have noticed that after some time the ice cubes melt and
take the form of the liquid. It changes its shape from solid to liquid.
It all happens because of the increased temperature outside the
refrigerator that evaporates the water, resulting in the change of shape
of the ice cubes.
6. Preparation of Common Salt:
Preparation of common salt is also a widespread example of
the evaporation. The seawater goes under the evaporation, which
results in the formation of salt crystals.
7. Evaporation of Nail Paint Remover:
The acetone present in the nail paint remover takes the heat of
our bodies and evaporates.

8. Drying of Wet Hair:

Going for some urgent work? Need to dry your hair immediately?
The only possible immediate solution is drying up of hair with

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 11
the hairdryer. The water vapor of wet hair evaporates due to the
heat of the sun or heat of the hairdryer.
9. Drying up of Different Water Bodies:
The water from different water bodies mostly get dried up during
the hot summers and gets refilled only after rain. So, what do you
think? What happened here? Well, here also it’s evaporation.
10. Evaporation of Sweat from Body:
On a hot summer day, the sweat from the skin evaporates due
to the high temperature of the environment, taking a little bit of
body heat. Thus, it results in the cooling effect.
11. Distillation Process:
Distillation is a process in which the different components of the
liquid are separated by the boiling and the condensation. Thus, in
this process too, the evaporation performs the main role.
12. Working of a Pressure Cooker:
During cooking, a lot of heat is produced inside a pressure cooker,
and with its whistle, the steam comes out by evaporation; making
a perfect dish for us.
13. Brings Rain:
The initial stage under the water cycle process is evaporation.
The other process like condensation, sublimation, precipitation,
transpiration, runoff, and infiltration comes after the evaporation
process. So, if evaporation is not there then this water cycle would
remain incomplete.
Conclusion: Evaporation is a natural phenomenon that occurs in liquids. Evaporation is
a part of human life.
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project :
Class : 9th class
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School :
Time Duration :
Material Used : Internet, Newspapers and 9th class textbook

Project – 2
Title of the Project: Evaporation and Factors Affecting Evaporation
Aim of the Project: To study the process of evaporation and factors affecting
evaporation.
Hypothesis: Evaporation is a cooling process and surface phenomena.
Evaporation: Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain
enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid
and change into the vapour state.
The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed
to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.

Each of these factors affecting evaporation have been explained in detail below.
1) Temperature
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 12
When the temperature of the liquid (water, in this case) is increased, it results in an
increase in the kinetic energy of the individual molecules that constitute the liquid. This
increase in energy makes it easier for the liquid molecules to overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction (that holds the liquid together) and escape into the
atmosphere as a gas. It can be noted that the temperature of the surrounding can also
contribute towards faster evaporation since hot environments can transfer their heat to
the liquid.

2) Surface Area Occupied by the Liquid

Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, which implies that the process only occurs at the
surface of the liquid. During evaporation, the molecules of the liquid that are present at
its surface overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction to break away from the liquid
and escape into the atmosphere as a gas (or vapour).
Liquids are known to not have any definite shape – they assume the shape of their
container. Therefore, the greater the surface area of the container (or the greater the
surface occupied by the liquid), the greater the number of liquid molecules present at
the surface. The larger the number of liquid molecules are at the surface, the larger the
number of molecules that will break away from the liquid and become a gas at a given
point of time, which contributes to an increase in the rate of evaporation.

3) Humidity of the Surrounding

There is a limit to how much water vapour the atmosphere can hold. This limit is
proportional to the temperature (which implies that hot air can hold more water vapour
than cold air). Evaporation can be viewed as an equilibrium process through which the
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere reaches an equilibrium with the amount of
water in the surface of the liquid. Therefore, the greater the amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere over the liquid, the slower the rate of evaporation. Also, it can be noted
that an increase in temperature with constant humidity will contribute to an increase in
the rate of evaporation since hot air can hold a greater amount of water vapour.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 13
4) Air Circulation or Wind Speed
Evaporation increases the humidity of the atmosphere that immediately surrounds the
liquid. This humid air takes some time to dissipate into the rest of the atmosphere. The
presence of a breeze, a powerful wind, or some other form of air circulation can speed up
this process and make the environment of the liquid less humid. Therefore, by
decreasing the humidity of the liquid’s surrounding, a powerful breeze or wind can
increase the rate at which the liquid evaporates.

Conclusion: we collect the data about the factors which depend on evaporation in our
daily life.
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project :
Class : 9th class
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School :
Time Duration :
Material Used : Internet, Newspapers and 9th class textbook

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 14
10th CLASS

Experiments -1:
Aim: To find the specific heat of a given solid
Materials required: Calorimeter, Thermometer, Stirrer, Water, Steam water, Wooden
box and Lead shots (or)Iron bolt
Procedure:
Step-1:
Mass of the calorimeter(m1)=….
Temperature of the calorimeter(T1)=..
Let specific heat of calorimeter = Sc
Step-2:
Now fill 1/3rd of the volume of calorimeter with water.
Mass of the calorimeter + water = m2
Mass of the water= m2 - m1
Temperature of the water(T1)=…..
Let specific heat of water= Sw
Step-3:
Take a few lead shots and place them in hot water or steam water.
Temperature of the lead shots(T2)=..
Let specific heat of lead shots = Sl
Step-4:
Transfer the hot lead shots quickly into the calorimeter.
Mass of the calorimeter + water + lead shots = m3
Mass of lead shots = m3-m2
After some time
Temperature of calorimeter+ water+ lead shots = T3
According to the principle of the method of mixtures
Heat lost by the solid (lead shots) = Heat gain by the calorimeter + Heat gain by
the water

Conclusion: Knowing the specific heats of calorimeter and water, we can calculate
the specific heat of the solid (lead shots).

Experiments -2:
Aim: The rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on its surface area and vapour already
present in surrounding air.
Aim (1): The rate of evaporation of liquid depends on its surface area
Materials required: Two dishes of different surface area and water
Procedure (1):
1) Take two dishes of different surface area
2) Pour equal amounts of water in the both dishes
3) Keep aside for 2 to 3 hours
4) Observe them after some time. Dish with more surface area has less quantity
of water than the dish having less surface area
Observation (1): This shows evaporation increases with increasing of surface area
Aim (2): The rate of evaporation of liquid depends on The rate of evaporation of liquid
depends on
Materials required: Two dishes of equal surface area and water
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 15
Procedure (2):
1) Take two dishes of equal surface area containing water
2) This experiment should be conducted on more humidity day and less humidity
day
3) We may observe that evaporation is less on more humidity day due to more
vapour in the air
Observation (2): Hence the rate of evaporation depends upon vapour already present in
surrounding air.
Conclusion: The rate of evaporation of a liquid depends on its surface area and vapour
already present in the surrounding air.

Experiments -3:
Aim: To show that acid produce hydrogen gas reacted with metals.
Materials required: Test tube, Delivery tube, Glass trough, Candle, Soap water, dil. HCl,
and Zinc granules.
Procedure:
1) Set the apparatus as shown in figure.
2) Take about 10ml of dilute HCl in a test tube and add a few zinc granules to it.
3) We observe a gas is evolved from the zinc granules
4) Pass the gas being evolved through the soap water.
5) We observe some bubbles formed in the soap solution.
6) Bring a burning candle near the gas filled bubble.
7) The candle turn off with a pop sound

8) The pop sound indicates that the gas evolved in H2

Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen
2 HCl (aq) + Zn(s)  Zn Cl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
9) Repeat this experiment with remaining acids like HNO3, H2SO4 etc.
10) We observe that, HNO3, H2SO4 etc. also produced hydrogen gas when reaction
with metals
Conclusion: We conclude that hydrogen gas is produced when acid reacts with metals.

Experiments -4:
Aim: Compounds such as alcohols and glucose contain hydrogen but are not categorized
as acids.
Materials required: Beaker, 230v AC plug, Bulb, Graphite rods, Electrical wires,
Solutions of HCl, H2SO4, Glucose and Alcohol.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 16
Procedure:
1) Prepare solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid etc.
2) Connect two different coloured electrical wires to graphite rods separately in a
100 ml beaker as shown in figure.
3) Connect free ends of the wire to 230 volts AC plug and complete the circuit as
shown in the fig by connecting a bulb to one of the wires.

4) Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current.
5) We observe that the bulb glows.
6) Repeat activity with dilute sulphuric acid and glucose and alcohol solutions
separately.
7) You will notice that the bulb glows only in acid solutions but not in glucose and
alcohol solutions.
8) Glowing of bulb indicates that there is flow of electric current through the
solution. Acid solutions have ions and the moment of these ions in solution
helps for flow of electric current through the solution.
9) The positive ion (cation) present in HCl solution is H+. This suggests that acids
produce hydrogen ions H+ in solution, which are responsible for their acidic
properties.
10) In glucose and alcohol solution the bulb did not glow indicating the absence of
H+ ions in these solutions. The acidity of acids is attributed to the H+ ions
produced by them in solutions.
Conclusion: Compounds such as alcohols and glucose contain hydrogen but are not
categorized as acids.

Experiments -5:
Aim: Obtaining a relation between angle of incidence and angle of refraction (or)
Experimentally prove that the angle of incidence is more than angle of refraction
when light rays travel from rarer medium to denser medium (or)
prove that Sin i/Sin r is constant
Materials required: Pro circle, scale, small black printed plank, a semi-circular glass
disc of Thickness nearly 2 cm, pencil and laser light
Preparation of Pro Circle:
1) Take a wooden plank which is covered with white chart
2) Draw two perpendicular lines, passing through the middle of the paper as shown in
the figure
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 17
3) Let the intersecting point be O.
4) Mark one line as NN which is normal to the another line marked as MM
5) Here MM represents the line drawn along the interface of two media and NN
represents the normal drawn to this line at O
6) Take a protractor and place it along NN in such a way that its centre coincides
with as shown in fig.
7) Then mark the angles from 00 to 900 on both sides of the line NN
8) Repeat the same on the other side of the line NN
9) The angles should be represented on circular line.

Procedure:
10) Now place a semi-circular glass disc so that its diameter coincides with the
interface line (MM) and its center coincides with the point O
11) Take the laser light and send it along NN in such a way that the laser propagates
from air to glass through the interface at point O and observe the way of laser
light coming from other side of disc
12) There is no deviation
13) Send laser light along a line which makes 15 with NN and see that it must pass
through point O
14) Measure its corresponding angle of refraction
15) Repeat this experiment with angles of 200,300,400,500 and 600 note the
corresponding angles of refraction
i r sin i sin r sin i/sin r
200
300
400
500
600

From the above table we observe that sin i/sin r is constant

From the above table, we observe that i > r
Conclusion: The angle of incidence is more than angle of refraction when light rays
travel from rarer medium to denser medium. sin i/sin r is constant.

Experiments -6:
Aim: The angle of refraction is more than angle of incidence when light rays travel from
denser to rarer medium
Materials required: Plastic Pro Circle, Two Plastic straws, Transparent vessel, Water,
Procedure:
1) Take a Plastic Pro circle arrange two straws at the centre of the pro circle in such a
way that they can be rotated freely about the centre of the pro circle as shown in
the fig.
2) Adjust one of the straws to make an angle 100.
3) Immerse half of the pro circle vertically into the water, filled in a
transparent vessel.
4) While dipping, verify that the straw at 100 is inside the water.
5) From the top of the vessel try to view the straw which is inside the water
as shown in fig.
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 18
6) Then adjust the other straw which is outside the water until both straws appear to
be in a single straight line.
7) Then take the pro circle out of the water and observe the two straws on it. You will
find that they are not in a single straight line.

8) Measure the angle between the normal and second straw. Note the value in the
able.
i r sin i Sin r sin i/sin r
10 0

200
300
400
500
9) Do the same for various angles. Find the corresponding angles of refraction and
note them in the table.
10) You will observe that in the above activity, ‘r’ is greater than ‘i’ in all cases when
light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium.
Conclusion: The angle of refraction is more than angle of incidence when light rays
travel from denser to rarer medium. sin i/sin r is constant.

Project – 1
Title of the Project: Applications of Total Internal Reflection in
Everyday Life
Aim of the Project: To study the applications of Total Internal Reflection in everyday life
Hypothesis: When the angle of the incidence is greater than critical angle, the light ray
gets reflected into the denser medium at the interface.
Introduction: Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is a phenomenon that occurs when a light
ray traveling within a medium strikes the boundary of a more optically dense medium at
an angle greater than the critical angle. Here's some information on the practical
applications of total internal reflection in everyday life:
1. Fiber-Optic Communication:
 Fiber-optic cables rely on TIR to transmit information as pulses of light over long
distances.
 The core of a fiber-optic cable is made of a material with a higher refractive index,
surrounded by a cladding with a lower refractive index.
 Light entering the fiber at an angle greater than the critical angle undergoes TIR,
bouncing off the core's inner walls, ensuring it remains confined within the cable.
 Fiber-optic communication is widely used for high-speed data transmission,
internet connectivity, telephone networks, and television broadcasting.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 19
2. Endoscopy and Medical Imaging:
 Endoscopes utilize TIR to transmit light and images within the human body for
diagnostic and surgical purposes.
 Fiber-optic bundles in endoscopes guide light through the device, allowing doctors
to visualize internal organs, perform minimally invasive surgeries, and diagnose
various medical conditions.

3. Reflective Signs and Roadway Safety:

 Reflective road signs and safety markings on highways often employ TIR.
 These signs have retroreflective materials, such as glass beads or prisms, that
redirect light back to its source.
 TIR enables the reflection of light in a specific direction, making signs highly
visible to drivers even in low-light conditions.

4. Prism-Based Optics:
 Prisms are used in a wide range of optical instruments, including cameras,
binoculars, microscopes, and telescopes.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 20
 Prisms rely on TIR to redirect light, allowing for image rotation, magnification, and
dispersion of light into its spectral components.

5. Optical Fiber Sensors:

 Optical fiber sensors utilize TIR to detect physical and environmental parameters
such as temperature, pressure, strain, and chemical concentrations.
 When these parameters change, it affects the refractive index at the sensing area
of the fiber, causing a change in the intensity or wavelength of light reflected back
to the sensor.
 This enables the measurement of various parameters with high sensitivity and
accuracy.

6. Diamond Faceting and Jewelry:

 TIR is employed in the design of diamond-cut gemstones.
 Facets on the diamond's surface are carefully cut and angled to maximize TIR
within the diamond, enhancing its brilliance and sparkle.

Conclusion: Total internal reflection has numerous practical applications in various

fields, from communication and medical imaging to roadway safety and gemstone
aesthetics. Understanding and harnessing the principles of TIR allows for the
M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 21
development of innovative technologies that rely on the manipulation of light for diverse
applications.
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project:
Class : 10th
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School:
Time Duration :
Material used : Internet, Newspapers and 10thclass physical science book.

Project – 2
Title of the Project: Collect information on Plaster of Paris (POP)
Aim of the Project: To study the importance of Plaster of Paris
Hypothesis: Plaster of Paris is a well-known chemical compound that is widely used in
sculpting materials and gauze bandages. While we have seen numerous applications of
this substance in our daily lives, Plaster of Paris is a white powdered chemical
compound that is hydrated calcium sulphate that is typically produced by calcining
gypsum. In other words, Plaster of Paris is often produced using heated gypsum at a
high temperature.
Plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is a quick-setting gypsum plaster made of fine white powder (calcium
sulphate hemihydrate) that hardens when wet and left to dry. Plaster of Paris, known
since ancient times, is so named due to its production from the plentiful gypsum found
in Paris.
Plaster of Paris Formula
The chemical formula of Plaster of Paris is CaSO4.1/2H2O known as Calcium Sulphate
Hemihydrate.

Preparation of Plaster of Paris:

On careful heating of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K it loses water molecules partially to
become calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4 .½ H2O). This is called plaster of paris
(POP), the substance which doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the
right position. Plaster of paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it sets into
hard solid mass due to the formation of gypsum.

Types of Plaster of Paris

Plaster of Paris is primarily of three types, that are widely used,
Gypsum Plaster – Gypsum plaster, also referred to as Plaster of Paris, is made by
heating gypsum to a temperature of 300 °F. Additionally, Anhydrite is produced when
gypsum is heated over 392 °F. Dry gypsum plaster powder or Anhydrite transforms into

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 22
gypsum when combined with water. By adding water, Plaster of Paris hardens very
quickly.
Cement Plaster – Cement plaster is a compound made of suitable plaster, Portland
cement, sand, and water. The interiors and exteriors are plastered with cement to
provide a smooth surface. Over the cement plaster, a final coat of gypsum plaster is
frequently applied.
Lime Plaster – Lime Plaster is a compound made of sand, calcium hydroxide, and
various inert fillers. Quick lime is created by heating limestone, while slaked lime is
created by mixing water into the quick lime. Wet putty or white powder are two common
names for it.
Clay Plaster – Clay Plaster is simply the mixture of sand, water and clay along with the
addition of plant fibers for more strength. This plaster had been in great use since
ancient times for making the interiors of houses.
Heat Resistant Plaster – This kind of plaster is mostly used as a building material for
coating walls, ceilings, chimneys, etc. An example of heat-resistant plaster is Portland
cement.
Properties of Plaster of Paris:
Plaster of Paris exhibits the following properties:
 Plaster of Paris is a white-colored powder, that forms crystals of gypsum when
mixed with water.
 However, when it is heated at 473 K forms an anhydrous calcium sulphate.
 It expands slowly and slightly upon setting. So. it is highly fire-resistant.
 It results in the formation of a thick surface to resist regular knocks after drying.
 It is easy to spread on any surface.
 It is easy to level.
 It does not cause cracking of surfaces.
 It gives a decorative interior finish.
Uses of Plaster of Paris:
Plaster of Paris founds its usage in the following areas:
1. 3D Printing: Gypsum plaster can be used for 3D Printing. The water is applied by
the inkjet head.
2. Architecture and Decorations: Plaster of Paris is used to produce fine artwork to
decorate and beautify monuments and buildings. It is also used to imitate wood or
stone which is found in ancient buildings and monuments.
3. During Burial Services: Plaster of Paris is used by executives of funeral houses in
order to remake the damaged tissues and fill up the wounds.
4. Medicines: It is used as a mold and cast. It is used to heal broken bones and cast
into a supportive coating known as an orthopedic cast.
Fireproofing and fire protection systems
Conclusion: Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and for
making surfaces smooth.
PROJECT REPORT
Name of the project:
Class : 10th
Subject : Physical Science
Name of the School:
Time Duration :
Material used : Internet, Newspapers and 10thclass physical science book.

M.SRINIVASA RAO,SA(PS) SPSMHS, GUDIVADA PH: 9848143855 VISIT: SRINI SCIENCE MIND 23