Cell, Cell theory, Cell shapes

Structure of a Cell
• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic Cell
• Plant Cell and animal Cell
Plant Tissue and Animal Tissue
Cell cycle
Introduction of Cell
Biology is the science that studies life.
A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. Cells are the basic building blocks of
all organisms.
All living organisms (bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals) are made of
cells and may contain one or many cells.
Some organisms contain only one cell in their body and are called unicellular
organisms (e.g., bacteria, blue green algae, some algae, Protozoa, etc.). while
other organisms have many cells in their body and are called multicellular
organisms (e.g., fungi, most plants and animals).
Further, based on the kingdom into which they fall cells may be grouped as plant
and animal cells.
Introduction of Cell
In multicellular organisms, several cells of one particular kind interconnect with
each other and perform shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle
tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue), several tissues combine to form
an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain), and several organs make up an
organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous
system).
Several systems functioning together form an organism (such as an elephant, for
example).
Discovery of Cell
The first time the word cell was used to refer to these tiny units of life was in
1665 by a British scientist named Robert Hooke.
Hooke was one of the earliest scientists to study
living things under a microscope.
When he looked at a thin slice of cork under his
microscope, he was surprised to see what looked like
a honeycomb.
Hooke made the drawing in the figure what he saw.
As you can see, the cork was made up of many tiny
units, which Hooke called cells (from the Latin cella,
meaning “small room”).
However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell
walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared under the
microscope.
Discovery of Cell
Anton van Leeuwenhoek made his own microscope lenses.
Leeuwenhoek’s microscope was almost as strong as modern light microscopes.
He was first to witness a live cell under a microscope in 1674, the algae
Spirogyra. Van Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.
Seeing Inside Cells
As microscopes continued to improve, more discoveries were made about the
cells of living things.
However, by the late 1800s, light microscopes had reached their limit.
Then, in the 1950s, electron microscope was invented. With an electron
microscope, scientists could finally see the tiny structures inside cells.
The electron microscope had a huge impact on biology. It allowed scientists to
study organisms at the level of their molecules and led to the emergence of the
field of cell biology.
Cell Theory
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann
were studying tissues and proposed the cell theory.
The third component of cell theory was completed by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 with
his generalization that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Thus, Virchow along with Schleiden and Schwann are often credited together for
the formulation of the cell theory which is one of the fundamental theories
unifying all of biology.
The main proposition of the cell theory:
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the fundamental functional and structural unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells (omni cellulae e cellula).
Modern cell theory
The cell theory has been extended to formulate the modern cell theory by
incorporating further discoveries. The generally accepted parts of modern cell
theory include:
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living
things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
4. Energy flow in the form of metabolism and biochemistry occurs within cells.
5. All cells contain genetic material which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
6. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
processes associated with life occur within cells.
7. Some organisms are unicellular or made up of only one cell while other
organisms are multicellular or composed of many cells.
8. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
Exceptions to the theory
Some exceptions to the cell theory are :
1. Viruses are not made up of cells and yet, they are considered to be alive by
some.
2. The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell according to the
accepted theory of evolution.
3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genetic material, and reproduce
independently from the rest of the cell.
Cell sizes and shapes
Cells differ remarkably in size, shape and function. Cells come in many different
sizes.
Some cells like eggs of birds are visible to the naked eye. However, most cells are
microscopic and cannot be seen by the naked eye and can be observed only with
the help of microscopes.
The size of the cell is generally measured in micrometers (μm) in diameter.
For example, the size of bacterial cells range from 0.2 to 0.3 μm while the size of
liver cell is about 20 μm and the size of plant cells range from 30 to 40 μm.
The smallest cell is that of Mycoplasma genitalium with a size of 0.2 μm.
Regarding size, the size of human body cells are highly variable with erythrocytes
of 7 microns, hepatocytes with 20 microns, sperm of 53 μm, eggs of 150 μm while
some neurons are as long as one meter.
The pollen grains of plant cells may also reach 200 to 300 μm while sizes of bird
eggs may vary from 1 cm in quail to 7 cm in diameter in ostrich
Cell sizes and shapes
Cell Size: Prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller (0.1–5.0 μm in diameter) than eukaryotic cells,
which have diameters ranging from 10–100 μm.
Cell sizes and shapes
Cells also differ variably in shapes and the shapes of cells may be fusiform
(spindle shaped), stellate, prismatic, flattened, elliptical, rounded, and so on.
Some cells are also capable of changing their shape (e.g. amoebae and
macrophage) while some others have typical shape (e.g. spermatozoa and
epithelial cells).
The shapes of cells have evolved to help them carry out their specific function in
the body.
Some cells have a rigid cell wall while others lack them allowing them to freely
move the membrane and cytoplasmic contents as in pseudopods.
Cell sizes and shapes
About 200 types of cells in the human body
• Squamous—thin and flat with nucleus creating bulge
• Polygonal—irregularly angular shapes with four or more sides
• Stellate—starlike shape
• Cuboidal—squarish and about as tall as is wide
• Columnar—taller than wide
• Spheroid to ovoid—round to oval
• Discoid—disc-shaped
• Fusiform—thick in middle, tapered toward the ends
• Fibrous—threadlike shape
Note: Some of these cell shapes appear as in tissue sections, but not their three-
dimensional shape
Structures Shared By All Cells
Although cells are diverse, all cells have certain parts in common.
These parts include a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
• The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) is a thin coat of phospholipids that
surrounds a cell. It forms the physical boundary between the cell and its environment.

• Cytoplasm refers to all of the cellular material

inside the plasma membrane. The Cytoplasm
is made up of a watery substance called
cytosol and contains other cell structures
such as ribosomes.
• Ribosomes are structures in the cytoplasm
where proteins are made.
• DNA is a nucleic acid found in cells. It
contains the genetic instructions that cells
need to make proteins.
These parts are common to all cells, from
organisms as different as bacteria and human
beings.
Classification of cells
Cells can be grouped into two broad
categories- prokaryotic (pro- =
before; -karyon- = nucleus) and
eukaryotic (eu- = true) based on their
complexity:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells lack a
well-defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles.
The nuclear material commonly
consists of a single chromosome
lying in the cytoplasm, called
nucleoid. Their DNA contents range
from about 0.6 million to 5 million
base pairs, an amount sufficient to
encode about 5000 different proteins.
Classification of cells
Prokaryotes include cells of two domains, the Archaea and the Bacteria, which
diverged early in evolution.
The Archaea include cells that live in extreme environments that are unusual
today but may have been prevalent in primitive Earth. For example,
thermoacidophiles live in hot sulfur springs with temperatures as high as 80°C
and pH values as low as 2.
The Bacteria include the common forms of present-day prokaryotes—a large
group of organisms that live in a wide range of environments, including soil,
water, and other organisms (e.g., human pathogens).
The largest and most complex prokaryotes are the cyanobacteria—bacteria in
which photosynthesis evolved.
Classification of cells
Eukaryotes: Like prokaryotic cells, a plasma membrane surrounds all eukaryotic
cells and contains ribosomes.
On the other hand, Eukaryotic cells have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear
membrane and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles,
which have specialized functions like mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles.
Compared to prokaryotes, eukaryotes
represent a tiny minority of all living
things.
Eukaryotic cells include all other cells,
such as protista, fungal, plant and
animal cells.
Eukaryotic Cells
The nucleus has a diameter of 5 um and is the site of DNA replication and RNA
synthesis; RNA translation into proteins takes place on ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.
They also possess organized chromosomes that store genetic material.

Eukaryotic cells generally have a

smaller surface area to volume ratio
than prokaryotes, and thus have lower
metabolic rates and longer generation
times except in some cells specialized
for metabolism such as intestinal vili.
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as:
Structures external to the cell wall
i. Glycocalyx: The glycocalyx (capsule, slime layer, or extra cellular polysaccharide) is a
gelatinous polysaccharide and/or polypeptide covering lying externally to the cell wall.
The exact chemical composition varies depending on the species.
Capsules may protect pathogens from phagocytosis, enable surface adherence, prevent
desiccation, and provide nutrients.
ii. Flagella: Flagella are long filamentous
appendages and help to push the cell by rotating.
The filament is composed of the globular protein
flagellin.
Motile bacteria can move in two ways: positive taxis
or movement towards an attractant and negative
taxis or movement away from a repellent.

https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/3-3-unique-characteristics-of-prokaryotic-cells
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as: Structures external to
the cell wall
iii. Axial Filaments: Axial filaments are similar to flagella, except that they wrap around the cell,
and spiral cells that move by means of an axial filament (endoflagellum) are called spirochetes.

iv. Fimbriae and Pili: Fimbriae and pili are short, thin
appendages.
Fimbriae are usually many and help the cells adhere to
surfaces.
Pili are only one or two per cells and help join cells during
conjugation for the transfer of DNA (sex pili) or are used for
special types of movement like twitching in Pseudomonas
aeurginosa, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and some strains of E. coli,
or the gliding movement of myxobacteria.
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as:
3. Cell wall: Prokaryotic cell walls comprise peptidoglycan in bacteria or pseudopeptidoglycan in
archaea.
Cell wall in gram-positive bacteria are characterized by a thick peptidoglycan layer, whereas in
gram-negative bacterial cells, the cell walls are characterized by a thin peptidoglycan layer
surrounded by an outer membrane.

https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/3-3-unique-characteristics-of-prokaryotic-cells
Structure and Composition of Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also called murein, is a vast polymer consisting of
interlocking chains of identical peptidoglycan monomers.
A peptidoglycan monomer consists of two joined amino sugars, N-
acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), with a
pentapeptide coming off of the NAM.
The types and the order of amino acids in the pentapeptide, while
almost identical in gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, show
some slight variation among the domain Bacteria.
Hans Christian Gram developed the staining method in 1884. The
staining method uses crystal violet dye, which is retained by the
thick peptidoglycan cell wall found in gram-positive organisms.
This reaction gives gram-positive organisms a blue color under a
microscope.
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as: Structures Internal To
The Cell Wall
i. The Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane: The bacterial plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
with peripheral and integral proteins while the archaeal membranes isoprene (phytanyl) chains
linked to glycerol through ether linkage.

The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and is

selectively permeable.
Movement across the membrane may be by passive
processes like diffusion and osmosis or by active
transport.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids (PL) are a group of polar
lipids that consist of two fatty acids, a
glycerol unit and a phosphate group
which is esterified to an organic
molecule (X) such as choline,
ethanolamine, inositol, etc.
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as: Structures Internal To
The Cell Wall
ii. Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is the fluid component of the cell surrounded by the plasma membrane.
The cytoplasm is composed mostly of water along with inorganic and organic molecules, DNA,
ribosomes, and inclusions.
iii. The Nucleoid: Prokaryotic DNA and DNA-associated
proteins are not bound by a complex nuclear membrane and
occur as the nucleoid region in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Prokaryotic chromosomes are typically circular and haploid
(unpaired).
In bacteria, Nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) interacts
with prokaryotic DNA and function like histones of
eukaryotic cells assisting in the organization and packaging
of the chromosome.
However, in archaea, either NAPs or histone-like DNA
organizing proteins associate with the chromosomal DNA to
organize the nucleoid.
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as: Structures Internal To
The Cell Wall
iv. Plasmids: Prokaryotic cells may also contain small, circular, double-stranded
extrachromosomal DNA molecules called plasmids. Plasmids are generally many in number per
cell and often carry genes that confer advantageous traits such as antibiotic resistance.
v. Ribosomes: The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cells contains
numerous ribosomes of the type 70S.
Ribosomes are made up of rRNA and proteins and serve as
the site for protein synthesis.
vi. Inclusions: Inclusions are reserve deposits found in the
cells and some examples of prokaryotic cell inclusions
found in bacteria are metachromatic granules (inorganic
phosphate), polysaccharide granules (usually glycogen or
starch), lipid inclusions, sulfur granules, carboxysomes
(ribulose 1,5-diphosphate carboxylase), magnetosomes
(Fe3O4 or magnetite), and gas vacuoles.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells The major organelles and other cell
components of a typical eukaryotic
The Cell Wall and Glycocalyx:
plant cell.
Cells of fungi, algae, plants, and some
protists have a cell wall,
whereas cells of animals and some
protozoans have a sticky extracellular
matrix or glycocalyx.
The cell walls of plants, many algae
and some fungi are made of cellulose
while most fungal cell wall contain
chitin.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells The extracellular matrix consists of a
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells network of substances secreted by
cells.
Most animal cells release materials into the
extracellular space.
The primary components of these materials
are glycoproteins and the protein collagen.
Collectively, these materials are called the
extracellular matrix.
The extracellular matrix helps cells attach
to, and communicate with, nearby cells,
and plays an important role in cell growth,
cell movement, and other cell functions.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
The Cell Wall: Plant cells do not have well-developed internal cytoskeleton, but
cell wall provides an external one.
The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells and provides tensile
strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic stress.
It also allows cells to develop turgor pressure, which is the pressure of the cell
contents against the cell wall.
Plant cells have high concentrations of molecules dissolved in their cytoplasm,
which causes water to come into the cell under normal conditions and makes the
cell's central vacuole swell and press against the cell wall.
With a healthy supply of water, turgor pressure keeps a plant from wilting. In
drought, a plant may wilt, but its cell walls help maintain the structural integrity of
its stems, leaves, and other structures, despite a shrinking, less turgid vacuole.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
The Cell Wall: Plant cell walls are primarily made of cellulose, which is the most abundant
macromolecule on Earth. Cellulose fibers are long, linear polymers of hundreds of glucose
molecules. These fibers aggregate into bundles of about 40, which are called microfibrils. In
addition, the cell wall contains two groups of branched polysaccharides, the pectins and cross-
linking glycans.
Organized into a network with the cellulose microfibrils, the cross-linking glycans increase the
tensile strength of the cellulose, whereas the coextensive network of pectins provides the cell
wall with the ability to resist compression.
There are two kinds (or, better, two stages of
development) of cell walls, the primary and
the secondary.
In addition to these networks, a small
amount of protein can be found in all plant
primary cell walls.
The cell wall is assembled in place.
Precursor components are synthesized
inside the cell and then assembled by
enzymes associated with the cell membrane.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
The Cell Wall: The secondary plant cell wall, which is often deposited inside the
primary cell wall as a cell matures, sometimes has a composition nearly identical
to that of the earlier-developed wall.
More commonly, however, additional substances, especially lignin, are found in
the secondary wall. Lignin is the general name for a group of polymers of
aromatic alcohols that are hard and impart considerable strength to the structure
of the secondary wall.
Lignin provides the favorable characteristics of wood to the fiber cells of woody
tissues. It is also common in the secondary walls of xylem vessels, which are
central in providing structural support to plants.
Lignin also makes plant cell walls less vulnerable to attack by fungi or bacteria,
as do cutin, suberin, and other waxy materials that are sometimes found in plant
cell walls.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Middle lamella and plasmodesmata:
A specialized region associated with the cell walls of plants, and sometimes
considered an additional component of them, is the middle lamella.
Rich in pectins, the middle lamella is shared by neighboring cells and cements
them firmly together.
Plasmodesmata are special conduits
through which cells are able to
communicate with one another and share
their contents.
These small passages penetrate the
middle lamella as well as the primary and
secondary cell walls, providing pathways
for transporting cytoplasmic molecules
from one cell to another.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
The Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is a phospholipid bilayer
containing proteins like the prokaryotic membrane. However, eukaryotic membranes differ from
prokaryotes in containing carbohydrates attached to the proteins and sterols.
The cell membrane is semipermeable in nature. A semipermeable membrane, is a selectively or
partially permeable membrane, which allows only certain molecules or ions to pass through it by
diffusion.
Movement of materials across the
plasma membrane occurs by passive
and active processes as in
prokaryotes.
However, in addition to active
processes, eukaryotic cell
membranes can take material into
the cell via endocytosis
(phagocytosis and pinocytosis), or
expel matter from the cell via
exocytosis.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells includes everything inside the
plasma membrane and excluding the nucleus. Chemically, the cytoplasms of
eukaryotic cells resemble those of the prokaryotic cells.
The cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, but it has a semi-solid
consistency, which comes from the proteins within it.
In addition to proteins, Glucose and
other simple sugars, polysaccharides,
amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids,
and derivatives of glycerol are found
there too. Ions of sodium, potassium,
calcium, and many other elements are
also dissolved in the cytoplasm.
Many metabolic reactions, including
protein synthesis, take place in the
cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane
and the cytoplasm be the only components left? No.
Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a
network of protein fibers known as the cytoskeleton.
Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have a cytoskeleton. Both types of organisms
use their cytoskeleton for cell division, protection, and shape determination.
In addition, in eukaryotes, the cytoskeleton also secures certain organelles in
specific positions and allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell.
It also enables unicellular organisms to move independently.
There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton:
• microfilaments, also known as actin filaments,
• intermediate filaments, and
• microtubules.
The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments (actin filaments) are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving
cellular components, for example, during cell division.
They also maintain the structure of microvilli, the extensive folding of the plasma membrane found
in cells dedicated to absorption. These components are also common in muscle cells and are
responsible for muscle cell contraction.
Intermediate filaments are of intermediate diameter and have
structural functions, such as maintaining the shape of the cell and
anchoring organelles. Keratin, the compound that strengthens hair
and nails, forms one type of intermediate filament.
Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are
hollow tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly.
Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that
pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division.
They are also the structural components of flagella and cilia.
In cilia and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine
double microtubules on the outside and two microtubules in the
center.
The Cytoskeleton-Flagella and Cilia
Eukaryotic cells may contain flagella and cilia for locomotion. feeding, or
movement of extracellular particles.
Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the
plasma membrane and are used to move an entire cell, (for example, sperm,
Euglena). When present, the cell has just one flagellum or a few flagella.
When cilia (singular = cilium) are present, however, they are many in number and
extend along the entire surface of the plasma membrane.
They are short, hair-like structures that are used to
• move entire cells (such as paramecium) or
• move substances along the outer surface of the cell
(for example, the cilia of cells lining the fallopian tubes that move the ovum
toward the uterus, or cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that move
particulate matter toward the throat that mucus has trapped).
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Centrosomes: The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the
nuclei of animal cells.
It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules.
The centrosome replicates itself before a cell
divides, and the centrioles play a role in pulling
the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends
of the dividing cell.
However, the exact function of the centrioles in
cell division is not clear, since cells that have
the centrioles removed can still divide, and
plant cells, which lack centrioles, are capable of
cell division.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles and they can be observed in
electron micrographs of cells. Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
Eukaryotic cells contain two types of ribosomes. 80S ribosomes are present in
the rough endoplasmic reticulum as membrane bound-ribosomes and in the
cytoplasm as free ribosomes while the 70s ribosomes are present in
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Ribosomes are complexes of rRNA
molecules and proteins that make
proteins by joining amino acids
together.
The purpose of the ribosome is to
translate messenger RNA (mRNA) to
proteins with the aid of tRNA.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes: The 70S ribosome is made up of a 50S and 30S subunits.
The 50S subunit contains the 23S and 5S rRNA while the 30S subunit contains
the 16S rRNA.
The 80S ribosome is made up of a 60S and 40S subunits.

The 40S small ribosomal subunit also

has 18S rRNA, and has 33 proteins.
The 60S, or large ribosomal subunit in
eukaryotes has three rRNA molecules,
two of which are roughly analogous to
the prokaryote (28S and 5S eukaryotic,
23S and 5S prokaryotic), and one, the
5.8S, that binds with complementary
sequence on part of the 28S rRNA. It
also contains 50 proteins.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
The Nucleus: Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus (plural
= nuclei) houses the cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes
and proteins.
The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of
the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid
bilayers. The nuclear envelope is connected to endoplasmic reticulum.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores
that control the passage of ions, molecules,
and RNA between the nucleoplasm and the
cytoplasm.
A darkly staining area within the nucleus, called
the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), serves as the
site of ribosomal synthesis and the site for the
first stages of ribosome assembly (aggregation
of the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins
to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are
then transported through the nuclear pores into
the cytoplasm.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus: The DNA of eukaryotic cells is tightly bound to small basic proteins (histones) that
package the DNA in an orderly way in the cell nucleus. The complexes between eukaryotic DNA
and proteins are called chromatin. Chromatin forms chromosomes. In eukaryotes, chromosomes
are linear structures.
Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the
nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the
chromosome number is 46, whereas in fruit flies, the
chromosome number is eight.
Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one
another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When the cell
is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the
chromosomes resemble an unwound, random bunch of
threads.

The packaging of DNA task is substantial, given the DNA

content of most eukaryotes. For example, the total extended
length of DNA in a human cell is nearly 2 m, but this DNA
must fit into a nucleus with a diameter of only 5 to 10 μm.
Although DNA packaging is also a problem in bacteria, the
mechanism by which prokaryotic DNAs are packaged in the
cell appears distinct from that of eukaryotes.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Chromosomes and Chromatin: The basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin is
the nucleosome, which contains eight histone proteins and about 146 base pairs of DNA.
Nucleosomes contain 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped 1.65 times around a histone core consisting
of two molecules each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 (the core histones). One molecule of the fifth
histone, H1, is bound to the DNA as it enters each nucleosome core particle.
This forms a chromatin subunit known as a chromatosome, which consists of 166 base pairs of
DNA wrapped around the histone core and held in place by H1 (a linker histone).
The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes
yields a chromatin fiber approximately 10 nm
in diameter. The chromatin is further
condensed by coiling into a 30-nm fiber,
containing about six nucleosomes per turn.

https://youtu.be/7Hk9jct2ozY?si=Qd62jWYZJc7XgHMJ
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Chromosomes and Chromatin: The 30-nm fiber forms looped domains that attach to a scaffold of
non-histone proteins. The looped domains coil further during mitosis to form a 700-nm chromatid.
The extent of chromatin condensation varies
during the life cycle of the cell.
In interphase (nondividing) cells, most of the
chromatin (called euchromatin) is relatively
decondensed and distributed throughout the
nucleus.
During this period of the cell cycle, genes are
transcribed and the DNA is replicated in
preparation for cell division.
Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei
appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers,
organized into large loops containing
approximately 50 to 100 kb of DNA.

About 10% of the euchromatin, containing the genes that are actively transcribed, is in a more
decondensed state (the 10-nm conformation) that allows transcription.
Chromatin structure is thus intimately linked to the control of gene expression in eukaryotes
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Chromosomes and Chromatin: The 30-nm fiber forms looped domains that attach to a scaffold of
non-histone proteins. The looped domains coil further during mitosis to form a 700-nm chromatid.
In contrast to euchromatin, about 10% of
interphase chromatin (called heterochromatin) is
in a very highly condensed state that resembles
the chromatin of cells undergoing mitosis.
Heterochromatin is transcriptionally inactive and
contains highly repeated DNA sequences, such
as those present at centromeres and telomeres.
As cells enter mitosis, their chromosomes
become highly condensed so that they can be
distributed to daughter cells.
The loops of 30-nm chromatin fibers are thought
to fold upon themselves further to form the
compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic
cells, in which the DNA has been condensed
nearly 10,000-fold.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells
Karyotyping: Metaphase chromosomes are so highly condensed that their morphology can be
studied using the light microscope.
Several staining techniques yield characteristic patterns of alternating light and dark
chromosome bands (chromosome means “colored body”), which result from the preferential
binding of stains or fluorescent dyes to AT-rich versus GC-rich DNA sequences.
These bands are specific for each chromosome and appear to represent distinct chromosome
regions.
A karyotype is a representation of a complete set
of chromosomes. Karyotypes are usually
determined by isolating mitotic chromosomes to
view them as a karyogram.
Chemicals that arrest the cells in metaphase of
mitosis are used and then the chromosomes are
released from nuclei, usually onto a slide.
Chromosomes are released from nuclei and
The images of these chromosomes can be
randomly dispersed (left).
captured digitally and arranged into pairs based on Images of each chromosome are digitally arranged
size, centromere position, and banding pattern to into homologous pairs (right).
examine the complete set of chromosomes in the
cell.
Components of Eukaryotic Cells

Organelles: Eukaryote cells

contain a variety of
specialized membrane-
bound structures called as
organelles.
The organelles present in
eukaryotic cells are vesicles,
the endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, plastids and
the Golgi apparatus.
The Endomembrane System
The endomembrane system (endo = within) is a
group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic
cells that work together to modify, package, and
transport lipids and proteins.
With the exception of mitochondria, peroxisomes
and, in plants, chloroplasts, it includes the nuclear
envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
Although not technically within the cell, the plasma
membrane is included in the endomembrane system
because, it interacts with the other
endomembranous organelles.

The endomembrane
system works to modify,
package, and transport
lipids and proteins
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (plural, reticuli) is a
network of phospholipid membranes that form
hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and round sacs.
These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are
called cisternae.
The hollow portion of the ER tubules is called the
lumen or cisternal space.
The ER has two major functions:
Transport: Molecules, such as proteins, can move
from place to place inside the ER, much like on an
intracellular highway.
Synthesis: Ribosomes that are attached to the ER,
similar to unattached ribosomes, make proteins.
Lipids are also produced in the ER.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
•Rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes,
which gives it a “rough” appearance. These ribosomes
make proteins that are then transported from the ER in
small sacs called transport vesicles. The transport
vesicles pinch off the ends of the ER.
The membrane of the RER is continuous with the outer
layer of the nuclear envelope.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum works with the Golgi
apparatus to move new proteins to their proper
destinations in the cell.
Since the RER is engaged in modifying proteins that will
be secreted from the cell, it is abundant in cells that
secrete proteins, such as the liver.
The RER also makes phospholipids for cell membranes.
If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined
to stay in the RER, they will be packaged within vesicles
and transported from the RER by budding from the
membrane.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
•Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have any
ribosomes attached to it, and so it has a smooth
appearance.
The SER is made up of tubules and vesicles that
branch out to form a network. In some cells, there
are dilated areas like the sacs of RER.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and RER form an
interconnected network.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in
both animal and plant cells and it serves different
functions in each.
SER has many different functions, some of which
include Carbohydrate synthesis, lipid synthesis
(including phospholipids), Steroid hormone
synthesis, calcium ion storage, and detoxification of
medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism.
The Golgi Apparatus (also called the Golgi body)
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for sorting,
modifying, and shipping off the products that come
from the rough ER, much like a post-office.
The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened
membranous sacs.
The Golgi apparatus has two distinct sides, each
with a different role.
One side of the apparatus (cis face) receives
products in vesicles. These products are sorted
through the apparatus, and then they are released
from the opposite side (trans face) after being
repackaged into new vesicles.
If the product is to be exported from the cell, the
vesicle migrates to the cell surface and fuses to the
cell membrane, and the cargo is secreted.
The Golgi Apparatus
As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi,
they undergo further modifications.
The most frequent modification is the addition of
short chains of sugar molecules.
The newly modified proteins and lipids are then
tagged with small molecular groups to enable them
to be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are
packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite
face of the Golgi.
While some of these vesicles, transport vesicles,
deposit their contents into other parts of the cell
where they will be used, others, secretory vesicles,
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
contents outside the cell.
The Golgi Apparatus
The amount of Golgi in different cell types again
illustrates that form follows function within cells.
Cells that engage in a great deal of secretory activity
(such as cells of the salivary glands that secrete
digestive enzymes or cells of the immune system
that secrete antibodies) have an abundant number
of Golgi.
In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of
synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are
incorporated into the cell wall and some of which are
used in other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes
Some of the protein products packaged by the Golgi include digestive enzymes that are meant to
remain inside the cell for use in breaking down certain materials. The enzyme-containing vesicles
released by the Golgi may form new lysosomes, or fuse with existing, lysosomes.
In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Digestive enzymes within the
lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-
out organelles.
In single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of the food they ingest and the
recycling of organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those
located in the cytoplasm.

Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to

destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter
the cell.
A good example of this occurs in a group of white
blood cells called macrophages, which are part of
your body’s immune system.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are an essential component of plant cells. Each plant cells have a large central vacuole
that occupies most of the area of the cell.
The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing
environmental conditions, and houses the digestive processes.
In plant cells, the liquid inside the central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the outward
pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell.
The tonoplast is the membrane that surrounds the vacuole and
controls movement of substances into and out of the vacuole.
The central vacuole also supports the expansion of the cell.
When the central vacuole holds more water, the cell gets larger
without having to invest a lot of energy in synthesizing new
cytoplasm.

The central vacuole also functions to store proteins in

developing seed cells.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories”
of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main
energy-carrying molecule.
The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration.
Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
The inner layer has folds called cristae, which
increase the surface area of the inner membrane.
The area surrounded by the folds is called the
mitochondrial matrix. The matrix and inner
membrane are rich with the enzymes necessary
for aerobic respiration.
Muscle cells have a very high concentration of
mitochondria because muscle cells need a lot of
energy to contract.

Mitochondria have their own (usually) circular DNA chromosome, ribosomes and transfer RNAs.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes.
They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids.
They also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in
liver cells.
In contrast to the digestive enzymes found in lysosomes, the enzymes within peroxisomes serve
to transfer hydrogen atoms from various molecules to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).

Peroxisomes prevent Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 from

causing damage to cellular components outside of the
organelle.
Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal
enzymes into water and oxygen.
Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Chloroplasts function in photosynthesis and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and
algae. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and
oxygen.
Plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like glucose, whereas animals (heterotrophs)
must rely on other organisms for their organic compounds or food source.

Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and

inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by
a chloroplast’s inner membrane is a set of
interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane
sacs called thylakoids.
Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural
= grana).
The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and
surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
Chloroplasts: The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the
energy of sunlight for photosynthesis.
Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts.
Some bacteria also perform photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. Their
photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoid membrane within the cell itself.
A typical animal cell and a typical plant cell.

Each eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, a nucleus,

ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and in some, vacuoles.
Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do
not.
Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids, and a
large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Functions
Present in Present in
Cell Present in
Function Prokaryote Animal
Component Plant Cells
s Cells
Plasma Separates cell from external environment; controls Yes Yes Yes
Membrane passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and
wastes into and out of the cell
Cytoplasm Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic Yes Yes Yes
reactions; medium in which organelles are found
Nucleoid Location of DNA Yes No No
Nucleus Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of No Yes Yes
ribosomes and proteins
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes
Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes
Peroxisomes Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids, No Yes Yes
and detoxifies poisons
Vesicles and Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes
vacuoles
Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; organizing No Yes No
center of microtubules in animal cells
Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out No Yes No
organelles
Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Functions
Present in
Cell Present in Present in
Function Animal
Component Prokaryotes Plant Cells
Cells
Cell wall Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell Yes, primarily No Yes,
shape peptidoglycan primarily
in bacteria but cellulose
not Archaea
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis No No Yes
Endoplasmic Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes
reticulum
Golgi Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids No Yes Yes
apparatus and proteins
Cytoskeleton Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific Yes Yes Yes
positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move
within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to
move independently
Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some No, except
for some
plant sperm
Cilia Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along No Some No
extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and
filtration
Ref
1. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/the-cytoplasm-and-cellular-organelles/
2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-nmbiology1/chapter/ribosomes-mitochondria-vesicles-and-peroxisomes/
3. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/05%3A_Cells
4. https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology
5. https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/4-introduction
6. https://ugcmoocs.inflibnet.ac.in/index.php/courses/view_ug/41
7. Module 4- Cellular Structure. (2021, March 1). https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/43559
8. Module 5- Cell Membranes. (2021, March 1). https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/43580
9. https://libretexts.org/
10.Wakim, S., & Grewal, M. (2021, September 4). Discovery of Cells and Cell Theory. Butte College.
https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/16740
11. https://ugcmoocs.inflibnet.ac.in/index.php/courses/view_ug/41
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