COURSE TITLE: BIOLOGY FOR AGRIC AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE COURSE CODE: BIO 101/ B10 103 LECTURER: IZEKOR ESESANDRA. TOPIC: CELL CELL ‘The cellis the basic unit of [Link] are a closed system, can self replicate, and are the bul Iding blocks of our bodies. The study of the cell led tothe development of the call theory. Cells were first observed in plants. Plants may maintain their rigidity because of the size able cell walls. The first person to identify cells was Robert Hooke, who used a simple mi croscope focused on a thin cork slice. He assumed that the structures were exclusive to plant tissues. Cell theory was not widely recognised by science until the 1240 ‘Scientist Theodor Schwann produced evidence in 1839 demonstrating thal animals were made up of several cell types. Compared to earlier scientists, modem microscopy techni ques give scientists a more complete and accurate image of cells. Every cell inthe human body is a different type of call. According to cell theory, each of t hese cells onginated from the zygote a single cell produced upon the fartiization of an ggby a spam. Then, this cell multiplies, divides, and starts differentiating into the variou 5 types of cells that make up the human body. A fully developed organism is eventually f oned Cell Theory Microorganisms were unknown before the invention of improved microscopes, and hum an beings were believed to be the fundamental building blocks of life. The microscopes ‘weuse today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van Leeuwe nhoek, 3 Dutch shopkeeper who had grest skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his nowancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of single-celled organism) and aperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.” in 2 1665 publication called Aficrograpiiia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined th 2 term ‘cell’ forthe bowlike structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through ale ng. inthe 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. tater advances iin lenges, microscope construction, and staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside calls This theory is based on the observation that alll microscopically observed organisms can be easily separated into various distinct cells. Some cells, ike a frog agg. are enormous. Some bacterial calls, for example, are so tiny that we can hardly detect them under a sta ndard light micreseope “|L ‘A postulated and widely accepted hypothesis of how most life on Earth operates is know nas the ‘cell theary.” ‘The generally accepted portions of the modem Call Theory are as follows. 4. The call is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things 2, All organisms are made up of ene or more cells 3, Calls arise from other cells through cellular division. ‘The expanded version of the cell theory can also include «Gals cary genetic matesal passed to daughter cells during cellular division = All calls are essentially the same in chemical composition + Energy flow (metabolism and biochem istry) occurs within calls History and Contributions Magnification technology progressed to the point that it could be used to find cella due t ‘9 ongoing advances inmicroscopes. Robert Hooke is usually credited with making this d iscovery, which launched cell biology as a field of study. Under the scope, he could discer n pores in a piece of cork. Schleiden and Schwann first proposed the cell theory, which was later modified by Rudol f Virchows. Since the discovery of the first cells, cell theory has evolved and grown, andm any amazing experiments have been designed to demonstrate its many components. Parts of Cell Theory ‘There are three main postulates of cell theory, they are as follows: © Firat, calls make up all living things «Second, cells are the basic building blocks for devdloping tissues, organs, and full y developed living creatures. + The third, and maybe most crucial, aspect of the hypothesis is that cells can only develop from other cells Thus, all living things begin as individual cells. These cells multiply, divide through mitos is, and eventually form multicellular organisms. CELL TYPES PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL “| 2| L Every living organism falls into one of two groups: eukaryotes or prokaryotes. Cellular str ucture determines which group an organiam belongs to + Prokaryote ‘The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “prof, (meaning: before) and kary ont (meaning: kernel). translates to “defer nuctel” They are ona of the most ancient groups of living organiams on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 35 billion years ago. Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound structures, the mestn oteworthy of which is the nucleus, Prokaryotes are generally smallcells that are enclose d by the plasma membrane. They tend to be small simple cells, measuring around 0.1.5 um in diameter Prokaryotes are divided into two domains, archaea and bacteria The key stuctures present ina prosaryote cell While prokaryotic calls donot have membrane-bound structures, they do have distinct ce Hlular regions. In prokaryotic cella DNA bundles together in.a region called the nucleoid. P rokaryotes canbe split into two domains, bacteria and archaea. In prokaryotes, molecule 4 of protein, ONA and metabolites am all found together floating in the cytoplasm, Primit ive organelles, found in bacteria, do actas micro-compartments to bring some sense of organization to the arrangement. Prokaryotic cell features Here is a breakdown of whatyou might find in a prokaryotic bacterial cell = Nucleoid: A central region of the cell that contains its DNA. “| :| L + Ribosome: Ribosomes are respon sible for protein synthesis + Gell walt The cell wall provides structure and protection from the outside environ ment. Most bacteria havea ngid call wall made from carbohydrates and proteins called peptidoglycans. + Cell membrane: Every prokaryote has a cell membrane, also known as the plasm amembrane that separates the cell from the outside environment. + Capsule: Some bactesa have a layer of carbohydrates that sunpunds the cell wall called the capsule. The capsule helps the bacterium attach to surfaces = Fimbrige: Fim beige are thin, hairlike structures that help with cellular attachment, «Pill: Pili are rod-shaped structures involved in muttiple roles, including attachment and ONA transfer + Flagella: Flagella are thin, taiHike structures that assist in movement Examples of prokaryotes Bacteria and archaea are the twotypes of prokaryotes = Eukaryote ‘The term "Eukeryotes’ is derived from the Greek word ‘eu’, (meaning: good) and "karyo an’ (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to ‘good or wwe nuele(” Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom monera. Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells havea nucleus and other organelles enclosed by 8 plasma membrane, parts of the callhavea specific function. These organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, which sons and bundles proteins; the mitochondria, which pr ovide energy; and chloroplasts, found in plants and produce food from sunlight and carb ondioxide.The key stectures present ina eukaryote cell, Eukaryotic cells are large (around 10-100 wm) and complex. While mast eukaryotes are mubhticellular organisms, there are some single-cell eukaryotes Eukaryotic cell features Within a eukaryotic cell, each membrane-bound structure carries out specific cellular fun tions. Here is an overview of many of the primary components of eukaryotic calls © Nucleus: The nuclaus stores the genetic information in chromatin form. 1» Nucleslus: Found inside of the nucleus, the nucleolus is the part of eukaryotic call ‘s where ribosomal RNA is produced. + Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that surroun «ds the entire cell and encom passes the organelles within. + Cytoskeleton or cell wall: The cytoskeleton or cell wall provides structure allows f ‘orcell movement, and plays a role in cell division. + Ribosomes: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis “| s| L « Mitochondria: Mitochondria, also known as the powerhouses of the cell are respo nsible for energy production. * Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the region of the cell between the nuclear envelope and plasma membrane. 1» Cytosol: Cytosol is a gelJike substance within the call that comains the organelle 5 + Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle dedicated top rotein maturation and transportation. «Vesicles and vacuoles: Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs involve din transportation and storage. ‘Other common organelles foundiin many, but not all, eukaryotes include the Golgi appar tus, chloroplasts and lysosomes Examples of eukaryotes Animals, plants, fungi, algae and protezoans are all eukaryotes. Key similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes Eukaryota_ L A compartson showing the shared and wnique features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes Allcells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, share these four features: 1. DNA ae Plagma membrane cytoplasm Ribosomes What are the key differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Prokaryotes and eukaryotes vary in several important ways -these differences include st ructural variation - whether a nucleus is present or absent, and whether the cell has mem brane-boundorgangiles, and molecular vasation, including whether the DNA is ina circul aror linear form. The differences are summarized in the table below. Type of Cell Cell size Nucleus Ribosomes DMA arrangemen Prokaryotes Always unicellular Ranges in size from 0.1 um - 20 um in diameter Usually present; chemically compl ex in nature Absent. instead, they have a nucle ‘id region in the call Present. Smaller in ai2e and spher ical in shape Circular Eukaryotes Unicellular and multicellular Size ranges from 10 um - 100 um in diameter When presem, chemically simp! ein nature Present Present. Comparatively larger in ‘size and linear in shape Lingert ‘Mitochondria Absent Present cytoplasm Present, butcell organelles absen Present, cell organelles present 1 Endoplasmic retie Absent Present ulum Plasmids Present Very raraly found in eukaryotes Ribosome ‘Small ribosomes Large bosomes Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysesomes and centrosomes ar absent epresent Gell division Through binary fission Through mitosis Flagella The flagella are smallerin size ‘The flagella are larger in size Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual Example Bactena and Archaea Plant and Animal cell CELL ORGANELLES Cell Organelles are small structures within the cytoplasm thal cany oul functions necessar y to maintain homeostasis in the cell, They are involved inmany processes, for example @ nergy production, building proteins and secretions, destroying toxins, and responding to ex temal signals 5 rc| L Below is a table of the organelles found in the basic human cell, which we'll be using as ‘our template for this discussion Organelle Nucleus Mito chondirion Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Rough Endoplasmic R eticulum (RER) Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Lysosome Function DNA Storage Energy production Lipid production; Detoxificati on Protein production; in particul arforexport out of the call Protein modification and exp ont Lipid Destruction; contains o xidative enzymes Protein destruction, Factory part Room where the blueprints ate kept Powerplant Accessory production - mak 25 decorations for the toy, et < Primary production line - ma kes the toys Shipping department ‘Security and waste removal Recycling and security So far weve covered basic omanelles found in a eukaryotic cell. However, not every cell ag each of these organelles, and some cells have organelles we havent discussed. For xample, plant cells have chloroplasts, organelles that resemble mitochondria and are res ponsible fortuming sunlight intouseful energy for the cell (this is like factories that are p ‘owered by energy they collect via solar panels). On the other hand, platdets, blood cells r sponsible for clotting, have no nucleus and are in fact just fragments of cytoplasm cont ained within a cell membrane Animal Cell An animallcell is 4 typeof eukaryotic cell thatlacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane -bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles 4 r_l L ‘Animalcells range in size froma few microscopic microns to a few millimetres. The larg eatknown animal cell is the ostrich egg. which cam stretch over §11 inches acess and we ighs about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human body, whic his just 100 microns across The shape of animal cells alsovaries, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped. T here are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope. As stated before, animal cells are eukaryotic cells with @ membrane-bound nucleus. Furt hemmore, these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also comprise other membrane bound organelles and cellular structures which cary out specific functi ‘ong necessary fora callto function properly. Pinacytotic Vesicle Mitechondrian, Lysoeame Golgi vavicien rah va ‘wcticalarn) Golgi Apparatus Smoath ER {ne ribessenes) entries Call (Plas Memenibrane The strueture of an AnimalCel Animal Cell Structure Animal cells are generally smaller than plantcells, Another defining characteristic is its i rregular shape. This is due to the absence of a call wall. But animal cells share other cell ular organelles with plant cells as both have evolved from eukaryotic cells. Atypical animal cell comprises the following cell organ ales Cell Membrane A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its pri ] © ~| mary role is to protect the call from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell, For this reason, cell membranes are known as semipermeable or selectively permeable membranes. Nucleus itis an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such ag nucleolus, nucleoso mes and [Link] also contains DNA and other genetic materials Nuclear Membrane itis adoublemembrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referredto as the nuckar envelope. Centrasome itis @smalll organelle found near the nucleus which has a thick centre with radiating tub ules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced. lysosome ‘They are round organdlles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzyme 3 which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process Oytoptasm 4A jelly: like material whieh contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membr ane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm. Golgi! Apparatus Aflat, smooth layared, sacdike organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved | n manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell Mitochondeton They are spherical orrod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the powe rhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy. Ribosome They are small omanelles made up of RNA-ich cytoplasmic granules and they are the si tes of protein synthesis Endopla sie Reticulum (ER) This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs origi nating from the nucleus. “|a L vaauale A. membrane-bound organelle present inside a cellinvolvedin maintaining shape and sto ring watec food, wastes, ete. Nueleapare They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movemen tof nucle acids and proteins acioss the nuclear membrane. Animal Cell Types ‘There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to serve specific functions. The most common types of animal cells are: Skin Cells Melanocytes keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells Muscle Cells Myooyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac musde cells Blood Cells Leukocytes, erythrocytes platelet Nerve Cells ‘Schwann cell, glial calls etc Fat Celts Adipocytes PLANT CELL Plants are also composed of several cells just like humans and animals. The plant callis sumounded by cell wall which is involved in providing shape to the plant cell. Apart fro m the cell wall there are other organelles that are associated w ith dif ferent cellular activi ‘ties. “| i 7Call wall Ribsame Cell Membrane Golgi wesiclenr Golgi Apparatus Smpeith ER ina nbosemes} vacuate Nuclen han: Membrane Chloroplast fendoplasmi rectieulurny Large Central facuole Mitachondrion Cytoplases The structure ofa Plant Cel! Plant Cell Structure Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various componen 15 known as cell organalles that perform different functions to sustain self. These orga nelkes indude: Cen Wall itis a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulo se. Itis located outside the cell membrane. italso comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or subesin. The primary function of the call veail is to protect and provide structural supportto the ce IL The plant cell waill is also involved in protecting the call against mechanical sess and providing form and structure to the call. also filters the molecules passing in and out of it The formation of the callwalll is quided by micmtubules. Itconsists of three layers, name ly, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulos ¢ laid down by enzymes Cel membrane itis the semi-permea ble membrane that is present within the cell wall. i is composed of | 2| L 8 thin layer of protein and fat. ‘The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific au bstances within the cell. For instance, call membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essen tial minerals are transported across. Nucleus ‘The nucteus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nuclaus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell divis ion, metabolism and growth. 1. Nucleolus: ttmanufactures cells’ protein producing structures and ribosomes. 2, Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called nucleopore that all ‘ow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through Plastids They are membrane-bound organelles that have their ov ONA. They are necessary to st ‘ore starch and to camry out the process of photosynthesis. His also used in the synthesis ‘of many molecules, which form the building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated below: Leucoplasts ‘They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for the storage ‘of protein, lipid and starch. Chloroplasts itis an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is sha ped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll mequired for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and us #4 it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. ‘Chromoplasts “| 1| L ‘Thay are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red, orange and yellow coloured pigments which provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers. Central Vacuole itoccupies around 30% of the celfs volume ina mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membr ane that surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart fro m storage is to sustain wrgor pressure against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists ‘of cell sap. itis a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances. Golgi Apparatus ‘They are found in all eukaryotic cell, which are involved in distributing synthesised mac romolecules to various parts of the call Ribosomes They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. Th ey are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred toas the protein factories of th © cell Mitochondria They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all ewkaryotic ceil 8. They provide energy by breaking down carohydmte and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred toas the ‘Powerhouse of the cell.” Lysosome Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed mem brane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting wom-outorgan elles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is und ertaken by the vacuoles Plant Cell Types Calls of a matured and higher plant become specialised 10 perform certain vital function that are essential for their survival. Few plant cells are involved in the transporlation of nutrients and water, while others for storing food. ‘The specialised plant calls include parenchyma cells sclerenchyma calls, collenchyma ¢ ells, xylem cells and phloem cells “| i| L Following are some of the differenttypes of plant cells: Collenchyma Cells They arehard or nigid cells, which play a primary role in providing support to the plants w hen there is restraining growth in a plant due to lack of hardening agent in primary walls Sclerenchyma Celts ‘These cells are more rigid compared to collenchyma cells and this is because of the pres ence of alhardening agent. These cells are usually found in all plant roots and mainly in volved in providing support to the plants Parenchyma Ceils Parenchyma cells play a significam role in all planta. They are the living cells of plants, ‘which are involved in the production of leaves. Thay are also involvad in the exchange of gases, production of food, storage of organic products and cell metabolism. These cells are typically more flexible than others because they are thinner Aylem Cette Xylem cells are the transport cells in vascular plants. They help in the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants. Phioem Gatis Phioem cells are other tmnsport cells in vascular plants. They transport food prepared by the leaves todifferent parts of the plantsCELL DIVISION Cell division is the process in which a single cell divides tomake woot more cella. Thea bility of calls to divide is unique for living organisms. Cells divide for many reasons. For example, when you skin your knee, cells divide to replace old, dead, or damaged calls. Cel Is also divide so living things ean grow. When organisms grow, it isntbecause calla are g ‘tting larger Organisms grow because cells are dividing to produce more and more cells inhuman bodies, nearly two trillion cells divide every day incall division, the call that is dividing is called the “parent” cell. The parent cell divides in to two “daughter calls, The process then repeats in what is called the call cycle. Cells re gulate their division by communicating with each other using chemical signals from spe cial proteins called cyclins, These signals act like switches to tell calls when to start divid ing and later when to stop dividing. i is important for cells to divide soyou can grow and ‘$0 your cuts heal. itis also important for cells to stop dividing at the right time. If acell¢ annot stop dividing when itis supposed to stop, this can lead toa disease called cancer. TYPES OF CELL DIVISION Cella divides in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division ha 4 special characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single ceil divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of chromosomes. Th is type of all division is good for basic growth, repair and maintenance. in meiosis a cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the number ‘of chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides for genetic di versity Mitosis Cell Division Mitosis is how somatic or non-eproductive calls divide. Somatic calls make up most of y ‘our body's tissues and organs, including akin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells, Reprod uctive cells (like eggs) are not soma tic cella “| 0| L In mitosis, the important thing to remembers that the daughter cells each have the sam © chromosomes and DNA. aa the parent call, The daughter calls from mitosis are called d iploid calls. Diploid calls have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the daughter ¢ ells have exact copies of their parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is created through m tosis in normal healthy cells = - —~ = Two ciploed on celts rephcation ~ Minnis Mitosis cell division creates two genetically identical daughter diploid celts The Mbasis Cell cyele Before a call starts dividing, itis in the “interphase” tt seems that calls must be constant y dividing (There are 2 trillion cell divisions in your body every day), but each call actually spends most of its time in the interphase. Intemhase is the period when cell is getting r ‘eady to divide and start the cell cycle. During this time cells are gathering nutrients and nergy. The parent cell is also making a copy of its DNA to-share equally between the two daughter cells ‘The mitosis division process has several steps or phases of the cell cycle in order to suc ‘cessfully make the new diploid cells they includes: * interphase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase_ L + Cytokinesis The mitasis cell eyole inciudes severalphases that resutt in twe new diploid daughter cet Is. Each phase is highlighted here and shown by fight microscopy with fluorescence: Meiosis Cell Division Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is call division thatcreates sex calls, i ke female egg cells or male sperm cells. in meiosis, each new cell contains a. unique set ‘of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm and egg cells can join tocreate.a new or ganism Meiosis is why we have genetic diversity in all sexually reproducing organisms. During m “] 19_ L eiosis, a small portion of each chromosome breaks off andreattaches to another chrom ‘osome. This process is called “crossing over" or “genetic recomb ination " Genetic recomb ination is the reason full siblings made from egg and sperm cells from the same two par ents can look vey different from one another Daughter Nuelei I Daughter Nuclei a ~ 4 “ y ) Intesphase \} Melosis 1 ~ \ Homologous: Meiosis II Chromosomes The meiosis celleycte has two main stages of division ~ Afeiosis | and Adeiosis W. The en d result of meiosis is four haploid daughter cells that each contain different genetic infor mation from each ether and the parent cell The Meiosis Cell Cyole Meiosis has two cycles of cell division, conveniently called Meiosis land Meiosis I. Melo sis (halves the number of chromosomes and is also when emasing over happens. Meios is Il halves the amount of genetic information in each chromosome of each call. The end result is four daughter cells called haploid cells. Haploid cells only have one set of chrom ‘osomes -half the number of chromosomes as the parent call Before meiosis | tart, the cell goes through interphase. Just like in mitosia. the parent oe! | uses this time to prepare for cell division by gathering nutrients and energy andmaking 8 copy of its ONA. During the next stages of meiosis, this DNA will be switched aroundd uring genetic secombination and then divided between four haploid cells. Mitosis is what helps us grow and Meiosis is why we are all unique, ] 2 ~CELLULAR METABOLISM. Cellular metabolism is the set of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in ‘order to maintain life and is subdivided into catabolism and anabolism. Metabolic proce ‘ses oreur constantly and am essential in maintaining normal functions within the body Cellular metabolism involves complex sequences of contmlled biochemical reactions be tter known a3 metabolic pathways. These processes allow organisms to grow and repro duce maintain their structures, and respond to environmental changes. Regulation ‘The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which ‘one chemical is transformed into another by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes are cruci al tometabolism and allow the fine regulation of metabolic pathways to maintain a con stant get of conditions in response to changes in the cell's environment, a process known as homeostasis ‘Classifica tion Cellular metabolism has two distinct divisions:anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is 8 constructive metabolic process in which a cell uses energy to construct molecules suc has enzymes and nucleic: acids and perform other essential life functions. Anabolism in volves three basic stages: firstly, he production of precursors such as amino acids, mon ‘osacchanides, isoprenoids and nucleotides: secondly, their activation into reactive forms; and thirdly, the assembly of these precursom inte complex molecules Catabolism is the metabolic process by which the call breaks down complex molecules ‘The purpose of catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by a nabolic reactions. Catabolic reactions are normally exothermic and are further subdivide d according to their substrate into carbohydrate, fat, and protein catabolism. “| a| L Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle tricarboxylic acid cycle ‘The Krebs cycle is considered one of the main pathways in cellular metabolism. Acetyl ¢ ‘oA emers the Krebs cycle by combining with a fourcarbon molecule, oxaloacetate, andb ecomes si-carbon-molecule citrate, or citric acid. tt is the formation of eftric acid that giv es its name the citric acid cycle. The citrate molecule is systematically converted toa fiv carbon molecule and a four-carbon molecule, ending with oxaloacetate The two carbo na from citate to oxaloacetate are released in he form of two molecules of COz. Each cl trate molecule causes the release of ane ATP one FADH, and thee NADH coenzymes al ‘ong the way. In this reaction, coenzyme A molecule is released, combining with another p yruvate molecule to start a new cycle as needed. The FADH, and NADH willenter the oxi dative phosphorylation system located in the inner mitochondrial membrane