Introduction to Cytology
Lesson objectives
Concepts
Cell & molecular biology is reductionist – based on the view that
knowledge of the parts of the whole can explain the character of
the whole.
A. Can lead to replacement of the wonder & mystery of life by
the need to explain everything in terms of the workings of the
machinery of living systems which many consider a loss.
B. Can replace this loss by a strong appreciation for the beauty &
complexity of the mechanism underlying cellular activity.
Cell biology began as a result of the discovery that curved glass
surfaces can bend light & form images.
Cell biology began as a result of the discovery that
curved glass surfaces can bend light & form images.
A. Spectacles were first made in Europe in the 13th century.
B. First compound (double-lensed) microscopes were made by
the end of the 16th century.
C. By the mid-1600s, a handful of scientists had used
handmade microscopes to uncover a previously unseen
world.
The discovery of cells
I. Robert Hooke (1665), English microscopist (at age 27, became
curator of the Royal Society)
A. Described chambers in cork (part of the bark of trees);
called them cells (cellulae) since they reminded him of
cells occupied by monks living in a monastery
B. Found them while trying to explain why cork stoppers
could hold air in a bottle so effectively
C. Was looking at empty cell walls of dead plant tissue; no
internal structure – walls originally made by the living
cells they surrounded
The discovery of cells
I. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1665-1675), Dutch seller of
clothes & buttons – in spare time, he ground lenses & made
microscopes of remarkable quality
A. He was the first to describe living single cells; his results
were checked and confirmed by Hooke
B. Saw “animalcules” in pond water (first to do this) using the
scopes that he made
The recognition of cell theory
I. 1830s - full & widespread importance of cells realized
A. Matthias Schleiden, German lawyer turned botanist (1838)
– realized that, despite differences in tissue structures, all plant
tissues were made of cells & that plant embryos arise from single
cell
B. Theodor Schwann, German zoologist (1839) – realized
cellular basis of animal life; concluded that plants & animals are
similar structures
Schwann then proposed first two tenets of Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells;
2. 2. The cell is the structural unit of life for all organisms.
A more refined cell theory
A. Rudolf Virchow, German pathologist (1855) – made
good case for & added third tenet of Cell Theory derived
from his cell division observations; it ran counter to
Schleiden- Schwann view of cell origins
1. Cells can arise only by division from a pre-existing cell.
Basic properties of cell
I. Life – most basic property of cells; they are the
smallest units to exhibit this property; plant or
animal cells can be removed from organism &
cultured in laboratory
II. Cells are highly complex and organized
III. Cells possess genetic program & the means to use it
(a blueprint); encoded in collection of genes
IV. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves -
mitosis and meiosis
V. Cells acquire & use energy (constant input) to
develop & maintain complexity – photosynthesis,
respiration
Basic properties of cell
I. Cells carry out a variety of chemical reactions - sum total of chemical
reactions in cells (metabolism); to do this, cells require enzymes
(molecules that greatly increase rate of chemical reactions)
II. Cells engage in numerous mechanical activities based on dynamic,
mechanical changes in cell, many of which are initiated by changes in the
shape of "motor" proteins (require constant energy to keep working)
III. Cells able to respond to stimuli whether organisms are uni- or
multicellular - have receptors that sense environment & initiate responses
(move away from object in path or toward nutrient source)
IV. Cells are capable of self-regulation
V. Cells evolve
2 fundamental classes of cells
A. Prokaryotes (pro -
before; karyon -
nucleus) – all bacteria,
cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae);
structurally simpler; not
sure when prokaryotic
cells first appeared on
Earth
2 fundamental classes of cells
Eukaryotes (eu -
true) -
structurally
more complex;
protists, fungi,
plants, animals
Similarities between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
A. Both types of cells encode genetic information in DNA using an identical
genetic code
B. Both types of cells share a common set of metabolic pathways (glycolysis,
TCA cycle)
C. Both types of cells share common structural features – similarly
constructed plasma membrane that serves as selectively permeable
barrier & cell walls (same function, different structure)
D. Similar mechanisms for transcription & translation of genetic
information, including similar ribosomes
E. Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP
(located in plasma membrane of prokaryotes & mitochondrial
membrane of eukaryotes)
F. Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria & green
plants)
G. Similar mechanism for synthesizing & inserting membrane proteins
H. Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction
(between archaebacteria & eukaryotes)
Distinguishable characteristics of
eukaryotes
A. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound nucleus with nuclear envelope
containing complex pore structures & other organelles; divides
eukaryotic cells into nucleus & cytoplasm
B. Prokaryotes – contain relatively small amounts of DNA (~600,000
base pairs [bp] to nearly 8 million bp; ~0.225 – 3 mm); 8 million bp
equals DNA molecule nearly 3 mm long
C. Eukaryotic chromosomes numerous; unlike prokaryotes, they
contain linear DNA tightly associated with proteins to form a
complex nucleoprotein material known as chromatin
D. Eukaryotes contain an array of complex membranous & membrane-
bound organelles that divide cytoplasm into compartments within
which specialized activities take place
Distinguishable characteristics of
eukaryotes
A. Eukaryotes have many such membrane-bound structures;
prokaryotes mostly devoid of them (except for infolded bacterial
mesosomes & cyanobacteria photosynthetic membranes)
B. No mitosis or meiosis in prokaryotes (binary fission instead);
prokaryotes proliferate faster (double in 20 - 40 minutes; they
exchange genetic information via conjugation)
C. Eukaryotes have more complex locomotor mechanisms than prokaryotes
D. Eukaryotes have complex cytoskeletal system (including
microfilaments, intermediate filaments & microtubules) &
associated motor proteins; prokaryotes do not have such a system
Prokaryotic cells
Domain Archaea (archaeons or archaebacteria) – thought to include our closest living prokaryotic
ancestors
A. Best known Archaea live in extremely inhospitable environments (extremophiles) &
they include:
B. 1.) Methanogens - capable of converting CO2 & H2 gases into methane (CH4) gas;
2.) Halophiles – prokaryotes that live in extremely salty environments (Dead
Sea or certain deep-sea basins that possess a salinity equivalent to 5M MgCl2);
3.) Acidophiles – acid- loving prokaryotes that thrive at pHs as low as 0,
4.) Thermophiles – prokaryotes that live at very high temperatures, including:
a.) Hyperthermophiles - live in hydrothermal vents of ocean floor; latest
record holder in group is "strain 121" since it is able to grow & divide in
superheated water at 121°C;
b.) 121°C is the temperature used to sterilize surgical & laboratory
equipment in an autoclave
Prokaryotic cells
I. Domain Bacteria (eubacteria) – all prokaryotes other than the Archaea
A. Bacteria are present in every conceivable habitat on earth – from
the permanent Antarctic ice shelf to driest African deserts to internal
confines of plants & animals to rock layers several km below
surface
B. Example: Mycoplasma - smallest living cells (0.2 µm dia); the only
known prokaryotes to lack a cell wall & to contain a genome with
as few as 500 genes
C. Example: Cyanobacteria (formerly blue-green algae) - most complex
prokaryotes
D. Those species capable of both photosynthesis & nitrogen fixation
survive on barest resources – light, N2, CO2, H2O
Parts and functions of eukaryotic cells
The cytoplasm of a cell
is the living material
surrounding the nucleus
that contains many types
of organelles and is
enclosed by the cell
membrane. Organelles
are specialized structures
in the cytoplasm that
perform specific
functions.
Parts and functions of eukaryotic cells
The cell membrane is a double layer of
phospholipids with the hydrophilic
heads of the phospholipids directed to
the inner and outer surface and the
hydrophobic tails directed towards the
center of the double layer. Proteins
molecules “float” among the
phospholipid molecules and
carbohydrate molecules may be bound
to these proteins. The cell membrane
functions to enclose the cytoplasm and
form a boundary between the materials
inside the cell and the materials outside
the cell.
Parts and functions of eukaryotic cells
1. A solution is composed of one of more
substances dissolved in a predominant
liquid or gas. Solutes are the substances
dissolved in the solution and the solvent
is the predominant liquid or gas.
Diffusion is the movement of solutes
from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration. A
concentration gradient is the difference
in the concentration of a solute in a
solvent between two points divided by
the distance between the two points.
Parts and functions of eukaryotic cells
Lipid-soluble molecules pass readily through the
phospholipid bilayer. Small molecules that are not
lipid-soluble can diffuse between the phospholipid
molecules of the cell membrane. Large molecules that
are not lipid-soluble diffuse across the cell membrane by
passing through cell membrane channels.
Parts and functions of eukaryotic cells
Osmosis is the diffusion of
water across a selectively
permeable membrane from
a region of higher water
concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
Osmotic pressure is the
force required to prevent
the movement of water
across a selectively
permeable membrane.
Carrier-mediated transport involves cell membrane proteins,
called carrier molecules, moving large, water-soluble molecules
or electrically charged ions across the cell membrane. Facilitated
diffusion and active transport are both types of carrier-mediated
transport. Facilitated diffusion involves the movement of a
substance down its concentration gradient and does not require
metabolic energy in the form of ATP. Active transport involves
the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient
and requires energy in the form of ATP.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when specific substances
bind to receptor molecules on the cell membrane, triggering
endocytosis, the uptake of material through the cell membrane by
the formation of a vesicle. Phagocytosis is the endocytosis of
solid particles. Pinocytosis is the endocytosis of a liquid.
Exocytosis is the release of substances from the cell when
secretory vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and the material in
the vesicle is eliminated from the cell.
Major parts of eukaryotic cells
The nucleus is a large
organelle that contains the
genetic material
(chromosomes) and
nucleoli. The nucleus is
bounded by the nuclear
envelope, a double
membrane with many
nuclear pores, through
which materials can pass
into or out of the nucleus.
Major parts of eukaryotic cells
Ribosomes are assembled
in the nucleolus found in
the nucleus. Ribosomes
are composed of RNA and
proteins.
Major parts of eukaryotic cells
The endoplasmic reticulum is a series
of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has
attached ribosomes and is involved in
synthesizing proteins for export from
the cell. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum lacks attached ribosomes
and is involved in lipid synthesis and
the detoxification of chemicals within
the cell.
Major parts of eukaryotic cells
The Golgi apparatus
consists of closely
packed stacks of curved,
membrane-bound sacs.
The Golgi apparatus
collects, modifies,
packages, and
distributes proteins and
lipids manufactured by
the ER.
Secretory vesicles are small
membrane-bound sacs that pinch
off the Golgi apparatus. Secretory
vesicles contain substances
produced in the cell and transport
or store these substances. A
secretory vesicle can release its
contents to the exterior by
exocytosis. This occurs when the
membrane of the secretory vesicle
fuses with the cell membrane and
the contents are released from the
cell.
Lysosomes contain a
variety of enzymes that
function as
intracellular digestive
systems. Peroxisomes
contain enzymes that
break down fatty acids,
amino acids and
hydrogen peroxide. It
is sometimes referred
to as cell’s garbage
disposal.
Mitochondria are small
organelles with inner and
outer membranes separated
by a space. The outer
membrane is smooth, but
the inner membrane has
numerous folds called
cristae. Mitochondria are
the major sites of ATP
production in the cell.
The cytoskeleton consists of
proteins including microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments. Microtubules are
hollow structures that help support
the cytoplasm of the cell, assist in
cell division and form essential
components of certain organelles.
Microfilaments are small fibrils
and are involved in cell movement.
Intermediate filaments provide
mechanical support to the cell.
Centrioles are small, cylindrical organelles composed of nine triplets, each composed of
microtubules. Centrioles play an important role in cell division.
Major parts of
eukaryotic cell
Cilia are composed of microtubules,
organized in a pattern similar to that of
centrioles, which are enclosed by the cell
membrane. The movement of cilia
transports substances, such as mucus,
across surfaces. Flagella have a structure
similar to that of cilia but are much
longer. Flagella function in cell
movement. Microvilli are specialized
extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments. Microvilli
increase the surface area of cells that
function in absorption, such as those that
line the intestine.
Critical thinking questions
What characteristics are shared by most cells?
What problems might the cells encounter without
cytoskeleton?
Compare the function of lysosomes and secretory vesicles.
